毕业论文写作讲座（二）
Paper Writing
Foreign Language Department
West Anhui University
October, 2009
1.1 Types of Research Papers

a) What is a Research Paper?

b) Types of Research Papers
1. Report research paper
2. Argumentative research paper
1.2 Steps in Writing a Research Paper (1)
Choose a subject suiting both your interest and practicality
Find your supervisor
Set your title
Hand in your research proposal to your supervisor
Continue reading and taking notes if your supervisor agree
Writing literature review and preparing research tools
1.2 Steps in Writing a Research Paper (2)
Deliver questionnaires, do interviews, observations, tests,
etc. if you use them as research instruments
Collect data and then analyze them
Draft the body of the paper
Draft the introduction and conclusion
Redraft all or part of the paper
Are you satisfied? (Remember that you have limited time)
1.2 Steps in Writing a Research Paper (3)
Add citations and bibliography
Edit for mechanical errors (such as spelling and punctuation)
Are you satisfied that there are no other errors?
Add the cover page (with your name, the title, etc.)
Hand the paper in to your supervisor
Relax!
1.6 What makes a good dissertation?

Quality of writing (detailed)


Economy of language. e,g., condense clauses into
phrases; manage long sentences by connecting and
pausing (e.g., pause before elaborating); break long
sentences into shorter units; use parallel structure to
make the connection for the reader
Precise word choice. e,g., use the most exact /
appropriate words that capture your meaning (not
necessarily long) 
1.4 What makes a good dissertation?


 Specific & concrete detail. Precise language
and good detail go hand in hand.
Focus on sound, rhythm & variety. e,g., use
long and short sentences rhythmically 
1.4 What makes a good dissertation?

Quality of writing: well-written, and free of errors
in grammar, syntax, punctuation and spelling 
need learn to avoid common errors through careful
editing and proofreading

e.g., parts of speech? 
1.4 What makes a good dissertation?


e.g., active or passive voice? In quantitative
study - more formal and not referenced to
author - passive voice usu. used. Some
qualitative studies better suited for active voice
such as personal reflections.
NOTE: Differences in qualitative &
quantitative writing can at times be subtle.
What may be acceptable in one, might not be in
another.  Ask your supervisor. Use one or the
other consistently. 
1.4 What makes a good dissertation?

e.g., verb tenses? Most of the dissertation
should be written in the past tense.
However,
‘Ellis introduced’ → ‘Ellis introduces’
‘Cook listed’ → ‘Cook lists’;
inferences and conclusions that are true now are
discussed in the present tense. 
1.4 What makes a good dissertation?


Some tricky words in English. e.g., “data” is
plural. The data are accurate. “Datum” is the
singular. “Effect” is a countable noun (e.g., …
has an effect on …).
Careful use of articles: “the” and “a” or “an” 
1.4 What makes a good dissertation?
** There is no simple way to eliminate all
errors in writing.
 Use American or British English
consistently

1.4 What makes a good dissertation?
Characteristics of a good dissertation:
= Evaluative criteria (goals/right route)
References
Menasche, L. (1997). Writing a Research Paper. Revised edition. Ann Arbor:
The University of Michigan Press.
Zhang, H. X. Dissertation Writing. Unpublished PPT Files. School of Foreign
Studies, Anhui University, 2006.
杨永林 著. 《“易得”—论文设计与学术写作专家系统》(Research
Development Made Easy ---A Computer-based Design System for Academic
Writing). 北京：高等教育出版社， 2005.8
2.1.4 Reading source materials (1)
Books

Books are among the best sources in which to
discover a topic for research. You should always
remember that you are only trying to find
materials for your topics. Therefore, what you
need to do is to skim a book’s introduction,
contents, index and a few chapters in order to see
whether this book is appropriate to your own
interests.
2.1.4 Reading source materials (2)
Periodicals

Periodicals are usually published monthly,
bimonthly or quarterly. They contain more current
information, opinions and up-to-date reports. In
addition, the information provided by periodicals
may also be more specific and detailed, which
better facilitates relevant research.
2.1.4 Reading source materials (3)
Internet resources
Most students have easy access to the Internet. They can
log on to look for materials needed for their research.
Online resources are helpful both for finding a topic and
for searching for specific information. When deciding on a
topic, students may surf on the net for related topics,
essays and books that might trigger an idea for a topic.
The most frequently used search engines in China include
“www.google.com”,
“www.baidu.com”,
and
“www.sina.com”, etc.
2.3 Vocabulary use in paper writing (1)
a) Avoid using long words just because they sound more
academic, especially if you are not totally sure of their
meaning.
b) Check the spelling of common words, so as to pick up
errors such as ‘affect’/ ‘effect’ confusion, it’s/ ‘its’ and
‘their’/ ‘there’ confusion.
2.3 Vocabulary use in paper writing (2)
c) Avoid informal, spoken style: it does not sound very
serious. Use formal academic written words.
Not ‘someone’
‘you’
‘a lot of’
‘really’
but ‘a person’ or ‘a speaker’
‘one’, ‘learners’, ‘students’, ‘children’,
‘much’, ‘many’, ‘a great many’, ‘several’,
‘numerous’, ‘a number of’, ‘a great number of’,
‘a large number of’, ‘a great amount of’,
‘a large amount of’, ‘a great deal of’
‘highly’, ‘greatly’, ‘very’, ‘somewhat’,
‘decidedly’, ‘undoubtedly’, ‘certainly’,
‘proven’, ‘totally’.
2.3 Vocabulary use in paper writing (3)
d) Avoid contractions: they sound informal and rushed. Use
uncontracted forms.
Not ‘don’t’
but
‘do not’
‘can’t’
‘can not’
‘won’t’
‘will not’
‘I’ve’
‘I have’
‘I’ll”
‘I will’
‘I’m’
‘I am’
‘let’s’
‘let us’
e) Write words out in full rather than abbreviations such as
‘ads’ and ‘info’.
2.3 Vocabulary use in paper writing (4)
f) There is a language policy to observe equal opportunities. Here are
some of our recommendations:

