Challenges to
Effective Policing
Criminal Justice I
Unit 5
Mr. Concannon Smith
Police
Investigations
Mr. Concannon Smith
Aggressive Investigation Strategies
 Detectives spend much of their time investigating
common crimes (not the pop-culture TV crimes)
 Many crimes are solved by the quality of information
collected by patrol officers initially on the scene
 Detectives can implement more aggressive strategies
 Going undercover is considered to be a dangerous
and controversial activity
 Confidential informants (“CI” for short) may
provide access to information about criminal
activities
Clearance Rates
 Clearance rates refer to the proportion of
cases in which an arrest has been made and a
suspect prosecuted.
 Clearance is the ultimate goal of law
enforcement
 When cases are not cleared they may become
“cold”
 More than eighty percent of large-city police
departments have cold case squads
Guess what the clearance
rate is for murder in this
country?
Graphing Data
 Use the UCR Table 26: “Percent of Offenses Cleared” to
create a graph that compares two regions for a particular
crime.
 You decide what graph would BEST convey the
comparison
 Line
 Bar graph
 On a separate sheet, explain why you chose the type of
graph that you chose and why it is better than the other
choices to represent the data.
 Did you learn anything about the regions you looked at?
Are Too Many Police
Officers White?
Mr. Concannon Smith
Patrol Officers
 Patrol officers are considered
lowest rung (2/3 of officers) but
also most valuable members of
the agency
 The purpose of patrol
1. Deter crime by maintaining a
visible police presence
2. Maintain public order and a
sense of security
3. Provide twenty-four-hour-a-day
services that are not crime related
Patrol Activities
1. Preventive patrol through
maintenance of police presence
within the community (40 percent
of patrol time)
2. Responding to calls for service (25
percent of patrol time)
3. Administrative service, including
paperwork (almost 20 percent of
patrol time)
4. Officer-initiated activities, such as
Sean Collier (died April 18th 2013)
Age 27
contacts with citizens and speaking
with pedestrians(15 percent of
patrol time)
Recruitment Issues
 Recruiting members of minority groups and women
 Historically, the typical American police officer was a white male
 Only within the last thirty years has the issue of minorities and
women on the police force been addressed
 1964 Civil Rights Act guaranteed minorities and women equal
access to jobs in law enforcement
 1972 Equal Employment Opportunity Act set stage for
affirmative action in hiring and promotion
 Many departments have begun to realize the benefits of a
culturally diverse police force, including improved community
relations
 Women have historically faced greater barriers to hiring than
minorities, mostly due to physical fitness tests that discriminate
against women
San Diego…
Problems with Testing?
1. What is the argument of the article about San
Diego? (how can you tell what the argument is?)
2. Pull a quote that supports your claim for the
argument of the article. Explain why you think
this quote reveals the argument of the source.
3. How does the article on racially biased testing
relate to the subject of the article on San
Diego? Explain…
Interrogations and Confessions
Mr. Concannon Smith
Interrogations: what to know
 Interrogations can either be “good” or “bad” (same as a search)
 We are talking about constitutionality (admissible/inadmissible)
 You must be “Mirandized” before being interrogated while in custody
 The 5th amendment protects against coerced confessions (under the
self incrimination clause). Protection against police procedures
 Police CANNOT use physical force to bring about a confession
 Police CAN use psychological tricks to “get at the truth.”
 Examples include
 the “friend ratted on you already” trick
 stretch the bounds of evidence collected at the scene
 The question today is what makes for a BAD interrogation?
A Bad Interrogation
Mr. Concannon Smith
Forensic Investigations:
Benefits &Challenges
Mr. Concannon Smith
Forensic Investigations & DNA
1.
Forensics is the practice of using science and technology to investigate
crimes
2.
Forensics can be used to determine key elements of a crime, such as the
time and cause of death, and the identities of the crime victim and
offender
3.
Many police departments operate or are affiliated with crime
laboratories
4.
Crime Scene forensics

The first law enforcement agent on the scene of a crime has the important
task of protecting trace evidence

Trace evidence can be very small, and even invisible to the naked eye

Shell cases and spent bullet cartridges are collected at a crime scene and
preserved for ballistic examination

