CH 38 Notes Part 2 (Digital Edition) Eisenhower 1952-1960
Richard Diebenkom—abstract expressionism –illustrating transformation of postwar America by
automobiles, highways, and housing. (San Francisco Museum of Modern Art)
As a child of the Cold War (70’s and 80’s) it has always fascinated me that the Suburbia I grew up
in was in a way a product of the Cold War ( I did not realize it at the time  )—The Interstate
Highway Act which built 42000 miles of amazing roads was in part built to evacuate citizens from
the cities effectively and to move our Military and its Nuclear Weapons effectively--- The suburban
Mall was built in some cases to provide a “shelter” for citizens in case of a nuclear attack---We
often study the details of history; People, Events, Laws, etc… but rarely see them as a whole—
Nothing we study happens independently the events that occur in the Eisenhower Era are all
interconnected, interdependent, and impact each other---Think about how the Cold War impacts
the events that occur here in America---McCarthyism, Suburbia, Civil Rights Movement(s),
Literature, Movies, and even Music or Baby Boomer’s Comic Books---everything is intertwined--and is what makes learning about the past so meaningful and a way to look at our own lives
whether in a deconstructed view or as I suggest holistically. An amazing development during the
1950’s is the reappearance of the strength of Human Agency –clear in our early development as a
nation---but now as the cities begin to breakdown into Suburbia we see the emergence of the
power of Individual action and small groups to bring about change—I wonder what historians
studying our era will say about our time and how we individually have impacted and shaped the
American Dream?
A New Look Foreign Policy—MASSIVE RETALIATION DOCTRINE-S.A.C.***
Eisenhower’s Secretary of State John Foster Dulles and his brother, CIA Chief, Allen Dulles both have a
tremendous impact on America’s relationship with the world during this period. Eisenhower and the
Dulles brothers clearly articulate a “New Look” foreign policy***: NOT MERELY TO “CONTAIN”
COMMUNISM, as Truman had done, but to “Roll Back” communism’s gains and “liberate captive
peoples around the world.” A “POLICY OF BOLDNESS”
Interestingly Eisenhower also pledged to BALANCE THE BUDGET***BY CUTTING MILITARY
SPENDING*** HOW CAN THESE TWO SEEMINGLY CONTRADICTORY GOALS BE MET?
How these goals would be achieved was based on an idea called “MASSIVE RETALIATION” ****
Eisenhower would put the “conventional” troops on the sidelines—Army and Navy—they were very
costly, in blood and treasure, to use as the first option in implementing the “containment doctrine” –as
the nation saw in Korea—and use the Air Force---a new fleet of ‘Superbombers’ equipped with nuclear
bombs [The B-52-a giant aircraft with wings so long they have wheels on the ends because they dip
so low} ---This tool of the Massive Retaliation Doctrine—Would be directed by the new STRATEGIC
AIR COMMAND***
The advantage that this “New Look” Massive Retaliation Policy had, supposedly, is that it was
thought to have a greater impact (nuclear) than “conventional” ground and sea forces—AND—it
would come with a cheaper price tag when compared to using “conventional” forces*** Thus
meeting the twin goals of Eisenhower----to ROLL BACK communism AND TO BALANCE THE BUDGET
BY CUTTING MILITARY SPENDING. YOU WILL NEED TO KNOW THIS RATIONALE***AND COMPARE
THIS IDEA TO OTHERS THAT DEVELOP IN THE FUTURE********
This new idea will be tested--- severely---and be found ineffective***in many cases*** and lead to new
“doctrines” to come in the future---that are more realistic or effective perhaps–but not cheaper? Maybe?
Joseph Stalin dies in 1953---and Nikita Khrushchev, becomes the new leader of the
USSR**** serving as the First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from
1953 until 1964—NK was responsible for the de-Stalinization of the Soviet Union—ushering in a
less repressive era in the USSR---a good sign at first ---for the hope of USA-USSR
relations****However, his years as leader of the USSR become the MOST TENSE OF THE history of the
COLD WAR ***AS “BRINKMANSHIP”becomes the POLICY*** {taking the world to the “brink”
or edge---of NUCLEAR DISASTER WWIII---In Germany, over Taiwan, in Egypt, and later Cuba---] in the
USA people begin to build “Nuclear War Bomb Shelters” as the 1959 story in Life Magazine about the
“Atomic Honeymooners” shows—(they stay married 41 years by the way  )
How can you use atomic weapons in a guerilla war [Vietnam] when you can’t tell who the enemy is?---or
in a revolutionary situation like in Hungary?--- or against the USSR when they have thousands, as well???
Nuclear Deterrent is feasible to intimidate---but the reality of actually using them and then picking up the
pieces afterwards could be particularly messy, perhaps? -M.A.D. {Mutually Assured Destruction]–
becomes an understanding—as the arms race develops into ICBMs-SLBMs (submarine based nuclear
missiles) --- thermonuclear weapons, H-bomb’s, that are 1000x more powerful than the two dropped
on Japan…could anyone in the world survive A NUCLEAR-WWIII? The “New Look” Massive Retaliation
Policy becomes an effective deterrent to WWIII between the Global Superpowers ---Yet leads to a
reliance on “conventional” “limited” use of troops to “CONTAIN” communism around the
world******which will have a high price, as we will see.
