Environmental Theory
The Nature of Victimization
 Since 1993 the number of victimizations are declining
 NCVS Data
 Patterns of victimization are stable
 Victimization is not random
 Becoming a crime victim has a lot to do with
personal and ecological factors
 How is this useful?
 Researchers can make judgments about the nature of
victimization
 Efforts can be made to reduce the victimization rate
Environmental Criminology
 Examines the location of a specific crime and the context in
which it occurred in order to understand and explain crime
patterns.
 Where and when did the crime occur?
 What are the physical and social characteristics of the
crime site?
 What movements bring offender and target together at the
crime site?
Rational Choice Perspective
Clark & Cornish
Rational Choice perspective developed by Ronald Clarke and
Derek Cornish and based on two theoretical approaches
1.
Based on utilitarianism, assumes that people make
decisions with the goal of maximizing pleasure and
minimizing pain.
2. Based on traditional economic choice theory, which
argues that people will evaluate the options and choose
what they believe will satisfy their needs.
 Rational choice implies a limited sense of rationality, that
is, an offender does not know all the details of a situation;
rather he or she relies on cues in the environment or
characteristics of targets
 Most crime is ordinary and committed by reasoning
individuals who decide that the chances of getting caught
are low and the possibilities for a relatively good pay off is
high.
 A variety of factors or characteristics come into play when
an offender decides to commit a crime. These factors are
called “choice structuring-properties”
 Characteristics fall into two distinct sets: those of the
offender and those of the offence.
Decision
to commit burglary
Selected
(Middle Class Area)
Easily accessible
few police patrols
low security housing
larger gardens
Rejected
(Middle Class Area)
Unfamiliar; distant
neighborhood watch
no public transport
Burgled Home
no one at home:
Especially affluent,
detached, patio doors
bushes and other cover
corner site
Not Burgled Home
Nosy neighbors,
burglar alarm
nor rear access,
visible from street
window locks; dog
Routine-Activity Approach
Cohen & Felson
 A crime can occur only if there is someone who intends to
commit a crime (likely offender).
 Something or someone to be victimized (a suitable target).
 No other person present to prevent or observe the crime
(the absence of a capable guardian).
 No person to control the activities of the offender (personal
handler).
Components of a Criminal Event
 Routine patterns of work, play, and leisure time affect the
convergence in time and place of motivated offenders who
are not handled, suitable targets, and the absence of
guardians
 If one component is missing, crime is not likely to be
committed.
Routine-Activity Approach

Certain technological changes and alterations in the
workforce create new crime opportunities
1.
Increase in female participation in the labor force
2. Out-of-town travel, automobile usage, and
technological advances that account for higher
risks of predatory victimization.
Theories of Victimization
Lifestyle Theories
Proposition:
1.
The probability of suffering a personal victimization is
directly related to the amount of time that a person
spends in public places.
2. The probability of being in public places varies as a
function of lifestyle.
3. Social contacts and interactions occur
disproportionately among individuals who share similar
lifestyles.
Lifestyle Theories Continued
4.
5.
6.
An individual’s chances of personal victimization are
dependent upon the extent to which the individual
shares demographic characteristics with offenders.
The proportion of time that an individual spends
among non-family members varies as a function of
lifestyle.
The probability of personal victimization increases as
a function of the proportion of the time that an
individual spends among non-family members.
Lifestyle Theories Continued
7.
8.
Variations in lifestyle are associated with variations in
the ability of individuals to isolate themselves from
persons with offender characteristics.
Variations in lifestyle are associated with variations in
the convenience, the desirability, and visibility of the
person as a target for a personal victimization.
Burglars and Burglary

Before committing their offenses, burglars take into
account
1. Familiarity with the area,
2. Fear of recognition
3. Concern over standing out as somebody who does not
belong
Burglars and Burglary
 Planning – professional burglars plan more than do
amateurs
 Systematic selection of a home - some burglars examine
clues such as burglar alarm, watchdog, mail piled up in
mailbox, accumulated newspapers. Closed windows with
A/C turned off
 Situational Cues – some burglars routinely choose a corner
property for it offers avenues of escape, fewer adjoining
properties low visibility.
Victim-Offender Interaction Marvin
Wolfgang
 Coined the term victim precipitation to refer to situations
where victims initiate the confrontations that lead to their
death.
 Wolfgang estimated that as many as one quarter to one half
of intentional homicides are victim precipitated.
Theories of Victimization
Continued
 Repeat victimization
 Hotspots of crime
 Geography of crime
Repeat victimization
 Dispel the myth that crime is uniformly distributed. A
small number of people and places account for a large
amount of the crimes committed.
 Risk of repeat burglary are highest immediately after a
previous burglary
 Offenders choose targets based on the knowledge they
gained in the previous victimization about the risks and
rewards of a particular offence.
Hot Spots
 Studies show that certain types of crime are concentrated
in what police refers to as “hot spots”
 The researchers surmise that attempts to prevent
victimization should be focused not on victims but on the
places themselves by making them less vulnerable to crime.
Geography of Crime
 Researchers have found
that more crime occurs
around high schools and
blocks with bars, liquor
stores, the city center and
abandoned buildings.
The Social Ecology of Victimization
 Violent crimes are slightly more likely to occur in a
public area during daytime or early evening hours
 More serious violent crimes typically occur after 6 p.m.
to 6 a.m.
 Rape and aggravated assault
 Less serious violent crimes more likely occur in the day
 Purse snatching and unarmed robberies
 The risk of murder is highest in disorganized inner-city
areas
 Rural areas have significantly lower victimization rates than
urban areas (half as much)
 Schools are also the location of many victimization
 Numbers are decreasing
The Victim’s Household
 In the U.S. certain homes are more vulnerable to crimes
 Larger homes (family size)
 African American
 Renters
 Western and urban homes

Rural white homes in the Northeast are least likely
to contain crime victims
Important Victim Characteristics
 Gender
 Age
 Social status
 Marital status
 Race and Ethnicity
 Repeat victimization
 Gender
 Males are more likely to be
the victims of violent
crimes (robbery/assault)
 Except for rape or sexual
assault
 Two thirds of women are
victimized by someone
they know or live with
 Half of male victims are
attacked by someone
they know
 With the increase in
gender equality, women’s
victimization rates are as
well
 Age
 Young people have a much
higher victimization rate
 Victim risk rapidly
diminishes after age 25
 By age 65 chances of being
victimized greatly decrease
 1% of violent
victimizations
 With increases in
reports of elder abuse,
victimization rates for
the elderly will increase
 More likely to be victims
of crimes such as
 Frauds and scams
 Purse snatching
 Social Status
 Marital Status
 The poorest Americans are
 Never-married men and
the most likely victims of
violent and property crime
 Regardless of age, gender,
and race
 The wealthy are more likely
the targets of personal theft
crimes
women have higher
victimization rates than
married people
 Widows and widowers have
the lowest victimization rate
 The relationship between
marital status and
victimization is probably
influenced by gender, age,
and lifestyle
Crime Prevention Through
Environmental Design
 Originated by C. Ray Jeffery
 CPTED posits that environments can be altered, often at
little expense, to decrease victimization.
 Defensible Space by Oscar Newman refers to improved
architectural designs, particularly of public housing, in
order to provide increased security.
Situational Crime Prevention
 The phantom crime prevention at Disney World
 Situational prevention of auto theft
 Convenience stores
 Parking facilities
 Displacement
Top 25 Most Commonly Stolen
Vehicles in 2001
1995 Honda Civic
1991 Honda Accord
1989 Toyota Camry
1997 Ford F150 Series
1994 Chevrolet C/K 1500 Pickup
1994 Acura Integra
2004 Dodge Ram Pickup
1994 Nissan Sentra
1988 Toyota Pickup
2007 Toyota Corolla
Source: Intellichoice.com 2008