Avoid gender-specific words e.g. male-sounding nouns, when you want to
refer to males and females: it sounds as if you are not considering half the
population.
Use nouns that could be male or female or both.
Not
‘man’ or ‘men’
but
‘humans’, ‘workers’, ‘students’
‘the child….his’
‘children….their’
‘businessmen’
‘business people’
‘a man’
‘a person’
‘mankind’
‘humanity’
‘headmaster’
‘head teacher’
‘camera-men’
‘camera-operators’
‘chairman/woman’
‘she is the Chair’
2.3 Vocabulary use in paper writing (5)


Avoid using the pronoun ‘he’ and adjective ‘his’ to refer to
people of both sexes. For example, use:
‘All students must hand their work in on time.’
Not
‘Every student must hand his work in on time.’
Avoid starting sentences with connectors that are short and
conversational: it does not sound serious and organized.
Use more weighty connectors.
Not
‘And’
but ‘In addition’, ‘Moreover’
‘But’
‘However’, ‘On the other hand’,
‘By contrast’.
2.3 Vocabulary use in paper writing (6)

Avoid dropping the ‘that’ at the beginning of subordinate
clauses: it is conversational. Academic language contains
the full form.
Not ‘the language they use’
but
‘the way the natives do’
‘I think it is good’
‘I do not think there will be’
‘the language that they use’
‘the way that the natives do’
‘I think that it is good’
‘I do not think that there will be’
Chapter 3 Taking Notes
3.1 Why taking notes?
Taking notes while reading the collected literature helps
students to record the information, to document the source,
to understand and organize the ideas stimulated by their
reflections on what they have read.
Careful note-taking can ensure that the students
appropriately credit authors for their original ideas, facts,
and direct quotations. In addition, well-written and wellorganized notes make it easier and more efficient to write
the paper.

Some people like to take notes on sheets of
paper or in a notebook; some prefer to take
notes on cards while others choose to take
notes on computers.
3.2 Finding relevant books and articles

An essential step at the beginning of your research is to
find out what sources will help you locate relevant books
and articles in your subject area. Typically, these sources
are catalogs, indexes, and bibliographies:

Catalogs
Indexes
Bibliographies (or reference lists)


3.3 Evaluation of sources
It is necessary to evaluate the sources before starting
reading and taking notes. Students should not always take
what is in print as correct.




Pay attention to all the information about the publication.
Pay attention to information which leads to the author’s
attitude.
Pay attention to the sources.
Pay attention to the objectivity of the sources.
3.4 Content of notes

The content of a note includes whatever a student
thinks he or she might need for his or her research
paper. Important thoughts, ideas, quotes, facts or
statistics often make up the content of a note.

To be specific, a note usually includes the following items:
1. The background information;
2. A summary of general ideas supporting the preliminary
thesis statement;
3. Explanatory information such as definition, a plot
summary and bibliographical data;
4. Direct quotations, examples, facts and anecdotes;
5. Statistics such as percentages, weights, amount of money,
ratios and dates.
3.5 Tips on Note-taking (1)
3.5.1 Documenting sources
Document the source before writing down the
information, i.e. write down the author, the title,
the place of publication, the publisher, the date of
publication or the copyright date, and the page
number (s) where the information is found. The
documentation varies according to types of
sources: books, magazines, journals, newspapers,
electronic databases, and the Internet.
3.5 Tips on Note-taking (2)
3.5.2 Being thorough and concise
Write down neither too much nor too little in
taking notes. In other words, “be both thorough
and concise”. Write down what is necessary,
namely, what is relevant to the topic of the paper
but unknown in or different from other sources.
3.5 Tips on Note-taking (3)
3.5.3 Putting one item on one card
Write each item on a separate card. If more than one piece
of information is put on one card, the student might mix
the topics or sources, and as a result, get confused when he
or she goes about writing the paper. One item on one card
helps the student reshuffle and rearrange information.
3.5 Tips on Note-taking (4)

3.5.4 A sample
heading of the note
Definition of learning strategies
“Learning strategies are the particular approaches or techniques that learners employ
to try to learn an L2.”
Ellis, Rod. Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford UP,
1997:76-77
the body of the card
with ideas, information
or quotations
documentation
3.6 Types of notes
There are four major types of notes:
 direct quotations
 paraphrase notes
 summary notes
 combination notes
3.6.1 Direct quotation notes
Use direct quotations only when other words, phrases, structures fail to
express the information better than those in the original source. e.g.
Sociolinguistics
‘Sociolinguistics is the field that studies the relation between
language and society, between the uses of language and the social
structures in which the users of language live.”
Spolsky, Bernard. Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1998:3
However, direct quotations must be used discriminately because it
generally accounts for only ten to twenty percent of a paper.