Ike attempts “DÉTENTE”****- a lessening of tensions---in the Cold War-----at the Geneva Summit
in 1955 by proposing “Open Skies”** – over both the USA and Soviet Union ---establishing a program
of “unarmed” aerial surveillance flights over the world ---to enhance mutual understanding--- (it is
actually signed in 2002  ) BUT NK SAYS “nyet” (no) and felt it was a way for the USA to spy on the
USSR***
From this point on---THE COLD WAR HEATS UP--- and Ike’s attempt to cool tensions is lost--subsequent events to come continue to take the world to the BRINK of WWIII –Nuclear Holocaust---
In 1956 Hungary revolts against its communist leaders---- AND APPEALS TO THE
USA FOR HELP***
For 2 weeks the courageous Hungarian people resist ---THIS IS THE FIRST MAJOR THREAT TO THE
USSR ---and the “puppet” satellite buffer communist countries established after WWII in Eastern
Europe behind the Iron Curtain*********
You would think that based on the previous statements by leaders in the USA ---THAT WE WOULD
HELP***
This begins as a “student demonstration,” ---foreshadowing the power of the YOUTH worldwide to
come---“grassroots” individual human agency--The students are fired upon by the Secret Police and many killed---this led to large Revolt and the
Hungarian Communist Government COLLAPSING*****
How would the USSR react?--- How would the USA react??[this will test IKE’s “New Look” FP}
Amazingly the democratic revolutionists gain control of the country and in fighting around the
country seem on the verge of a SUCCESSFUL DEMOCRATIC REVOLUTION**** in only a couple of
weeks----BUT***sadly---THE USSR-NK---ON NOV. 4 AND A MASSIVE SOVIET FORCE MOVED INTO
HUNGARY KILLING THOUSANDS—AND A VERY REPRESSIVE REGIME IS ESTABLISHED THAT LASTS
FOR 30 YEARS ---UNTIL IT IS DEPOSED IN 1989****
The Hungarian Revolution’s failure*** due to the lack of help from the USA and NATO--clearly shows the “failure” of IKEs “new look” or “Massive Retaliation” foreign policy----The
Hungarians were begging for help ---AND WE COULD DO NOTHING BUT WATCH THEM BE
DESTROYED*** Ike’s options were few in reality---due to MAD--- THIS IS THE FAILURE OF THIS
POLICY WHEN IT CAME TO ACTUALLY HELPING PEOPLE AND CONTAINING COMMUNISM---IF IKE
HELPS HUNGARY---A NUCLEAR WORLD WAR III IS INEVITABLE***The USA
“wanted” to help but----if the option led to a NUCLEAR WAR—they could not*** or risked the
UNTHINKABLE*** THIS TORTURES IKE***AND MANY HUNGARIANS FOR 30+ YEARS***This one event
showed the USA that they had to re-think how they could “contain” communism in REALITY—AND
WOULD CHANGE THE NATURE OF OUR TACTICS GOING AHEAD FOR SURE***
The Vietnam Nightmare*******************************************
Note: it seems when comparing our approach in Europe and Asia—to contain communism—perhaps
there is a difference, see what you notice----
Southeast Asia is a mess*** French Indochina—(Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam) especially—
Ho Chi Minh*****educated in France---was one leader in a group of Vietnamese students who want
an independent nation after WW ONE---and in 1919 is present at the Versailles Conference and requests
aid in ending French colonial rule****unfortunately they are rejected and France continues to rule
Vietnam (INDOCHINA)---he became disillusioned by the lofty promises of Self-determination promised
by Woodrow Wilson’s 14 points and this failure at Versailles propels Ho---to seek aid elsewhere***
In 1923 Ho travels from Paris to Moscow---and studies at University and becomes enamored with
communism---In 1925 he goes to China and organizes “youth education classes” in Canton---on
Socialism---at the Whampoa Military Academy ---which housed many future Vietnamese leaders---He
travels extensively around Europe and Asia from 1927 and in 1938 became an advisor the Communist
Chinese Military ---and by 1941 returns to Vietnam to lead an Independence Movement THE VIET-MINH.
HO successfully fights against the Japanese occupation of Vietnam during WWII… aided ironically by
both the USA (OSS—later becomes the CIA) and Chinese during this period.
After the end of WWII—in the August Revolution, 1945—Ho Chi Minh and the Viet Minh announce
victory Emperor Bo Dai abdicates and transfers power to Ho Chi Minh—and Ho proclaims the
creation of INDEPENDENT DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF VIETNAM---and cites the Atlantic Charter’s
principles of Self-Determination---as the basis for their Independence---******
This is where it becomes interesting---The French---want their colony back---and we need French
Support as we are attempting to rebuild Europe and “contain” communism in Europe----As the
situation in Vietnam deteriorates between Ho and the French---The USA has to make a decision on
which side to support (FDR declined to help the French)--- because in 1946 ---HO DECLARES WAR
AGAINST THE FRENCH***
THE FIRST INDOCHINA WAR – 1946- 1954—is fought between the Viet Minh and France for control of
Vietnam---in 1950 (same year as the beginning of the Korean War) Ho Chi Minh meets with Mao
Zedong and Stalin in China********they all agree that China will support the Communist Viet Minh
against the French*** and the Viet Minh receive a huge amount of weapons from both China and the
USSR***
Truman in May of 1950 begins to aid the FRENCH***to fight communism—10 million$$$ in aid and
US Military “Advisors” are sent to Vietnam to aid the French by September 1950*** 123 “non-combat
troops are sent—and 150 Million in aid is sent in 1951***by the USA.