A key form of trace evidence that has been collected at crime scenes for
many years is the human fingerprint
The DNA Revolution
 DNA is the genetic code for every living organism
 DNA has supplanted fingerprinting as the most important piece
of forensic evidence
 No two people, except for identical twins, have the same DNA
 A match can exclude a suspect, or identify one conclusively at
the odds of 30 billion to 1.
DNA in Action
 The use of DNA often increases the chance that a crime will be solved
 A “COLD HIT” occurs when law enforcement finds a suspect out of
nowhere by comparing DNA at a crime scene to information stored in a
database
 The National Combined DNA Index System (CODIS) is the largest and
most important DNA database in the U.S.
 CODIS is maintained by the FBI and stores the DNA profiles of
offenders who have been convicted of various crimes
Rise of Fingerprinting
Fingerprints
What are fingerprints?

Friction ridge skin pattern

Found on fingers, palms, toes,
soles of feet.
Composed of ridges (hills)
and furrows (valleys)

Black = Ridges
White = Valleys
Fingerprints
What are fingerprints?



Develop in early embryonic
development.
Pattern based on genetics,
detail somewhat random
Identical twins do not have
identical fingerprints
Fingerprints
How are fingerprints analyzed?
Categorized by pattern and minutiae
Fingerprints
How are fingerprints analyzed?
Patterns
Arch
Loop
Whorl
Fingerprints
How are fingerprints analyzed?
Minutiae
Bifurcation
Dot
Ridge Ending
Island
Fingerprints
Computer software
compares the location
of these minutiae.
Fingerprints
Modern Fingerprint Analysis

