From transistor to Integrated Circuits
of today – the Roadmap
József Gyulai
Professor Emeritus
Chair Electronic Devices, BME-BUTE,
Res. Centre for Natural Sci., Inst. Tech. Phys.& Matl. Sci.
As a materials scientist, I’m biased: most influential
invention of the 20th century was the transistor, and its
application in integrated circuits
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MOS patent of Lilienfeld (as
early as 1925!), functioning
product: Sah and Atalla (in
1960)
Mataré (1944)
Bardeen-Brattain, point
contact (1949),
Shockley – pnp (1950, 1951)
Integrated circuit, Kilby
(1959),
Noyce (1961)
CCD, Boyle, Smith (1969)
Nobel prizes – near microelectronics
J. Bardeen, W.H. Brattain, W. Shockley, transistor
(1956)
L. Esaki, I. Giaever, B.D. Josephson, application of
tunneling (1973)
K. von Klitzing, quantum Hall-effect (1985)
E. Ruska electron microscope, G. Binnig, H. Rohrer
tunnel microscope (1986)
Z.I. Alferov, semiconductor laser, H. Kroemer, UHF
transistor, optics, J. S. Kilby, integrated circuit
(2000)
W.S. Boyle, G.E. Smith, CCD optics, Charles K. Kao,
optical fiber (2009)
A. Geim, K. Novoselov, graphene (2010)
Geim was awarded in 2000 with shared IgNobel
prize IgNobel: “first make people laugh, then
make them think”: diamagnetic levitation
1T- 10T field is
enough for
levitation of living
bodies
As most beautiful invention, I consider the laser,
because only theories existed (population inversion)
• Transistor had a predecessor, the vacuum radio tube,
• However, many were thinking whether the „vacuum space”
among crystalline atoms behaves similarly – the basis of today’s
”electronic materials science”...
• On a vision drawing of mine from the 1970-s, processes of the
unipolar transistor recall a car race in a stalactite cave;
– A – a free flying „ballistic” electron;
– B – electron deflected by defects, which heat the crystal
Metallization
S – source
G – gate
D – drain, in the back,
invisible
Basic processes in production of monolithic
integrated circuits
• Sequence of few hundred steps of about
ten different physical, chemical processes
• "Front end" and "Back end"
• Thin film forming,
• Thin film removing,
• Structuring processes
“Front end” processes
• Thin film forming processes
– Oxidation, thermal
– Ion implantation
– Film forming
• physical,
• chemical (Chemical Vapor Deposition, CVD)
– Diffusion
• Thin film removing processes, etching
– Wet chemical
– Gas phase – plasma enhanced
– Special etching techniques
• Lateral structuring processes
– Photolithography UV, DUV, EUV
– Electron-, ion beam lithography
Miniaturization
• Key to success of microelectronics was that “scale down”:
works: transistor with shrunk dimensions has the same
characteristics except for heat dissipation...
• Small sizes are important not only for portability, small
power consumption, but
• reliability is equally important characteristics which
improves with amount of intelligence stacked into the
device – works internally and does not ask questions
which often lead to mistakes.
• A good figure of merit is one mistake for 1010 steps, which
with added redundant organization can still be improved.
”Moore’s Law”
• “Doubling the number of elements on the chip
yearly”... “may work till end of the seventies…”
– says Gordon Moore (Electronics, 38(8), apr.19,1965)
• We may say that this is a generic law, which is
more of a law in economy than of technology –
production only satisfies market demands!
• International Technology Roadmap for
Semiconductors, ITRS: http://public.itrs.net/
a four-yearly study with biannual corrections
An example from ITRS: Difficult technology tasks, 2011:
black “known by industry”, Yellow “needs development” ,
white “no known solution”, “red brick wall”
– to date always found solution...
(PROCESS INTEGRATION, DEVICES, AND STRUCTURES
Success of ITRS on 2010 issue,
http://public.itrs.net/
How long will this work?
Another, recent example from ITRS:
Difficult technology tasks, 2013:
(Lithography challenges)
Moore’s Law today
"Der Mohr hat seine Arbeit getan, der Mohr kann gehen."
(F. Schiller: Fiesco; or, the Genoese Conspiracy)
“The Moor has done his work—the Moor may go”
May he go, really?
• Today, device dimensions
smaller than a virus
• Scale down may work till 2020,
but question goes not only for
memories and processor, but
for telecommunication, etc.,
too.
• Silicon has a curse: being an
indirect semiconductor, thus,
laser action cannot be made
on usual ways…
•
Nanocrystals, however, can
produce coherent light
Storage Class Memory
MLC Multi/level Cell, STT Spin-transfer torque... PC Phase change...