Regardless of our immense support to the French---80% of the costs of this war so far---about
1Billion$ a year---in 1954 –at Dien Bien Phu**** The French are DEFEATED BY HO CHI MINH AND
THE COMMUNISTS*******WHAT WILL IKE DO***
The “Domino Theory”*********if one place became under the influence of communism
(China-Korea-Vietnam-Laos-Cambodia-----) THEN THE SURROUNDING COUNTRIES WOULD FOLLOW
IN A Domino Effect**** This THEORY is used by many Presidents to justify
American interventions around the world---“preventative intervention” to “CONTAIN”
communism--- in an April, 1954 news conference discussing American interests in French Indochina
(Vietnam-Laos,-Cambodia} , IKE states—(IKE is the 1st of many presidents to use this idea)
“You have broader considerations that might follow what you would call the "falling
domino" principle. You have a row of dominoes set up, you knock over the first one,
and what will happen to the last one is the certainty that it will go over very quickly. So
you could have a beginning of a disintegration that would have the most profound
influences.”
The Future of French Indochina is decided @ THE GENEVA CONVENTION OF 1954***
Vietnam is separated at the 17th parallel—and A STATEMENT IS ISSUED THAT FREE ELECTIONS IN
VIETNAM WOULD BE HELD WITHIN TWO YEARS*************HOWEVER, NEITHER THE USA NOR THE
SOUTH VIETNAMESE AGREED TO THE ELECTIONS announced here---the dam pompous British
Chairman announces this without any formal agreement******
FOUR NEW COUNTRIES ARE CREATED @ THE GENEVEA CONVENTION OF 1954:*************
North Vietnam (controlled by Ho Chi Minh and the Communists)
South Vietnam (led by Ngo Dinh Diem and is a Democracy) Saigon is the Capital--Cambodia
Laos
After the Geneva Convention---The USA, Australia, France, New Zealand, Pakistan, Philippines,
Thailand, and the United Kingdom form S.E.A.T.O. –The Southeast Asia Treaty Organization--LIKE NATO---its purpose was to “contain communism” AND WAS A MILITARY ALLIANCE***AND LASTS
UNTIL 1977.
-In 1955 Ngo Dinh Diem, leader of S. Vietnam, rejects nationwide elections in Vietnam***
-1956 -Ike continues to send US Military assistance to South Vietnam to train the SVArmy (900 US
troops)
- 1957, communists in South Vietnam assassinate over 400 officials---and massive communist forces
amass in the Mekong Delta of South Vietnam—terrorist bombings in Saigon injure Americans
-1959 – North Vietnamese forces move supplies to the communists in the South using the HO CHI
MINH TRAIL----************ SEE MAP BELOW AND AT BEGINNING ********
through neighboring Laos and Cambodia***** The HO CHI MINH TRAIL
WILL BECOME VERY SIGNIFICANT THROUGHOUT THIS CONFLICT***
- 1959******2 AMERICAN SOLDIERS ARE KILLED @ BIENHOA AND BECOME
THE FIRST AMERICANS TO DIE IN THE VIETNAM WAR******************
THE USA HAS DECIDED TO “CONTAIN COMMUNISM” based on the “DOMINO THEORY” IN SOUTHEAST
ASIA BY OPPOSING HO CHI MINH AND THE VIET MINH--- AND DO SO FROM 1950 UNTIL 1975 --- 25
YEARS--- THE IMPACT OF OUR DECISION WILL BE DEVASTATING **************
A False Lull in Europe
In 1955 West Germany is welcomed into NATO—10 years after the end of WWII –Germany has a small
army and is seen as a key part of containing communism in Europe, surely—West Berlin, deep behind the
Iron Curtain, is seen in the West as a place of escape for many Eastern European people trapped living in
oppressive communist regimes---a scene of “spies” and future “james bond” like craziness****
The French support the entry of WG into NATO due to our massive support for them in Vietnam--The Soviet Union in 1955 counter NATO by creating THE WARSAW PACT- A group of communist
Eastern European nations (controlled by the USSR) that sign a treaty to mutually defend each other in
case of attack by NATO---
Menaces in the Middle East
The Oil Rich Middle East also becomes a scene in the Cold War at this time----
Iran—in 1953 The Iranian government, led by the democratically elected Mohammad
Mosaddegh, wanted to audit the books of the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company--(British Petroleum today—was founded in 1908 and was the first company to extract oil in Iran—
by 1950 it had become the world’s largest refinery—and controlled by the British)**
-During WWII the Soviets and the British had both invaded Persia (Iran) and occupied it until after the
war.