3.6.2 Paraphrase notes
Paraphrase means accurately restating the original
information in one’s own words and phrasing,
without any additional comments or elaborations.
A paraphrase note is usually of the same length
with the original. Although quotation marks are
not used in paraphrase notes, proper
documentation is necessary.
3.6.3 Summary notes
A summary note summarizes the major points of
the original by restating them in the writer’s own
words. Some key words of the original may be
used, but they must be put in quotation marks.
Again a summary note must be properly
documented.
3.6.4 Combination notes
A combination note, as the name implies, is one
that combines direct quotation, paraphrase and
summary. Its advantage lies in the fact that it
adopts flexible note-taking methods.
3.7 Taking notes on computers
Some guidelines for taking notes on computers:
1. Be familiar with a word processing program
such as Microsoft Word;
2. Begin a new note on a new page;
3. Write some keywords on each page;
4. Put the notes with the same keywords into a
single file.
3.8 Avoiding plagiarism

Plagiarism is “the use of facts, opinions, and
language taken from another writer without
acknowledgement” (Ding and Wu 151). It is
defined in dictionaries as stealing and using the
ideas or writings of another person as one’s own.
It must be clearly understood and carefully
avoided by anyone writing a research paper.

Plagiarism is a grave offence and a serious
breach of ethics in higher education. Neither
lack of intent nor claiming that one does it
accidentally can protect him or her from
severe penalty, which might be the failure of
a course, the deprival of his or her diploma,
or permanent expulsion.
Emphasizing the importance of avoiding
plagiarism does not mean that other
people’s opinions and ideas cannot be used.
On the contrary, it is a good indication of
one’s extensive research and sincere attitude
of study if one quotes properly.
3.8.1 Forms of Plagiarism
Plagiarism can be deliberate or accidental.
Deliberate plagiarism happens when one copies the
work of others and pretends that it is his or her
own without acknowledgement.
Accidental plagiarism or unconscious plagiarism
happens when one does not intend to plagiarize,
but fails to cite the sources appropriately.
Unconscious plagiarism can be paraphrases with
no citation or misplaced citations.
Paraphrases with no Citation
Paraphrase is an accurate restatement of the
original in one’s own words. Plagiarism occurs
when one uses the original words in his or her
paraphrase or uses the original sentence structure
though in his or her own words and phrases, but
fails to include a citation.
Misplaced Citations
All cited materials from the same sources if used
several times must be documented separately.
Otherwise, the quotation will be regarded as
plagiarism because other people would think what
is placed after the reference of the source as the
writer’s own comment or reflection.
3.8.2 Tips on Avoiding Plagiarism
Careful note-taking and a clear understanding of
the rules of quotation, paraphrase, and summary
can prevent one from plagiarism. Meriwether’s
guidelines may be helpful:
1. Always put quotation marks around any direct
statement from someone else’s work;
2. Give credit to the author for any paraphrase of
his or her ideas or statements, even though
quotation marks are not used, because these ideas
are clearly not your own;
3. Reference any material, ideas, or thoughts you
found in a specific source if it is evident that they
came from your reading and are not common
knowledge;
4. Do not reference material that is common
knowledge.
5. Reference any summary-even if it is in your
own words-of a discussion from one of your
sources;
6. Reference any charts, graphs, or tables that
are created by others or that you make with
someone else’s information. Put the
reference immediately below the title of the
chart, graph, or table.
Chapter 4
Writing the Paper
4.1 Developing thesis statement and
working out an outline
What is a thesis statement and its
function?
(usually a single sentence that formulates
both the topic and the point of view of a
paper.
It can enable the student to see where he or
she is heading and help him or her remain
on a productive path during the process of
planning and writing.)
4.1 Developing thesis statement and
working out an outline

There are two important factors to be
considered in writing a thesis statement:
1) the purpose of the paper;
2) the audience the student has in mind.


4.1 Developing thesis statement and
working out an outline

What is an outline and its function?
(a useful framework that assists in the organization
and writing of the research paper.
Preparing an outline can help students reevaluate the
materials and decide which pieces of information
are relevant to the purposes of the paper and
discover the connections between the pieces.)
4.1 Developing thesis statement and
working out an outline

It is true that students may use whatever form
they find comfortable in working out an
outline. Here we recommend a type of
outline called ‘decimal outline’, in which
decimal divisions indicate successive
headings:
4.1 Developing thesis statement and
working out an outline


1. Major heading
1.1 Minor heading
1.1.1 Detail heading
1.1.1.1 Example heading
1.1.1.2 Example heading
1.1.1.2.1 Minor example heading
1.1.1.2.2 Minor example heading
1.1.2 Detail heading
1.2 Minor heading
2. Major heading
…
A Sample Outline
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
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
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Outline:
1. Major Steps in the Writing Process
1.1 Organizing
1.2 Writing the first draft
1.3 Evaluating
1.4 Revising
2. Writing Programs for the Microcomputer
2.1 Types of Programs and Their Relationship to the Writing Process
2.1.1 Thought
2.1.1.1 Use in organizing
…
3. Future Possibilities of computer Programs for Writing
3.1 Rapid change
…
4.2 Producing a first draft
With the thesis and outline done, now it is time to get
ready to produce a first draft. First of all, let’s see
the following several questions:
 Which part to begin with?
 Should elements of the outline fit into the paper as
expected?
 At this stage, which is more important? ideas or
grammar, punctuation and spelling? (flow of
creative juices)
4.2 Producing a first draft
4.2.1 Writing the introduction
An introduction has two essential purposes:
1) to engage the reader
2) to explain clearly what the paper is
about.
The idea is to both interest and inform the
reader.