SCM: Storage Class Memory
Non-volatile memory forecast
• Going 3D, i.e., to stacked
structures, NAND and NOR
Flash memory, scaling down
to 12 nm half-pitch looks
straightforward till 2028
• Research is needed for
magnetic/spin torque and for
resistive devices
• Reliability issue is difficult
because of complex
structure: failure mechanisms
are very different for
transistors, for interconnects,
etc. May lead e.g., to need of
optical or carbon based
interconnects
“Breakthrough“ techniques in lithography
Maskless lithography (ML2)
• nano imprint, only 1:1 transfer
• Directed self-assembly – will it satisfy quality conditions?
Thermal noise works against zero defect solutions
Hot areas in our field
• Computer in telecommunication
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Mobile devices
Wear-on devices
Ambience intelligence (intelligent car, intelligent “mote”)
Acoustic devices
• “Revolution” of sensors and coupled actuators
– Can be biomaterial, too…
– Automation of transport
• Micro- és nanotechnology
– „Energy harvesting”
• “Revolution” of lighting
– Light emitting diode (LED), Organic LED
• Priorities in EU:
– „Energy efficient buildings”,
– „Green car”,
– „Factory of the future”
ITRS Roadmap 2013 Conclusions
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“First of all, the aggressive bi-annual introduction of new semiconductor
technologies allowed ICs, consisting of even hundreds of million of
transistors, to be produced cost effectively. This made it possible to
integrate extremely complex systems on a single die or in a single package
at very attractive prices. Furthermore, progress in packaging technology
enabled the placement of multiple dies within a single package. These
categories of devices are defined as system on chip (SOC) and system in
package (SIP).
Second, manufacturers of integrated circuits offering foundry services were
able to provide, once again, the “New ASICs” at very attractive costs. This
led to the emergence of a very profitable business for design “only” houses,
i.e., companies that do not manufacture ICs themselves, but produce the
designs that are manufactured elsewhere.
Third, development of sophisticated equipment for advanced integrated
circuits proliferated to adjacent technology fields and by so doing the
realization of flat panel displays (FPD), MEMS sensors, radios and
passives, etc., was made possible at reasonable costs. Under these
conditions system integrators were once again in the position to fully control
system design and product integration. “
European Conclusions
• European industry and additional financing from tax
payers’ money through the European Union (EU)
• Way of operation of the European industry doesn’t differ
much from ones in other parts of the world
• EU operates organization (Directorate General, DG) to
convey funding mostly on open channels with an
application, preview, funding, judged by deliverables
• I, personally, am a member of the so-called Nano,
Materials and Biotech Program Committee (NMBP)
belonging to the group funding applied research and
innovation – the committee to decide for topics and
allocated funding for the years to come. No influence on
review process and bound by succession of applications
based on qualification by reviewers.
• The Framework Programs close and a new application
system, the Horizon 2020 starts.
 Top quality science is a base of future technologies, modern
working places and of societal well-being.
 Europe’s best interest to support good scientists, keep them here
and attract others to Europe
 Ensure best infrastructures for such a work
 Strategic investments support present day innovation (Factory of the
Future, micro- and nanoelectronics, information and communication
technology, ICT, industrial biotechnology, space research)
 Europe has to attract more private investments into innovation.
 Europe needs more innovative SMEs to enhance number of working
places
 Innovation should proceed in problems important for society (E.g.:
climate change, problems of environment, energy supply, transport)
 Look for breakthrough, multidisciplinary solutions
 Test solutions, then implement
+ joint programmes of Member states
+ H2020 contest for prizes
+ ….
TRL: Technology readiness level
Basic research:
…Experimental and/or theoretical activity aiming at gaining new
information on basic properties of phenomena, observable facts
without the goal of applications…
Applied research:
… original research aiming at practical application….
Experimental development:
…activity based on research and practical experience aiming at
preparation of new materials, products, structures, systems or
new improved services
TRL has many stages ranging from observation of basic principles
to proven controlled quality production stage.
RIA: Research and Innovation Action
Description: Action primarily consisting of
activities aiming to establish new knowledge
and/or to explore the feasibility of a new or
improved technology, product, process,
service or solution. For this purpose they may
include basic and applied research,
technology development and integration,
testing and validation on a small-scale
prototype in a laboratory or simulated
environment.
TRL 1-5-(6)
IA: Innovation Actions
Description: Action primarily consisting of
activities directly aiming at producing plans
and arrangements or designs for new, altered
or improved products, processes or services.
For this purpose they may include
prototyping, testing, demonstrating, piloting,
large-scale product validation and market
replication.
Projects may include limited research and
development activities.
TRL (3-4)-5-9
CSA: Coordination and support actions
Description: Actions consisting primarily of
accompanying measures such as
standardisation, dissemination, awarenessraising and communication, networking,
coordination or support services, policy
dialogues and mutual learning exercises and
studies, including design studies for new
infrastructure and may also include
complementary activities of strategic
planning, networking and coordination
between programmes in different countries.