- After WWII, The Soviets eventually left, Truman forced the issue--- and the nation of Iran is created--and in 1951 Mohammed Massadegh is elected Prime Minister---and is supported by Iranian nationalists
who want full control of their oil supply and to kick Britain out---Britain forces a world boycott of Iranian
Oil---and its ambassador and embassy are shut down by Iran—
The Domino Effect is used by the British to influence Eisenhower to intervene in Iran*** The British
claim that if Iran were to fall to communism that the OIL of the Middle East would soon be under the
control of the Soviet Union________________huge__________idea____________***** However, Iran was
Nationalist not Communist---and wanted to control their own oil supply****but this was a good
excuse to intervene*****it was OIL****AND IT IS VITAL TO INDUSTRIAL NATIONS*****
THE CIA IN OPERATION AJAX ---AND THE BRITISH SECRET SERVICE –OPERATION BOOT*****
Engineer a Coup de Tat—and overthrow Massadegh***** and The Shah is placed in control of Iran.
The Pro-Western Shah and Pro-Western Prime Minister Zahedi – agree to allow a “consortium” of
companies to export Iranian oil---under the leadership of the US company Standard Oil ---including
BP, Shell, Texaco, ExxonMobil, Gulf, and a French company---The so-called “7 sisters”
****************Companies or Supermajors--- who DOMINATE THE WORLD’S OIL
INDUSTRY FROM 1953 UNTIL THE 1973***OPEC OIL EMBARGO**** FOR 20 YEARS
CONTROLLING 85% OF THE WORLDS OIL SUPPLY*****Profits from the Oil in Iran were to be
split 50-50 –but—Iran could never audit the books nor have anyone on the Board of Directors***
This Conflict in Iran will come back to haunt the USA in 1973 and again in the 1979 Iranian
Revolution***
Egypt-****in 1952 former General Gamal Abdel Nasser planned a coup, with help from the CIA, to
overthrow the monarchy that had ruled Egypt—By 1953, The monarchy was abolished and the
Republic of Egypt created. However, after the Coup success when asked to Join a future (METO)
Nasser declines due to the historic opposition to the British and their control of the Suez
Canal***but does propose to the USA to join with the Arab League to oppose communism.
By 1955 the Baghdad Pact is signed, without Egypt, that creates METO (Middle East Treaty
Organization) like NATO---for the middle east---to contain communism--- (and nationalism in some
cases) –Iran, Iraq, Pakistan, Turkey, and the UK all sign the mutual defense agreement*** The USA was a
member of the just the military part due to our alliance with Israel (surviving war and created in 1948) --NASSER considered the Baghdad Pact a threat to Egypt and its goal of eliminating British Military
influence in the Middle East--- and a threat to the nationalist ARAB LEAGUE—who in 1950 agreed to a
military alliance---Nasser was fighting Zionism and Imperialism---he believed---and attempts to acquire
modern weaponry to arm the Egyptian Military--- and made a deal with the Communists in 1955 to
supply modern weaponry---320$ million—which equalized the balance of power between Israel and
Egypt---
****The Bandung Conference – April 1955, the first large scale African-Asian Conference of
newly independent nations who had overthrown their former imperial masters*****the purpose
was to promote Afro-Asian economic and cultural cooperation and to oppose colonialism or
neocolonialism by any nation-For the USA this conference accentuated “THE
CENTRAL DILEMMA OF ITS COLD WAR POLICY”—By working to help those nations
throw off their colonial masters the USA would RISK alienating its colonialist western European
allies---(LIKE FRANCE IN VIETNAM)*** JOHN FOSTER DULLES, Ike’s Sec. of State, did not want the USA
to be officially represented at this conference---and even went so far as to ban W.E.B Dubois from
attending---which led him to move to Ghana in 1958---where he dies in 1963.Both the USSR and the
USA were criticized heavily at the Conference and China appeared to be the moderator and gained
tons of good will which today allows them access to many resources in Asia and Africa****
The Suez Crisis*********--Nasser masterfully played the Superpowers [ussr-usa-china] against each
other for the benefit of Egypt***to get $$$$
The Aswan High Dam****what causes the SUEZ CRISIS**** -Ike withdraws aid from Egypt completely due to his duplicity in his close dealings with the USSR***
Nasser in response NATIONALIZES THE SUEZ CANAL***the key link from the Mediterranean to the
Indian Ocean and the Persian Gulf OIL**** he bans all Israeli shipping from the canal--This is a direct threat to Britain---whose economy would crumble---if Nasser is successful—many
want Britain to attack Egypt immediately---without US involvement**** British Prime Minister
Anthony Eden never does consult Eisenhower********
France-co-owners of the Suez Canal Company---saw this as a direct threat as well—especially due to
their close relationship with Israel---and was upset with IKE’s lack of concern---and is encouraged to
attack Egypt as well--There were many US and International efforts to bring peace---but they all fail---
Operation Revise and Operation Musketeer: GB/FR/Israeli plan to invade Egypt and
take control of canal***
In a secret meeting in Paris—3 months after Nasser took the Canal--- the nations agree that Israel
would invade Egypt---and then Britain and France would “intervene” with troops with the excuse to
bring peace.