4.2 Producing a first draft

Lester believes that the introduction must
establish several things within the first few
paragraphs:

Subject (identify your specific topic, and then
define, limit, and narrow it to one issue)
Background (Provide relevant historical data)
Problem (Point of a research paper is to explore or
resolve a problem)
Thesis sentence (use it to establish the direction of
the study and to point your readers toward your
eventual conclusions)



4.2 Producing a first draft

There are a few ways to begin an
introduction. The following are widely
practised.

Starting with an Anecdote
Providing Background Information
Defining a Key Term
Challenging an Assumption or an Authority



4.2 Producing a first draft
Generally speaking, your introduction should
cover at least the following several points:



Stating the general context of your topic
Indicating what your paper will focus on
Giving a very brief summary of the main
points
4.2 Producing a first draft

4.2.2 Writing the Body
The body is the most important part of a research paper. It
usually takes up to 80% of the whole paper, and it develops
the thesis statement logically. Lester sets the following
checklist in writing the body of a paper:
Analysis
Presentation
Paragraphs
4.2 Producing a first draft
There may be several parts in the body, but one
major idea should be advanced at a time. Each
paragraph should have only one main idea,
which is well supported by theories, data and
examples and followed by the next logical
transitional point.
4.2 Producing a first draft
4.2.3 Writing the conclusion
Generally, a good conclusion to a research paper is
the logical outcome of all that has been said earlier:



Repeating thesis statement
Recommending certain actions or further research
Restate the main points of your paper in a very
summarized form and in different words.
4.3 Using Quotations
Direct quotations or indirect speech?
 How much of direct quotations is
usually acceptable?

4.4 Linking parts of the paper: transitions
When you have written enough on each separate
section of the paper to put together a reasonable
preliminary draft, give careful thought to joining the
parts with good transitions (also called connectors,
linking elements, or cohesive devices) .
Between major sections
Between paragraphs
Between sentences
4.5 Integrating ideas from sources

Unlike a personal essay, a research paper
makes many references to the writings of
others. It is essential that you carefully
distinguish in your paper which words,
opinions, and ideas are your own and which
ones are from sources.
4.5 Integrating ideas from sources

As we mentioned before, there are two specific skills for
integrating the ideas of other writers into your paper:
1) direct quotation
2) paraphrase
Paraphrasing requires the grammar and vocabulary skills
needed to restate others’ ideas without plagiarizing. It also
requires that you use a lot of reported (indirect) speech as
you state the ideas of others. Some common verbs used in
reporting are the following:
4.5 Integrating ideas from sources
state
say
remark
comment
claim
assert
maintain
observe
emphasize
declare
contend
argue
imply
suggest
explain
propose
report
4.5 Integrating ideas from sources

Some useful common phrases (where X =
name (s) of author (s)) are
according to X
in the opinion of X
X expresses the view that
X presents the idea that
as X say
as reported by X
4.5 Integrating ideas from sources





Some examples of useful expressions
referring to studies and research are:
the study shows that
her research reveals that
their results demonstrate that
this research proves that
Chapter 5
Documenting Sources
5.1 Purpose of Documentation
1) What is documentation?
the information in the thesis that tells what sources you
have used and where you take it.
 2) What are the major purposes of documentation?
① to acknowledge the contributions of the previous
research.
② to offer the accurate and detailed sources of
information for future research.

5.2 Major Formats and Styles of
Documentation


1) Following the required format and
style.
2) Be consistent in your thesis for citing
and listing sources.
Two Major Tasks of Documentation :


Citing sources
Listing sources




In English, there are three major formats and
styles of documentation. They are:
Chicago manuscripts (widely used in
humanities and social science)
MLA (Modern Language Association) (mainly
used in the disciplines of literature, history, art
and others)
APA (American Psychological Association)
(widely used in the social sciences, in education,
psychology, linguistics and many other fields)
5.3 Within the Text
This is how you should refer to authors’ works. These
conventions must be strictly followed.
“Discourse communities use codes” (McCarthy and
Carter, 1994:123)
“Discourse communities use codes” (Grice,1975; Leech,
1983; Levinson, 1983)
Kreckel (1981:36) says that discourse communities use
codes.
If you say ‘linguists have said this’ or ‘it has been
widely observed’ you must say who said or
observed it, give the name, the date, and possibly
the page.
e.g. Linguists have said that intonation should be
taught from the early days of language learning
(Brown, 1996; Davis, 1997; Smith, 1995).

Even though you use a little phrase
from an author e.g. ‘graded sets of
intonation patterns’, you should
acknowledge whose it is and give
the year and page. However nice it
is, do not pretend it is yours. The
reader will always know.
Now see some examples:
1) not (Brown, G. 1996) or (Brown, Gillian 1996) or
(Dr. Brown 1996) →but (Brown, 1996).
2) not (Brown) → but (Brown, 1996).
3) not (Brown, 1996 ‘The Good Language Learner’) and
not (Brown, 1996 3rd Edition) → but (Brown, 1996).
4) not ‘Brown mentioned the usefulness of visual aids
(Brown 1996: 139)’ → but ‘Brown mentioned the
usefulness of visual aids (1996: 139)’.
5) not (Brown, 1996)(White, 1997) → but (Brown, 1996;
White, 1997).
6) Web-based sources.