Computer system stores patterns and minutiae
of prints

AFIS: automated
fingerprint identification
system
Forensic Science Lab Activity
Warning: Some material in this presentation and related
videos may be too graphic for some people.
T. Trimpe 2006 http://sciencespot.net/
BPA= Bloodstain Pattern Analysis
What can you tell from analysis of a blood spatter?
1. Type and velocity of weapon
2. Number of blows
3. Handedness of assailant (right or left-handed)
4. Position and movements of the victim and assailant
5. Which wounds were inflicted first
6. Type of injuries
7. How long ago the crime was committed
8. Whether death was immediate or delayed
Finding Blood
Light Source
Investigators will first examine the crime
scene to look for areas that may contain
blood. They may use a high-intensity light or
UV lights to help them find traces of blood
Blood Reagent Tests
These tests, referred to as presumptive tests, are used to
detect blood based upon the properties of hemoglobin
Examples:
1. Phenolphthalein is a chemical that is usually referred to
as the Kastle-Meyer test and produces a pink color when
it reacts with hemoglobin.
2. HemaStix is a strip that has been coated with
tetramethylbenzidine (TMB) and will produce a green or
blue-green color
BPA Terms
 Spatter: Bloodstains created from the application of force to the area
where the blood originated.
 Origin/Source: The place from where the blood spatter came from or
originated.
 Angle of Impact: The angle at which a blood droplet strikes a surface.
• Parent Drop: The droplet from which a
satellite spatter originates.
• Satellite Spatters: Small drops of blood
that break of from the parent spatter
when the blood droplet hits a surface.
• Spines: The pointed edges of a stain that
radiate out from the spatter; can help
determine direction
Satellite Spatters
Spines
Parent Drop
Types of Patterns
•
Passive Bloodstains
•
Patterns created from the force of gravity
•
Drop, series of drops, flow patterns, blood pools, etc.
• Projected Bloodstains
• Patterns that occur when a force is applied to the
source of the blood
• Includes low, medium, or high impact spatters, castoff, arterial spurting, expiratory blood blown out of
the nose, mouth, or wound.
• Transfer or Contact Bloodstains
• These patterns are created when a wet, bloody object
comes in contact with a target surface; may be used to
identify an object or body part.
• A wipe pattern is created from an object moving
through a bloodstain, while a swipe pattern is created
from an object leaving a bloodstain.
Passive Stains
Passive Stain
Projected Stain
Projected Stain
Contact/Transfer Stain
Blood Spatter Labs
• You will be creating sample drop patterns using single drops and
multiple drops. We will also investigate the effect of motion and the
angle of impact on blood spatter.
• This can be messy! Be very careful to keep the blood on the paper
and not on yourself, the table, or floor.
• Hold you hand as steady as possible when making the drops.
Brace your wrist against the meter stick to help you.
• Get your materials from your teacher – paper, black marker, meter
stick, goggles, and a bottle of blood.
If you make a mess, clean it up immediately!
Lab 1: Single Droplets
• Label two pieces of paper as shown below.
Single Drops
Single Drops
Keep your drops
in the correct area
of the paper.
25
50
75
100
1.
Hold the dropper bottle upside down so that the end of it is 25 cm from the
paper. GENTLY squeeze the bottle so that ONE drop of blood is released and
lands in the correct location on your paper. It should NOT hit the meter-stick.
2.
Repeat TWO more times at this height for a total of three drops.
3.
Continue making drops of blood on your paper, but put the drop in a different
area of the paper and change the height each time.
4.
When you are done, analyze your results and answer the questions on your
worksheet.
Make a mistake? Use a paper towel to wipe it off your paper!
Lab 2: Multiple Droplets
• Label 4 separate pieces of paper as shown below.
Multiple Drops
Keep your drops
in the correct area
of the paper.
25
50
75
100
1.
To do the lab, hold the dropper so that the end of it is 25 cm from the paper.
GENTLY squeeze the bottle so that ONE drop of blood is released and lands
in the correct location on your paper. The drop should NOT hit the meterstick.
2.
Without moving your hand, release ONE more drop onto the first drop at that
height. If you make a mistake, wipe it off with a paper towel and try it again.
3.
Continue making drops of blood on your paper so you have three sets for each
height.
4.
When you are done, analyze your results and answer the questions on your
worksheet. Clean up your area and put away your materials before you leave
class.
Lab 3: Motion Droplets
• During this lab, you will see how motion affects the size and shape of the
droplets and spines. You will need a long piece of paper (2-3 meters in length) and
tape to secure it to the floor.
1.
To do the lab, you will need to hold the dropper bottle upside down so that
your hand is out and away from your body (waist level), but is still over the
paper.
2.
Start off walking at a SLOW WALKING RATE from one end to the other
and GENTLY squeeze the bottle as you walk so that blood is released ONE
DROP at a time. Be sure that all the drops land on your paper strip.
3.
Repeat this procedure using a NORMAL WALKING RATE and a FAST
WALKING RATE.
Miss the paper? Use a paper
towel to wipe it off the floor!
Walking Direction
• When you are done, analyze your results and answer the questions on your
worksheet. Clean up your area and put away your materials before you leave class.
Lab 4: Angle of Impact
• You will be creating sample drop patterns created by droplets landing at
different angles from the same height.
1.
Label five pieces of copy paper with your names and then indicate the angle
for each droplet - 15o, 30o, 45o, 60o, or 75o.
2.
Place the first piece of paper on the clip board and align the clipboard with