The plans are implemented and in response Nasser sinks all 40 ships present in the canal instantly
effectively blocking the canal***
in the severe fighting that occurs the British lost 16 dead and 96 wounded –the French los 10 and
have 33 wounded---Israeli’s lose 231 dead and 899 wounded—Egypt lost as many as 5000 dead and
5000 wounded--THE USSR THREATENS TO FIRE NUCLEAR WEAPONS AT BRITAIN, FRANCE, AND ISRAEL AND “WIPE
OUT THEIR CITIES.”************
FOR A WEEK THE WORLD WENT TO THE BRINK OF
NUCLEAR WAR****
The USA goes to the United Nations to end the hostilities---the British, French and Israelis oppose this
measure yet---in a full General Assembly emergency meeting---the vote is passed over the above
countries objections***
The United Nations establishes its first EMERGENCY FORCE (POLICE FORCE TO MAKE SURE
HOSTILITIES ARE ENDED) ---WITH THE POWER TO OPEN AND RUN THE SUEZ CANAL---AND LATER
TURNS OVER THE CANAL TO EGYPT***
Eisenhower Doctrine: ****
After the mess in the Middle East Eisenhower was eager to take advantage of the USA’s elevated status
due to his opposition to Britain and France during the Suez Crises at the UN--In 1957---IKE pledged US military and economic aid to Middle Eastern Nations threatened by
communist aggression--- and saves Lebanon in 1958 from chaos***when we send Marines to
support the democratically elected government.
The Middle East was struggling with Nationalist movements that attempted throw off centuries of
European Imperial Control---not communism---whose absence of religion ---offended many---OIL
would be there weapon---and in 1960 Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iraq, Iran, and Venezuela* not in the
middle east  form O.P.E.C.-THE ORGANIZATON OF PETROLEUM EXPORTING COUNTRIES****In an
effort to break the control of the “7 Sisters” Oil consortium---and by the early 1970’s they do----and
still do today*** causing many future problems for the USA***
Round Two for IKE
Ike easily defeats Adlai Stevenson again in 1956---but the tide was turning for the Dems ***the dems
win both the House and the Senate***the 1st time since 1848 that the winning Presidents party lost
both houses of Congress.
Continuing Labors decline---IKE goes after the Mafia controlled Teamsters---and in televised hearings
crushes Dave Beck—he is sentenced to prison for embezzling 320,000$ and could not tell the congress
what happened with the 10$ million that was missing from the pension fund---it was loaned to the
Mafia to build Las Vegas  ---The Mafia sensed that there prize gambling empire in Havana, Cuba
was about to collapse---and is able to create VEGAS to take its place***
The Race with the Soviets into Space
October 4th, 1957 our world dramatically changed when the USSR launches the 1st successful Satellite
into space SPUTNIK I---Then a month later they launch SPUTNIK II successfully ---with a DOG ON BOARD

This amazing scientific breakthrough shattered Americans confidence
that they had they upper hand in the Cold War
The implications were dangerous---I.C.B.M.s---Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles***
The next stage of the “Arms Race”--- if the Soviets could put a satellite in Space they could easily
TARGET ANY CITY IN THE USA WITH NUCLEAR WEAPONS---H-BOMBS----FEAR GRIPPED THE
NATION***
“THE MISSILE GAP”----AND CONTEST OVER WHO HAD MORE---BECOMES A GROWING CONCERN***
IKE AND CONGRESS REACT:
*****Creating N.A.S.A.---The National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Spend Billions on Missile Development
****Congress passes NATIONAL DEFENSE AND EDUCATION ACT IN LATE 1958
Which spends 887$Million to improve the teaching of Science and Languages*****
As well as for the 1st time offers STUDENT LOANS TO NEEDY COLLEGE STUDENTS***
(JFK will even in his inaugural address, Jan. 1961, promise that the USA will put a man on the MOON
by the end of the 60’s---and call his domestic agenda “The New Frontier”)
The Continuing Cold War
Oppenheimer is replaced as head of the H-bomb program due to his voicing concerns of many scientists
that these progressively more powerful bombs and testing of them in the atmosphere would eventually
lead to the annihilation of all humans on earth***
Both the USSR and the USA begin to realize the dangers and place a moratorium on this type of
testing by the end of 1958***
Nikita Khrushchev –is still dangerous --- and begins another Berlin Conflict---beginning in 1956 East
Germany, under Soviet Supervision, begins to restrict travel to West Berlin---The “Brain Drain” was
crushing its society and many Eastern Europeans under strict supervision of the Soviets were using
the ease of entry into West Berlin as their escape**** by 1957 all travel in and out of West Berlin
from the East was limited by a pass system*** By the end of 1958 due to the heavy new restrictions
many in Eastern Europe realized that this was their last chance to leave and flooded out*** overall
20% of the entire Eastern European population had left (most were engineers, technicians,
physicians, teachers, lawyers, and skilled workers)*** Most using the Subway system which had no
regulation*** By June 1961( JFK) the East Germans and Soviets began construction of
the BERLIN WALL****
NK COMES TO AMERICA—IN 1959—THE SOVIET PREMIER APPEARED BEFORE THE U.N. GENERAL
ASSEMBLY—Then travels to “Camp David” (Presidential Retreat named for Eisenhower’s son David)
For a meeting with IKE*** at this meeting NK proclaims that all western powers MUST LEAVE- West
BERLIN*** no threat ---at this time---so a follow up summit is scheduled for Paris in May of 1960***
Meanwhile***despite the USSR’s opposition to Ike’s “open skies” program---allowing each other to
overfly each nation to “inspect” their military activities---