When you repeat a reference to a book so soon
after a previous reference like this, all you
really need to put is ‘(ibid)’ (It’s Latin for ‘that
which has gone before’!). You do not have to
write the name and date again. Only use ‘ibid’
if the previous reference is in the same
paragraph.

When you are quoting more than one line, you
should start to quote on a new line and indent
the whole quotation, like this:
The majority of language learners prefer to have
their learning reinforced with visual aids, and this
appeals to the sense of hearing and sense of seeing at
the same time. (Brown, 1996: 139).

Summary:
Precise, brief and detailed documentation is
required in the acknowledgement of sources.
The student must demonstrate to the audience
exactly what was taken from each source and
exactly where in the work the material was
found. All the parenthetical citations should
correspond to full bibliographical entries in the
list of references at the end of the paper.
5.4 In the Reference List at the End


References
Bibliography

The following are some guidelines for listing
References or Bibliography:
1. Begin the list of sources on a separate page after the text
of your paper.
2. Type the heading References or Bibliography on top of a
separate page, neither underlined, nor italicized or in
quotation marks.
3. List all the sources by the authors’ last names in the
alphabetic order. If the author of a source is unknown,
alphabetize the source by the first major word of the title.
4. Begin each entry with the left margin. Do not indent the
first line of each entry, but indent five spaces in the
subsequent lines.
Usually a complete entry for a book should
be like this:
Author’s last name, initials for the first and
middle names, (publication date). Title.
Additional information. City of publication:
publisher.
Sample Entries: Books
* A book by one author
Bambrough, R. (1963). The philosophy of Aristotle. New
York: The New American Library.
* A book by two or more authors
Atwan, R., Mcquate, D., & Wright, J. (1979). Edsels,
Luckies, and Frigidaires: Advertising the American
way. New York: Dell.
* Organization as author
American Psychological Association. (1994). Publication
manual of the American Psychological Association.
4th ed. Washington: American Psychological
Association.

* Anonymous author
The New York Times atlas of the world. (1980).
New York: New York Times Books.

* Two or more books by the same author
Bloom, H. (1973). The anxiety of influence: A
theory of poetry. New York: Oxford UP.
Bloom, H. (1975). A map of misreading. New
York: Oxford UP.

* A book with an editor or editors
Glotfelty, C., & Fromm, H. (Eds.). (1996). The ecocriticism
reader: landmarks in literary ecology. Athens: The U
of Georgia P.

* A book with an author and an editor
Jung, C. G. (1959). Basic writings. (V. S. de Laszlo, Ed.).
New York: Modern Library.

* A book with a translator
Freud, S. (1961). Civilization and its discontents. (J.
Strachey, Trans.). New York: Norton.
* Edition after the first
Fromkin, V., & Rodman, R. (1993). An introduction
to language (5th ed.). Ft. Worth: Harcourt.
 * A work in a book or anthology
Wellek, R. (1963). Romanticism re-examined. In N.
Frye (Ed.), Romanticism reconsidered (pp. 5598). New York: Columbia UP.


Hall, S. (1993). Minial Selves. In A. Gray & J.
McGuigan (Eds.), Studying culture (pp. 131-142).
Arnold: Hodder Headline Group.
* A multivolume work
Plato. (1926). Laws (2 vols.). New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons.
Sample Entries: Articles


The four basic elements for an article entry are the
same as those for books, but please note the slight
differences in the treatment of dates, titles and
publication data.
* An article in a journal paginated by volume
Maguire, J. H. (1980). The Canon and the ‘Diminished
thing.’ American Literature 60, 645-52.

* An article in a journal paginated by issue
Davis, S. H. (1998). The Zen art of prewriting. New
Mexico English Journal 12 (1), 21-23
*An article in a monthly or bimonthly periodical
Weiss, P. (1994, January). The book thief: A true
tale of bibliomania. Harper’s, 37-56.
* An article in a weekly or biweekly periodical
Hoagland, E. (1989, May 7). Standing tough in the
desert. New York Times Book Review, 44-45.
* An article in a newspaper
Intraub, Anna Jiangwang. (2002, January 13).
How I Learned to Read. New York Times.
Section 4, Column 6, Page 16.
New bank attracts depositors with high rates.
(1996, June 22). Edinboro Gazette, pp. 1, 5.
Note: This article has no author, and has discontinuous pages.
* Conference paper: Published in conference
proceedings
Barclay, L. P., Bateson, R., & Obiakor, T. F. (1996).
Making computers talk. In P. R. Wigmore (Ed.),
Proceedings of the Second International Conference
on Artificial Intelligence (pp. 135-141). Amsterdam:
De Bruijn Press.
* Conference paper: Unpublished
Jameson, P. E. (1997, January). Light filters in high-speed
medical photography. Paper presented at the meeting
of the California Association of Medical Photography
Technicians, Sacramento, CA.
* Doctoral dissertation: Unpublished
Juffs, A. (1993). Learnability and the lexicon: Chinese
learners’ acquisition of English argument structure.
Unpublished doctoral dissertation, McGill University,
Montreal, Canada.
* Review of a book
Forman, P. (1995). Truth and objectivity. [Review of the
book A social history of truth] Science, 269, 707-710.
Electronic Publications
World Wide Web: Article in electronic journal
Ling, R. (1996). Cyber McCarthyism: Witch hunts in
the living room. Electronic Journal of Sociology,
2. Available: http://olympus.lang.arts.ualberta.ca:
8010/vol002.001/Ling.Article.1996.html [1997,
January 3]
World Wide Web: Article
Weaver, R., Servesco, R., & Tian, J. (1996).
Determining the destiny of plastic.
Available: http:// dirac.py.iup.edu/
college/chemistry/chemcourse/plastic.html
CD-ROM
The Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. (1992).
[CD-ROM]. Oxford: Oxford UP.

NOTES:



The names should be listed in alphabetical
order: Brown – Davis – Smith.
There is no need to number the references at
the end 1,2,3 etc.
Only list the authors who you have quoted or
referred to within your essay.
5.5 中文参考文献格式：

专著、编著、译著
杜维明. 东亚价值与多元现代性[M]. 北京：中
国社会科学出版社, 2001
申 丹. 文学文体学与小说翻译[M]. 北京： 北京
大学出版社, 1995
柳卸林主编. 世界名人论中国文化[Z]. 武汉: 湖北
人民出版社, 1991
索绪尔. 普通语言学教程[M]. 高名凯译. 北京: 商
务印书馆, 1996
论文集文章
冯庆华. 论译者的风格[A]. 谢天振. 翻译的理
论建构与文化透视[C]. 上海: 上海外语教
育出版社, 2000. 329-338
别林斯基.论俄国中篇小说和果戈里君的中
篇小说[A]. 伍蠡甫. 西方文论选：下册
[C]. 上海：上海译文出版社，1979.
期刊文章
程爱民. 原型批评的整体性文化批评倾向[J]. 外
国文学, 2000(5): 67-74
张 权. 英语动词名词化的认知结构分析[J]. 外国
语, 2001(6): 29-34
报纸文章
冯宪光. 借鉴与重构: 西方马克思主义文学批评在
中国[N]. 文艺报, 1999/11/23(3)
参考文献（即引文出处）的类型以单字母方式标识：
M——专著，C——论文集，N——报纸文章，J——期刊文章，
D——学位论文，R——报告，S——标准，P——专利，A－－论
文集中的析出文献；对于不属于上述的文献类型，采用字母“Z”
标识。
Chapter 6
Research Instruments
6.1 Introduction
Usually there are two approaches to
research: qualitative approach and
quantitative approach.
approach:
interviews,
 Qualitative
observations and text analysis
approach: experiments
 Quantitative
and questionnaires, etc.

Whatever approach you use just depends on
your research context and research
questions. For example, “Is Chinese food
better or more delicious than English food?”
( interview + questionnaire).
Here we will pick out 3 frequently used
approaches and introduce them to you.
6.2 Observation
Three questions to ask yourself:
1) Who and what should I observe? Why?
2) How many people or events should I
observe? Why?
3) What observation and recording
technique are appropriate? Why?
For example:
RQ: How do EAP teachers start their
EAP classes?
Who and what should I observe:
who→teachers
what→How they start teaching?
→How many teachers are you going to observe? (You should
have reasons for that)
→How many classes are you going to observe? (You should
have reasons for that)
→TA: starting by greeting and then....
TB: …..
TC: …..
We can use an observation schedule like this:
Teacher
Way
By greetings
By activities
By playing video
By asking questions
…….
TA
TB
TC
√
√
TD
√
√
Usually observing involves three basic steps:
 Planning the visit
 Observing and note-taking
 Writing up the notes
6.3 Interviewing
Interviewing is one of the commonest methods
used in small scale educational research. This is
not surprising. In the teaching profession, when
you want to get information, canvass opinion, or
exchange ideas, the natural thing to do is to talk
to people.
Interviewing usually involves at least the
following two aspects: planning and writing up
the notes.
6.3.1 Planning the Interview
1) Whom to interview
2) Why you need to interview the individual,
how important this interview is to you
3) Be prepared with a number of questions
4) Remember to bring your tools: a notebook
(with a firm back) and a tape
recorder/pencorder.
6.3.2 Writing up the Notes

Right after the interview, find a quiet
place to review and add to your notes,
reflect upon the interview, and summarize
it: What are your main impressions? What
are the most memorable quotations? What
are the most striking details?

Some points about interviewing and semi-structured
interviewing
in
particular.
Semi-structured
interviewing:

Is a very flexible technique, suitable for gathering information
and opinions and exploring people’s thinking and motivations
Yields rich information and guarantees good coverage
Takes time to do and analyse and so requires realistic planning
Cannot cover large numbers (use a questionnaire for that)
Requires a degree of skill (but that comes with practice)
Is useful in mini-surveys and case studies
Can be used along with other methods






6.4 Questionnaire
1. A questionnaire is a tool for collecting data.
2. Two types of questionnaire: Descriptive
(describing the features of a group) and
analytical (explaining the process of an event).
3. Questionnaires do not show causal relations.
4. Questionnaires usually do not produce 100%
response rate.