TRL nem releváns
SME (Small and Medium Enterprizes) instrument
Description: The SME instrument is targeted
at all types of innovative SMEs showing a
strong ambition to develop, grow and
internationalise. It provides staged support
covering the whole innovation cycle in three
phases complemented by a mentoring and
coaching service. Transition from one phase
to the next will be seamless provided the SME
project proves to be worth further support in
a further evaluation. Each phase is open to
new entrants.
SME 1. megvalósíthatósági tanulmány – fix
50.000 EUR támogatás
SME 2. innovációs projektek akár 1.5MEUR
70-100% támogatási arány
Bármely TRL szinten
https://ec.europa.eu/research/participants/portal/desktop/en/home.html
My field - Ion implantation – a key technique
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Patented by Shockley in 1957 – a bit of
naïve form, but the restoration of defects
with heat trsatment was included!
This early patent became a fortune
globally: when the need for the technique
became general, the patent was worn out
(17 years passed)...
The Mayer group was a believer of ion
implantation – first results proving this
were achieved in years 1974-76
It was not consensus, in 1970, I’ve argued
for implantation against an Intel engineer,
who said “maybe will work to amorphize
regions between devices for electric
insulation”
I’m talking on three tricks found by us
within the Caltech-KFKI exchange
research program, financed by NSF,
which definitely contributed to fulfillment of
Moore’s Law
”Moore’s Law” in my past
• My being “best time, best place” postdoc stay at Caltech (196970) was preceded just by one year, when Intel (Moore, Noyce,
Deal, Grove, Vadasz...) left Fairchild – the company supplying the
forming Mayer group, including me, with project ideas (resulting
11 papers with my co-authorship within one year)
• To my best knowledge, Intel’s start-up success was a simple trick:
to line inner surface of the quartz tubes with polysilicon enabling to
trap killer impurities, e.g., sodium, from heater elements of the
furnace.
• Thus, they were first to produce on a single chip
– neighboring enhancement and depletion pairs of transistors, i.e., logic
gates
– This success might have been the cause that the young Intel refused
to apply ion implantation.
– In 1976, when a Caltech student of ours R.D. Pashley was hired by
Intel, the strategy has changed. Dick Pashley – possibly my student
with the highest career – invented the “flash memory”, recently in
pension as Intel Vice-CEO...“
Three most important results of Caltech-KFKI Program, NSF, 1974-80
1.
2.
3.
Two finding has led the silicon crystal industry of the whole world to abandon
mass growing and selling (111)-oriented silicon and switch to (100)-oriented
silicon
1.
Thermal oxide grows with better quality on (100) – a result of Intel Co. might
be more widely known, but the fact that
2.
on (100)-oriented silicon implantation defects also regrow with better quality is
of equal importance – an idea of our Caltech-KFKI group on a remarkable
summer eve of 1974 and the overnight experiment performed by myself.
This result, in combination with the idea of so-called “pre-amorphisation
implant”,PAI, rendered implantation from physicists’ idea to production technology:
pre-amorphization has aimed at two goals
1.
it helps to avoid a basic uncertainty of pn-junction depth (xj) because no
channeling of ions by crystal atoms can occur,
2.
additionally, it makes use of the idea that thermal regrowth from a fully
amorphous state leads to more perfect lattice than the one from a defected
crystal.
Accordingly, the proposed process was to ‘self-amorphize’ (with Si or Ge ions) the
surface of the silicon wafer. Step two, implant the desired species into this
amorphous layer. Step three, a low-temperature heat treatment is sufficient to
restore good quality crystalline state, especially on (100) silicon, together with little
or no diffusion of the implanted species brought simultaneously to lattice sites,
which is needed for electrical activity.1975; Basic experiments were performed by
my talented colleague, our first exchange person, László Csepregi.
BME Course
Caltech-Cornell-KFKI times (1974-86)
• Pre-amorphization of SOS interface
resulted in great improvement of
radiation hard SOI circuits at
Hughes, a work by SS. Lau,
SE.Matteson, P.Revesz, Jim Mayer,
J.Gyulai. J. Roth and TW. Sigmon
• The Caltech-KFKI exchange
program was probably the first
between the two countries, which
lasted till Afghanistan invasion by
the Soviets in 1978.
• After that, non-governmental
sources were found and used to
keep up the successful cooperation
for a decade longer.
Methods in nanotechnology
• Scanning probes, also for moving
individual atoms – lab technique
Nanostructuring with focused ion beams, FIB, and nano CVD
(LEO gym., MFA-ban)
Our best: 20nm pore
Nanoelectronics
• Scale down cannot go ‘ad
infinitum’, new solutions are
needed (<14 nm node):
• Smart cut© - “peel” bulk
semiconductor materials, like
were mica, to make nearly
2D substrates, for SOI
wafers...