Ike approves the use of our super secret U-2 spy plane program ---which overflew the USSR
consistently***of course it could not be shot down***due to its superior technology and high altitude
capability***BUT***As the Paris Summit was getting under way----a U-2 plane was shot down over
the USSR---and our pilot Francis Gary Powers survived and was captured***then put on trial in the
USSR on Television**** IKE had denied any knowledge ---yet was embarrassed when the pilot was
put on TV---of course NK curses the USA and storms out of Paris ---his anger over this insult will have
ramifications for JFK****in a BIG WAY***
CUBA’S CASTROISM SPELLS COMMUNISM---AND GUATEMALA (CIA COUP)***
This event—the Cuban communist Revolution will straddle both Eisenhower and JFK presidencies***
Latin America felt as if Truman and Eisenhower had ignored them since the glory days under FDR’s Good
Neighbor Policy---and returned to an age of TR—and “preventative intervention” to avoid a “Domino
Effect” of communist nations in Latin America*** The Prime Example is IKE’s support of the CIA Coup in
Guatemala***in 1954---and support of extremist dictators throughout the region***
The biggest event to occur in Latin America during the 1950’s and into the 1960’s was the Cuban
Revolution***
America had huge investments in Cuba—in essence controlled the Island since the Spanish-American
wars end in 1898. Fulgencio Bautista was an ironfisted dictator ---but a dictator controlled by American
business interests and the Mafia*** which had a huge investment in Cuba since the days of Prohibition--controlling the Casinos and hotels throughout the country---Meyer Lansky---“the godfather” ---had an
impressive control over the island but felt it slipping away---and began to fund the building of VEGAS****
DR. Fidel Castro –and a strong group of young leaders began to engineer a change for Cuba---initially
traveling to the USA and receiving support from many---his message was initially not communist---but he
soon became a convert ---The Revolution’s success SURPRISED MANY***AND WHEN CASTRO BEGINS TO
DENOUNCE YANKEE IMPERIALISM AND BEGIN A LAND REDISTRIBUTION PROGRAM ---The USA knew it
was in trouble*** MANY CUBANS ATTEMPT TO FLEE --- even the catholic church in America begins
Operation Peter Pan to bring children to live in the USA with Foster Families until their parents could
leave---some of my friends do not see their parents until the 1980s due their imprisonment as political
prisoners at the Isle of Pines Prison**** Some by that time in their 40’s and 50’s***
Castro partners with the Soviet Union –completely*** and NK warns prophetically that the
USSR
would shower nuclear missiles upon the United States of America if they
attacked Cuba***[JFK and the world will have to deal with this promise soon**}
Ike ends diplomatic recognition of Cuba in early 1961 and authorized the CIA to begin to recruit Cuban
refugees to build a secret army and plan an invasion of Cuba with US Military Support--THE BAY OF PIGS
OPERATION****
An Old General Fades Away but not without a historically significant warning in his
FAREWELL ADDRESS****
EISENHOWERS LEGACY:
Eisenhower was one of the most popular Presidents in our history---throughout his eight (8) years in
office. His ability to say no to his military advisors who had suggested using nuclear weapons six (6)
times over his tenure to me without question is a legacy in which we should all be thankful---and will give
courage to future presidents to do the same (JFK)—Despite IKE having a Democratic Party controlled
Congress for six of his eight years in office ---he remained solidly in control---America during IKE’s
presidency is often described as our GOLDEN YEARS---due to the amazing affluence which affected the
largest % of its citizens EVER---Ike leads our last two states into the Union---Alaska and Hawaii---in
1959---Most Historians judge his Civil Rights record as his GREATEST FAILING*** however, he does
EXECUTE THE LAW ---ENFORCE BROWN V. BOARD---BY SENDING THE US ARMY TO LITTLE ROCK TO
MAKE SURE 9 STUDENTS CAN GO TO SCHOOL FOR AN ENTIRE YEAR*** (the first president since 1876
to send US troops into the South to defend the rights of Black American citizens) ---but he could have
done so much more---without question. IKE cements much of the New Deal programs as permanent and
we still have many today due to his logical and human compassion. And in his Farewell
Address he warns our nation of a new danger---the dangerous influence of
the Defense Industry on our political system*** the growth of he MilitaryIndustrial Complex*** many believe that our decisions in Vietnam and even
some believe that JFKs assassination were both due TO this growing
dangerous influence***which will affect countless #’s of Americans to
come-- it still does---
Changing Economic Patterns—THE CHANGES IN THE USA DURING IKE’S PRESIDENCY
- PROSPERITY – after the Great Depression of the 1930s and 20’s-30s in Agriculture (+dust bowl)
AND WWIIs horrific war---our aid to the World to rebuild with the Marshall Plan--- the 1950s and
60s saw unparalleled economic growth---REAL INCOME—(after accounting for inflation and taxes)
DOUBLED TWICE IN 20 YEARS---some say the greatest period of economic growth in the HISTORY OF
THE WORLD—CHURCHILL said after WWII, “America stands at the summit of the World.”
- Colossal Permanent Military Budgets drove much of the Growth with investments in Universities
[think tanks like R.A.N.D. or Princeton’s Institute for Advanced Study OR CAL’S LIVERMORE LABS]education – building new weapons systems—a large standing army ---troops stationed across the
world----Korea and Vietnam conflicts to pay for--- the Growth of the military-industrial complex.
The establishment of the Warfare-Welfare Economy.