Design of questionnaires:
Four steps in design:
1. Deciding a questionnaire is what you want to use:
questionnaire, interview, or observation? This
depends on the research question.
2. Deciding upon relevant research objectives: What
are relevant to the phenomenon that you want to
study?
3. Translating the objectives into questions: Do not
use your research question as a question in the
questionnaire.
4. Phrasing the questions: so that they do not
influence the answers in any way.






a. Questions should suit the research
objectives.
b. Questions should be clear, unambiguous,
and unvague.
c. Questions should be encouraging.
d. Questions should be short.
e. Put questions about similar topics together.
f. Avoiding hypothetical questions (eg.
“if…, …)






g. Avoid leading (loaded) questions.
h. Avoid questions relying on memory.
i. Avoid technical terms.
j. Avoid negative questions.
k. Avoid double questions. (eg. “when &
where…?” )
l. Avoid calculating questions.




m. Avoid sexist and racist questions.
n. Put open questions at the end of the
questionnaire.
m. In multiple choice questions, do not give
too many or too few choices.
q. Design the questionnaire in a way that it
will be easy for you to analyse (try to use
questions that will be answered by ticking
boxes or circling numbers).
A questionnaire should have the
following 3 sections:
 1. Opening Section
 2. Middle Section
 3. Closing Section
Types of questions:
1) open (wh- questions)
2) close (yes/no questions, limited
responses).
Three types of scales:
1. the Linkert Scale (in the form of statements):
Example: the course is dense.
Strongly agree agree undecided disagree strongly disagree
5
4
3
2
Example: the course is dense.
1
Strongly agree agree undecided disagree strongly disagree
1
2
3
4
5
2. Semantic-differential Spectrum:
Example: How did you find this course?
Unpleasant 1 2 3 4 5 Pleasant
3. Ranking
Example: rank the following courses from the
most (1) to least (5) useful.
history, geography, science, English, maths.
In deciding on the type of the questions,
you need to think about the data that you
want as answers. You might want:
a. a yes/no or agree/disagree answer
b. a numerical answer
c. a factual statement
d. an opinion or reason
Some points to be paid attention:
1. Make your questionnaire short
2. Responses must be measurable
3. Write only on one side of the paper
4. Leave space between questions
5. Leave a wide margin for analysis
6. Pilot your questionnaire (try it out) about the
layout, questions, and order.
Example for designing a questionnaire:
RQ: What is the attitude of Chinese students towards
English?
Objectives:
 Do they like English people?
 Do they like the English language?
 How do they think about the English language?
 How do they think about the English people?
You can list the following questions in
your questionnaire:

Do you enjoy meeting English people?
Do you usually speak English with your
classmates?
Do you like to go to England?
Do you approach English tourists who came to
China?
Do you watch English-speaking satellite?

…




A Copy of the Questionnaire
Vocabulary Learning Strategies Questionnaire
You can start your questionnaire like this:
The purpose of this questionnaire is to find what
vocabulary learning strategies university students use to
learn the vocabulary of English as an additional language.
I would be grateful if you could complete the following
questionnaire. Thanks for your time and effort.
And finish it like the following:
Thank you very much for your time and
cooperation.
Mahshid Fazaeli
(mahshid.fazaeli@sunderland.ac.uk)
MA TESOL student
School of Education and Lifelong Learning
University of Sunderland
Chapter 7
Writing
Abstracts,
Appendices
and
Acknowledgements; and Preparing for the
Final Draft
7.1 Writing the Abstract
7.1.1 Major types and contents of abstracts
1) Two typical types of abstracts:
descriptive
informative
2) Usually abstracts should be composed of the
following elements:
① purpose or scope of the paper,
② method of writing or method of the
research discussed in the paper,
③ results, conclusions and/or
recommendations.
3) Length of abstracts
7.1.2 Tips about writing the abstract
1)
In writing the abstract, select important
information such as purpose, methods, scope,
results, conclusions, and recommendations from
the paper. The headings, outline heads, table of
contents, introduction and conclusion are useful
sections;
2) Copying sentences directly from the sections of
the paper should be strictly avoided. Instead,
synthesize the information in the major sections
into clear, concise statements;
3) Avoid reference to other literatures;
4) Avoid using the first person “I” or “we”,
although some researchers tend to use them
nowadays;
5) Begin the first sentence with the phrase “this
paper” or “this study”;
6) Use non-evaluative language; report rather
than comment upon the findings;
7) Remember the word limit set by your
supervisor or your school (department).
8) Convey information in the original document
accurately and concisely, with an absence of
any attempt to arouse emotion. The
exclamation mark (!) is never used in an
abstract, and question mark (?) is seldom
used.
9) Use standard terms. Try to avoid using
abbreviations and symbols.
Verb tenses in the abstract
Generally speaking, the verb tenses in the
abstract are directly related to those that have
been used in the corresponding sections of the
paper. For example, sentences of background
information are usually written in the present
tense; major activities are put in the past tense or
the present perfect tense; methodology is usually
put in the past tense, results in the past tense, and
conclusion in the present tense.
7. 2 Writing Appendices
1) Why open an appendix?
2) What materials are usually put in the
appendix?
Note:

All materials in an appendix must have been referred to in the
text;