the 15o line. Hold the bottle of blood at a height of 50 centimeters from the
top of the table.
3.
GENTLY squeeze the bottle so that ONE drop of blood is released and lands
on the paper. Repeat two more times at this angle.
4.
Continue testing by dropping blood from a height of 50 centimeters at each
of the other angles.
• When you are done, answer the questions
on your worksheet. Clean up your area and
put away your materials before you leave
class.
Clipboard &
Paper
Height of
50 cm
Angle
Guide
Which of the three blood droplets shown would have been
created by a wound in the lower part of the leg? Explain.
If you have a blood droplet as shown at left, what does it tell you?
Explain.
If you find a trail of blood with droplets that are round and close together, what
could this mean?
Justice Backlogged
Mr. Concannon Smith
What is the Backlog?
 Every two minutes, someone is sexually assaulted in the
United States.
 With sexual assault, the body is a part of the crime scene.
 When reported, a doctor or nurse will photograph, swab and
conduct an exhaustive examination of the victim’s entire
body for DNA evidence left behind by the attacker (often
invasive)
 Process takes four to six hours to complete.
 That evidence is collected and preserved in a sexual assault
evidence kit, commonly referred to as a rape kit.
 Thousands of kits remain untested, sitting in evidence
Why the Backlog Exists
1. Lack of resources: it costs between $500 and $1,500
to test one rape kit.
Crime lab resources: the demand for DNA testing has
grown dramatically.
 In addition to rape kit evidence, crime labs receive
DNA samples from thousands of other cases
Police resources. Many kits never make it to a crime
lab in the first place and instead spend years—even
decades—sitting untested in police storage facilities.
 These agencies further lack resources and staffing
to investigate and follow up on leads resulting
from rape kit testing.
Why the Backlog Exists
2. Detective Discretion: In the majority of jurisdictions, the
decision whether to send a rape kit for testing rests solely within
the discretion of the officer assigned to the case
3. Prioritization Problem: Law enforcement agencies often fail to
dedicate the time and resources that other crimes receive to
sexual assault cases. Victim blaming more than any other crime.
4. Case Progress Problem: Due to a lack of understanding about
how trauma can affect a survivor of rape, officers often
misinterpret survivors’ reactions and choices in the immediate
aftermath of the assault as being “uncooperative” or “not
credible.”
5. Identity of the Perp.: Many jurisdictions only test kits in cases
where the assailant is unknown in order to attempt to identify a
suspect through DNA evidence. If all= link unsolved crimes to a
serial offender
UPDATE 2015: Houston, TX
VP Biden backs $41 million fund to reduce
rape-kit testing backlog…
“Us v. Them” Mentality
Police Subculture
Mr. Concannon Smith
Police Subculture
 Values and perceptions shared by members of a police department,
which are shaped by unique existence of the police officer
 Mistrust of the media and civilians has been identified as one of the
hallmarks of a police subculture
 The core values of police subculture
 Socialization of a rookie police officer begins on the first day of
the job through learning of values and rules of police work
1.
Attending a police academy
2.
Working with a senior officer
3.
Making an initial felony arrest
4.
Using force to make an arrest for the first time
5.
Using or witnessing deadly force for the first time
6.
Witnessing major traumatic events for the first time
The “Blue Curtain”
 A “blue wall of silence” separates police from the civilians they protect.
Cynicism
 cynicism |ˈsinəˌsizəm|
 an inclination to believe that people are motivated
purely by self-interest; skepticism: public cynicism
about politics.
 an inclination to question whether something will
happen or whether it is worthwhile; pessimism:
cynicism about the future.
 ( Cynicism )a school of ancient Greek philosophers,
the Cynics.
Police Cynicism
 Characterized by rejection of the ideals of truth and justice
 Cynical police officers lose respect for the law and instead
adhere to the values of the police subculture which can lead to
increases in police misconduct, corruption, and brutality
 Exacerbated by feelings of helplessness
Dangers and Stress
Danger
 There is no such thing as a
routine traffic stop
 Police officers face threats of
physical harm daily
 Police work ranks among the
ten most dangerous jobs in the
U.S.
Stress
 Measurable stressful
 Research has found that
police work can lead to:
high blood pressure, heart
problems, post-traumatic
stress disorder, and even
suicide
 Social isolation associated
with police work can lead
to high rates of divorce
Authority and the
Use of Force
Mr. Concannon Smith
Symbols of Police Authority
1. Uniform
2. Badge
3. Tool kit:
 Nightstick
 Firearm
 Bracelets
 Pepper spray
 Etc.
“Misuse” of Force
 In general, use of force by law enforcement personnel is very rare
 Police officers are often justified in using force to protect themselves or
other citizens
Average Use of Force
(all people who came in contact with police 2010)
1.4%
Force Used or
Threatened
No Force Used
98.6%
Excessive Force?
Felt Exessive Force
Was Used Against
Them
26%
74%
No Complaint
Types of Force
Non-lethal Force
 Regulated by the
concept of
“reasonable” force
 When a “reasonable
person” deems that
force was necessary
 How do you think the
media influences this?
Lethal Force
 Force that an objective
police officer realizes
will place the subject
in direct threat of
serious injury
 May result in death
SCOTUS Decisions
Tenn. v. Garner (1985)
 set limits for the use of
deadly force that can be
applied to a fleeing felon
Graham v. Conner (1989)
 expanded the argument
for a reasonable use of
deadly force “as needed”
Tennessee v. Garner
Graham v. Connor
Training for the “Real Thing”
Mr. Concannon Smith
VirTra: Virtual Training
Pros
Cons