- We became a nation of Homeowners due to preferable government policies---income tax
deductions for mortgage interest---GI Bill with low cost Home Loans--- and a mobile people—27
million people changed residences EVERY YEAR/ THE RISE OF THE SUNBELT---83% of the new homes
were in Suburbia—25% of all homes that existed in America were built in the 1950’s.
- Science and Technology (tied to the military) and consumer products (adapted from military use)
drove economic growth---a revolution in electronics—TV--- and Computers—Jet Passenger liners
revolutionized the Air travel industry—using computers to apply to business oriented solution
- White collar “service industries” in 1956 outnumbered Blue Collar workers for the 1st time—
Women went into the workforce in huge #’s during WWII and declined briefly from 1945 until
1955—then surged as WANTS/NEEDS (CLASS DEPENDENT)—materialism/NECESSITY/BOREDOME
OF SUBURBAN HOUSEWIFERY(a life unfulfilled) - drove many middle class women into the workforce
to help provide for their families---and began to yearn for the “beautiful ideal,” the belief that you
can be a great mom and great worker—“do it all” – [40 million jobs are created from 1950 -1980 30
million in clerical and service work “THE PINK COLLAR GHETTO”}---which led to conflict and struggle
for many women leading to the rise of 2nd Wave Feminism –after the 1963 publication of Betty
Friedan’s book, “The Feminist Mystique.”Women accounted for 25% of employees in 1950 and 35%
in 1960 ---and 52% by 2005=== Huge changes are in store for Women in the coming 60’s 70’s 80’s—
The most dramatic certainly will be the “pill”---and her ability to control effectively for the first
time the Reproductive cycle--- and will lead to a Sexual Revolution---The Kinsey Reports published In
the 1950’s study both Male and Female Sexuality---and shock America with the conclusion that
Women enjoy Sex as much as men.
- POPULAR CULTURE—The Baby Boomers grew up in the 50’s and 60’s—influenced by the
television******nuclear war***comic books***advertising***Rock and
Roll***affluence***civil rights movements***Sexual Revolution***
literature***Conformity*** Communism-War**** Materialism***
Without question this rising HUGE group of Americans begins to question: American Exceptionalism--40% of the World’s Wealth with 5% of the Worlds Population---insulated many of the Young from
economic hardship---and they question the DICHOTOMY—that existed in society---60% in the middle
class, supposedly everything was perfect --BUT WHAT OF: NUCLEAR WAR—CIVIL RIGHTS FOR ALL--WHAT IF YOU ARE NOT “PERFECT” AND DO NOT CLIMB THE SOCIAL LADDER TO THE AMERICAN
DREAM??? Is it me?---should I follow the proscribed path--- to success, what if I fail?—by the late
1950’s a rising disillusionment begins to bubble—like in the utopian transcendental
movement of the antebellum period (1820’s-1850’s) and post WWI era--- THE YOUTH
HAVE QUESTIONS AND DEMAND ANSWERS—As McCarthyism declines people begin to
question the wisdom of Adults—due to the possibility of a Nuclear Holocaust—a visible (TV) Civil
Rights Movement—How Should WE (the Baby Boomers) RE-Define –The American Dream---thus
“American Exceptionalim”--- FIRST AND FOREMOST ---EQUALITY FOR ALL ---THE END OF THE
CONCEPT OF “NEGATIVE LIBERTY”—(The right??? to own another human being or discriminate
against another based on Race, Sex, or Religion-)—a clear movement begins to follow the path of
“positive liberties”---TRUE AND COMPLETE FREEDOM---BASED ON THE
CONSTITUTION’S –EQUAL PROTECTION CLAUSE OF THE 14TH
AMENDMENT***THIS WILL BE A BATTLE---AND IT STILL CONTINUES TODAY***
HOW WE TRULY DEFINE OUR “EXCEPTIONALISM” AND “DREAM”—WHAT HAS TRULY MADE US
EXCEPTIONAL IN THIS WORLD**** The remarkable changes that are to occur in the 50s and 60s are
due to extraordinary acts of individuals –Human Agency—“grassroots movements” from the bottom
up led by students—who are thought to have no power—no agency—yet display remarkable
courage to transform our society—and strengthened by an “activist supreme court” led by an
unlikely hero—a conservative who becomes liberal---Chief Justice Earl Warren*** The courts
decisions beginning with the unanimous Brown decision and in countless others through the 60’s
give the grassroots movements strength---and completely changes the dynamic of American
Freedom to an American Exceptionalism based on Positive Liberties, tolerance, and EQUALITY FOR
ALL----NO EXCEPTIONS**** MANY SIMPLE INVIDUAL ACTS OF HEROISM ---HUMAN AGENCY—CHANGE
AMERICA FOR THE BETTER PROVING OUR “EXCEPTIONALISM” TO THE WORLD***the best part is that
it is not perfection ---but the capacity for tolerance and compassion—that defines America.
The Life of the Mind in Postwar America-conflict is brewing***
“I saw the best minds of my generation destroyed by madness, starving, hysterical, naked, dragging themselves
through the negro streets at dawn looking for an angry fix, angelheaded hipsters burning for the ancient
heavenly connection to the starry dynamo in the machinery of night… “
Allen Ginsberg-“Howl,” –Beat Movement Poet—foreshadowing the Hippie counter-culture of the 60’s***
“There is a fifth dimension, beyond that which is known to man. It is a dimension as vast as space and as
timeless as infinity. It is the middle ground between light and shadow, between science and superstition, and
it lies between the pit of man’s fears and the summit of his knowledge. This is the dimension of imagination.