Each document should be included in a separate appendix
which should be numbered and titled and begin on a new page.
7. 3 Writing Acknowledgements
In most cases, it is almost impossible to write an
academic research paper without referring to related
literature or without any help. Acknowledgements
help researchers to extend thanks and indebtedness to
people who have helped during the research. These
people may include the supervisors, colleagues, peer
students, funding or sponsoring associations or
instructions, etc. Therefore, acknowledgements are an
important part of a research paper although it is
optional.
One example:
Acknowledgements
On the completion of my thesis, I should like to
express my deepest gratitude to all those whose
kindness and advice have made this work
possible.
I am greatly indebted to my tutor Professor
Liu Jianbo who gave me valuable instructions,
and urged me to begin my research work as
soon as possible. His effective advice, shrewd
comments and quick corrections have kept the
theses in the right direction.
I am grateful to Professor Chen Zhi’an,
Professor Lili, Professor Liu Jiarong and
Professor Zhou Rong of the School of Foreign
Languages of Southwest China Normal
University. They have improved me in
language and in research methodology and
have shown me into the fascinating world of
English literature and western culture.
My gratitude is to ….
7.4 Preparing for the final draft
7.4.1 Major elements of graduation thesis
1)
Title page
2)
Abstracts
3)
Table of contents
4)
Body
5)
Notes
6)
Bibliography
7.4.2 Proofreading your thesis
When you finish your first draft after revising
and editing, it is time to proofread it.
Proofreading is the process of checking your
thesis for errors in spelling, grammar, usage,
level of language, capitalization, punctuation,
and documentation. Proofreading is a tedious
process. However, it is important.
A carefully proofread thesis indicates a
professional and serious attitude to the reader.
Therefore, you should make the final copy of
your graduation thesis flawless, without any
mistakes or incorrect information. The following
checklist will help you to proofread your thesis.
A Proofreading Checklist
Be certain you particularly check these elements
in your final proofreading session:







Spelling errors
Mixed up homophones
Incorrect word usage
Sentence fragments
Citation format
Ambiguous references and pronouns (especially
it, that, this, these, and those)
Comma usage







Check all titles to make sure that they are properly
presented.
Quotations (make sure that they are accurate)
Quotation marks (make certain all quotations have
quotation marks at the beginning and end of the
quoted section)
Capitalization
Punctuation
Consistent verb tense
Check every sentence to make sure that it has an
end mark.
7.4.3 Checklist for the final draft




Are my topic, thesis statement, and general
approach clear to the reader?
Have I proven my thesis statement beyond the
shadow of a doubt?
Have I made my argument fully and
persuasively?
Does every paragraph in the thesis clearly
relate to the thesis statement?



Does every paragraph in the thesis center on a
single point that is clear to the reader?
Do paragraphs and sentences flow together?
Have I included transitions that connect
sentences and paragraphs together?
Have I supplied all of the information a reader
needs to understand all of my points? Have I
anticipated any questions a reader might have
and included the answers within the thesis?





Have I cut out any excess words, sentences, or
paragraphs that don’t contribute anything
substantial to the thesis?
Have I varied my word choices?
Have I altered my sentence patterns?
Have I used all of the words correctly and in the
right context?
Have I proofread for grammar, spelling, and
punctuation errors?



Have I cited all quoted and paraphrased sections?
Have I used the proper citation format? Have I
included a bibliography written in the proper format?
Have I typed up a clean, final copy? Is it doublespaced and stapled together? Does each page have a
page number? Have I included a title, and other
information on the title page?
Have I made an extra copy of the thesis to keep?
Chapter 8
Preparing for
the Oral Defense
8.1 Guidelines for oral defence
In some universities in China － but not all, a
thesis defense is required. Thesis defense is
usually taking place in oral format. Your thesis
will be read by a group of committee members.
Then, you are asked to present your final paper
to the committee and answer their questions.
Here are some guidelines about how you can
prepare for your oral defense effectively.



Talk to your tutor/supervisor and get his/her
evaluation and revise your thesis before you
circulate your thesis to the other committee
members.
Read your completed thesis after you turn it
in and be familiar with its structure, contents,
research method, major findings and major
argument.
Usually you will be given 5-10 minutes to
explain your thesis briefly. Ask your
tutor/supervisor how long it will be and
prepare accordingly.

Prepare your presentation either in ppt
format or written form. Your focus should
be
① define your topic or scope of your paper
briefly;
② your research method or perspective of
your analysis;
③ your major research findings or argument.
Be ready to support your argument with
clear, brief and convincing examples or
evidence.

Think about the questions the committee will
ask and prepare your answer in advance.
Work with your friends or classmates and see
how you will respond to the main objections
of alternative argument or counter-argument.

In the defense itself, be confident and relaxed
as best you can. Listen to committee members’
specific questions and present your answers
to the point. Please speak clearly and in
normal speed and not to talk too fast.



In case you are not clear what they are asking about,
just say “Pardon”, and let them repeat or explain their
questions.
If you do not have the ready answer to the difficult
questions, do not feel panic. You can either say
something related to the issue, or give them a broad
smile and say “I don’t know” and you are ready to learn.
Sometimes some committee members may make
comments on your thesis or suggestions for improving
your research. You need not have to defense at this
moment and should respond politely with gratitude for
their suggestions.
In sum, Thesis defense is not seeking to fail
students’ graduation thesis. It is an opportunity
for you to demonstrate your understanding of
your research topic and share your argument
with your teachers and students. Sometimes
teachers would like to challenge you with a
difficult question or counter argument to create
a mood of debate and argumentation. Then, do
your best, join them and have fun.
Thank You!