• New materials for channel,
higher mobility than that of
Si:
– Six Ge1-x
– InGaAs (L.Czornomaz:
Comp.
Semicond, 1/2014, 32)
– Graphene? Lithography
solutions by the Biró group
Worries of nanoelectronics
• New solutions because of
scale down limitations:
– Instead of electron
conduction, other binary
systems, e.g., spin, ~tronics
(D. Jamieson, Melbourne)
– Optical data transport on
chip instead of metallization
– inevitable
– Optics: plasmonics?
– Analog vs digital systems
– So-called biomimetic
solutions
• In my view, only solutions will
‘make it’ which fit into today’s
foundries, albeit with slight
modifications
Insulator
28Si
Substrate
Quantumcomputer solutions
“Qubit” denotes entangled
particles
E.g., seven qubit of 5 fluorine and
2 carbon can factorize 15:
3٠ׁ5=15
Radio waves trigger and NMR
reads out the result
2012: Superconductiong
stabilization (10 μs) of qubit using
silicon technology!
IBM Research
Dicarbonylcyclopenta
dienyl
(perfluorobutadien-2yl) iron
(C11H5F5O2Fe )
(ill.
pentafluorobutadienyl
cyclopentadienyldicar
bonyl-iron complex)
Our road to carbon nanotubes, CNT
by chance, different materials were bombarded with
210 MeV-es ions, Ne, Kr, Xe
Reliability
(Swiss Fed. Labs for Matls Testing and Res.)
• Care for non/scaling physical processes
– Mass and heat diffusion, electrical conductivity,
reaction kinetics, corrosion processes, etc.,
• Fatigue, friction, repair mechanisms are
different in molecular and atomic scale
• Redundancy is a way out, especially, when
quantum physics comes into play
• Requires research, modeling
• Robust solutions are needed
More Moore: Ultra Shallow Junctions
• Weakness of PAI: implantation defects have ‘forward
peaking’ character. I.e., near the surface vacancy-type,
deeper interstitial-type defects dominate, thus perfect
recombination is difficult.
• Idea of PAI, with multiple energy was expected to deliver
missing interstitials where vacancies dominate.
However, interstitials of End-of-Range, EOR, defects
cannot reach V-rich regions because of different
diffusion lengths,
• Applied strategies today:
– sub-keV boron implant – channeling is almost fully missing,
– Molecular ion implant to make cascades overlap, thus better
amorphization (decaborane)
– PAI, maybe combined with BF2+ molecular ion, Figure courtesy of M.I. Current
– ”Cocktail” implant: non-doping, but diffusion barrier ions (N,F), in
front of EOR to prevent I-outdiffusion
43
Vision
• 20th century almost erased border
between physics and chemistry,
• In the 21st, I’m expecting this to happen
towards biology
• Arsenal of mathematics is improving
simultaneously allowing ‘quasi-exact’
solutions to problems
Worries of nanotechnology, 2
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Quality control
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Analogue for nanotechnology is still beyond horizon
–
•
Does an ‘accelerated evolution’ exist enabling quality control for
nanotechnology?
Quality control accepted and satisfactory, e.g., to traditional pharmaceutical
industry cannot be applied in production of a quantum computer
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•
Today’s goal: so-called Total Quality Management, TQM,
In biological systems evolution serves as “quality control”:
1. self-reproduction,
2. Random mutations (the ‘almost braque’),
3. Quality improves as result of natural selection
In regular medicine, very low concentration of non-sensitized, inactive molecules
makes no harm,
in nanotechnology, we not only need all molecules functional, but
their spatial position is equally essential: they must be produced at positions to
be ‘addressable’
Reliability issue is difficult: reliability in nanoelectronics is based on same in
microelectronics, but what if we are down at sizes of a biomulecule? Does
a single virus possess ‘reliability’?
Engineers’ thinking in biology
- less antropomorphism
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•
•
•
•
•
E.g., case of stress protein,
formed in bone marrow
Swims or is drifted?
Finds a damaged protein
molecule, how?
Detects damage, minuscule
deformations, wrong aminoacid sequences; measures like
an AFM in liquid?
Then selects a protein part of
its own with correct acid
sequence, and substitutes the
wrong one in the molecule
important for the body
Energetics is also a miracle as
only atomic forces can play
• I’m expecting understanding
of all these on physical,
mathematical models;
• this would add to biology of
the 21st century
Nanoengine, growth of flagellum of bacteria
‘Escherichia Coli’
• Courtesy of Professors K. Namba (Osaka) and F.
Vonderviszt (Univ. