The Roots of Controversy:
Youth Violence and Crime Prevention in the
Canadian Context
Scot Wortley,
Centre of Criminology, University of Toronto
Being Proactive: Supporting Children and Youth Mental Health
and Wellness in Schools and Communities
Toronto, February 16-17, 2012
Presentation Outline
 Briefly review major patterns and trends in youth
violence within the international context.
 Briefly review the research literature on the “root causes”
of youth violence.
 Briefly discuss what “works” with respect to youth crime
prevention and school safety.
PUBLIC OPINION
 The vast majority of Canadians believe that violence has
increased dramatically over the past decade.
 Most feel that violence is particularly high among young
offenders (12-17 years of age).
 Fear of crime is increasing in most major urban Centres in
Canada.
Percent of Toronto Youth Who Have Ever Experienced
Various Types of Victimization
Victimization
Student
Street Youth
Type
Theft Under $50
72.1
77.9
Theft Over $50
35.9
60.1
Property Damage
49.8
57.5
Threatened
66.9
84.7
Weapon Threats
28.0
72.5
Death Threats
14.7
60.3
Assaulted
69.6
81.4
Assault Weapon
16.6
59.5
Minor Sex Assault
25.4
48.3
Major Sex Assault
12.4
40.2
Percent of Toronto Youth Who Have Experienced Various
Types of Victimization in the Past Year
Victimization
Student
Street Youth
Type
Theft Under $50
37.5
63.1
Theft Over $50
15.5
47.6
Property Damage
26.6
44.5
Threatened
39.3
76.1
Weapon Threats
15.5
59.0
Death Threats
8.2
45.3
Assaulted
39.0
68.7
Assault Weapon
7.5
44.3
Minor Sex Assault
13.8
36.1
Major Sex Assault
6.5
28.8
Percent of Students Who Reported Their Worst
Victimization Experience
Reasons for Not Reporting
Victimization Experiences
Percent of Students Who Feel Unsafe When
Engaging in Selected Activities
Disturbing Trends
 Although official rates of violent crime are low by international standards,
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Canadian surveys suggest that most young people will experience some form of
violent victimization.
Most violent victimization incidents are never reported to parents, police or
other adult authority figures.
Recent data suggests that the “reporting rate” for violent victimization has
decreased over the past decade (no snitching).
Violent crime is becoming more concentrated among young people (under 30
years of age).
Violent victimization is increasingly concentrated among young, minority males
from disadvantaged communities.
Disturbing Trends
Violent crime more likely to take place in public spaces.
Violence more likely to involve firearms.
Apparent increase in violent gang activity.
Bullying is a major problem among children.
New forms of violence emerging – virtual bullying.
Increased media coverage of serious crime.
Increased fear of crime.
Increasing economic polarization in major urban centres. The number
and size of “poor” communities is increasing.
 The most economically disadvantaged communities are highly racialized.
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 IS CANADA AT A CROSSROADS?
What Causes Youth Violence?
The Great Academic Debate
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Biological theories
Psychological theories
Child Development theories
Rational Choice theories
Economic/Strain theories
Opportunity theories
Social Learning theories
Labeling theories
Sub-cultural theories
Control/Self-control theories
Conflict perspectives
RISK FACTORS
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Neurological problems/learning disabilities
Early childhood development issues (abuse, neglect, etc.)
Poor parenting/parental supervision/fatherlessness
Mental health issues
Low self-control (need for immediate gratification, etc.)
School failure/difficulties
Absolute deprivation
Relative deprivation
Anger/Frustration/Alienation/Hopelessness
Deviant peers (exposure to pro-crime values)
Violent media (exposure to pro-crime values)
Violent victimization (crime as self-help)
Criminal opportunities (lack of legitimate opportunities)
Labeling (stigmatization, etc.)
The Roots of Youth Violence
The Deep
Roots
The
Surface
Roots
The MidLevel Roots
Youth
Violence
The “Deep” Roots
 Historical Factors (colonialism, slavery, etc.)
 Structural Factors (the economy)
 Social inequality
The “Mid-Level” Roots
 Community design and development
 Community crime and disorder
 Victimization
 Peer influences
 Educational issues
 Family Issues
 Contemporary racism
 Lack of economic opportunity
 Issues within the criminal justice system
The Surface Roots:
Immediate Risk Factors
 Impulsivity
 Low self-esteem
 Lack of empathy
 Social alienation
 Perceptions of social injustice (external attributions of blame)
 Hopelessness/Depression
 Lack of Voice/Cultural isolation
Diverse Pathways to Youth Violence
 Early Onset/Lifetime Persistent
 Late Onset/Adolescent Limited
 Late Onset/Adult Persistent
 Do different types of youth require different prevention
strategies?
The Prevention Controversy
 “Tough on Crime” advocates put an emphasis on detection,
deterrence, denunciation and incapacitation.
 “Soft on Crime” advocates call for an emphasis on
intervention, rehabilitation and prevention.
 There is also a difference between those who advocate for
prevention through the targeting of “at risk” individuals and
those who advocate for prevention through meaningful social
change and community development.
 What strategies should we adopt?
Tough on Crime:
A Double-Edged Sword
POTENTIAL BENEFITS:
Brings criminals to “Justice”; Can rid neighbourhoods of guns,
gangs and violent individuals – at least in the short-term;
POTENTIAL CONSEQUENCES:
Produces alienation and perceptions of social injustice;
Criminalizes youth for minor crimes; Returns “hardened”
criminals to the same disadvantaged communities; COST -Takes money away from education, prevention and
community development strategies.
School Safety Options
 Zero tolerance strategies
 Police in schools
 Use of security guards and police officers
 Metal Detectors, cameras, “sniffer” dogs, etc.
 Academic tutoring/special needs programming
 Extra-curricular programming
 Increased school-community-family interface
 Clearly stated and enforced rules
 School “engagement” policies
 Culture of inclusion – even for disruptive youth
 Dedicated, culturally competent staff
Evaluation Research
 Low quality evaluation (post-test testimonials).
 Medium quality evaluation (pre-test/post-test
design).
 High Quality Evaluation (pre-test/post test/control
group).
 The quality of the evaluation also depends on a number
of other factors including outcome measures, data
collection strategies, sampling decisions, etc.
Obstacles to Program Evaluation
 Resistance/apathy from Funding agencies
 Resistance/apathy from program administrators and
staff.
 Competition for limited financial resources.
 Lack of research funds.
 Problems of researcher access.
 Lack of research expertise.
 Lack of public support for research.
 Is Canada “anti-research”?
Some Promising Results
(from the International Literature)
 Intensive, long-term, multi-dimensional programs are
more effective than short-term, one-dimensional
programs.
 Programs that involve the family (parents, siblings, etc.)
and the community (including pro-social peers) are
more effective than programs that target youth in
isolation.
 Programs must target the needs of specific youth. One
size does not fit all.
 The delivery of youth services must be coordinated.
Key Recommendations
 Governance and Coordination
 A “place-based” approach
 The development of community hubs
 Anti-poverty strategy
 An education strategy
 Anti-racism strategy (including the collection of race-
based statistics)
 A mental health strategy
 Evaluation (as a form of accountability)