It is an area which we call the Twilight Zone.” Rod Sterling, “The Twilight Zone,” - 1959
“I saw the things that I love in this world. The work and the food and the time to sit and smoke. And I looked
at the pen and I thought, what the hell am I grabbing this for? Why am I trying to become what I don’t want
to be… when all I want is out there, waiting for me the minute I say I know who I am.” Willy Loman-“Death
of a Salesman,”-Arthur Miller’s play/critique of the Materialism/Conformity of the 1950’s
–“My parents would have two hemorrhages a piece if I tell you my whole goddam autobiography or
anything,” Holden Caufield-“Catcher in the Rye,” JD Salinger’s novel that describes the struggle of a
good kid in a seemingly “perfect world,” –Why can’t I be perfect?-- it must be me.
“They [Conservatives] tell us… that ordinary men [and women] can’t always be political “heroes”…
But keep looking around you and why not search out the conditions of such heroism… they
[Conservatives] stand in the way of a release of the imagination — about the cold war, the Soviet bloc,
the politics of peace, about any new beginnings at home and abroad.”
C. Wright Mills, “Letter to the New Left”, 1960 ***change is coming in the 1960s –
individual action-human agency-- within “grassroots” movements led the changes.
The postwar literary movement was based on fantasy—“psychedelic prose” and Satire/Criticism-Joseph Heller, “Catch-22,” and Kurt Vonnegut Jr., “Slaughter House Five,” are both prime examples of the
complicated and puzzling savage satire of War.
Critics were plentiful:
Playwrights:
***Arthur Miller—“The Crucible,” –a parable about “witch hunting” and McCarthyism --“Death of a Salesman,”—which probes conformity and materialism—what if you are not successful
like everyone else??
Tennessee Williams—“Cat on a Hot Tin Roof,” about the mendacity (lies) that exist in a rich Southern
Family—and the complicated rules that existed in Southern Jim Crow Society and Culture.
Authors:
Ralph Ellison – “The Invisible Man,” - ”—“I AM INVISIBLE, UNDERSTAND, SIMPLY BECAUSE PEOPLE
REFUSE TO SEE ME…” about being Black in America.
Lorraine Hansberry – “A Raisin in the Sun,” a book, play, movie---about African-American
experiences and the similarities in conditions and aspirations of the time between lower and middle
class folks, whether white or black.
David Riesman- “The Lonely Crowd,” – peer group expectations and stability through conformity
Sloan Wilson – “The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit,”
William Whyte – “The Organization Man,”
John Kenneth Galbraith – “The Affluent Society,” Harvard economist questions the affluence amid so
much poverty===a TV in every home yet people starving in America
C. Wright Mills –“The Power Elite,” –“Letter to the New Left,” inspirational book and letter that
inspired young students to create, “Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) which spread across the
USA on college Campuses during the 1960’s and led anti-war movements, aided the civil rights
movement--- and began the FREE SPEECH MOVEMENT--Art: Abstract Expressionism
Jackson Pollock – William De Kooning – Mans Hoffman – Mark Rothko- Edward Hopper
The “Beatniks” (The “Beat” Movement)
Avant-Garde Poets and Authors who Protest against Conformity—The Establishment--Materialism—Racism---Nukism - The MAN—THE ADULTS THAT SHAPED A WORLD THAT WOULD
EXPLODE DUE TO RIOTS AND NUCLEAR BOMBS---HOW IS THAT AN EXAMPLE OF WHAT TO DO???--Bohemian Hedonists—NYC (Greenwich Village) SF (City Lights Bookstore) “Cool Jazz” Miles Davis—
similar to “lost generation” artists of 1920’s---Antebellum Utopian Communes focusing on
transcendentalism—Walt Whitman---Thoreau—had communes—DRUGS TO EXPAND YOUR MIND--Sexual Freedom ----BEATS BECOME HIPPIES IN THE 60’S---BUT ARE NOT POLITICAL---WHERE SOME
OF THE “COUNTER-CULTURE ARE VERY POLITICAL IN THE 1960’S---SOME NOT—SOME SAY WHO
CARES 
LED BY FORMER COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY LITERARY TALENTS *** ALLEN GINSBERG—“HOWL”—JACK
KEROUAC—“ON THE ROAD,” WILLIAM BURROUGHS—“NAKED LUNCH”
in the Movies: James Dean, “Rebel without a Cause,” Marlin Brando, “Wild Ones,--Movies about
Juvenile Delinquency like, “Blackboard Jungle,”
A YOUTH REVOLUTION begins around the World---Students began to question their power and place
in society… began to look FOR alternative explanations of “THE MEANING OF LIFE,” ---EASTERN
RELIGIONS--- GREAT EXAMPLE OF THEIR INFLUENCE CAN BE SEEN WITH “The Beatles,” look at their
1963 album cover “Rubber Soul” and then look at “Sergeant Pepper,” – in the 1st you see 4 guys with
shorter hair very normal looking – in the 2nd you see the beginning of a transformation---into longer
hair and very colorful and psychedelic styles---which mirrors the rejection of conforming traditional
proper appearance suitable for work---to achieve affluence----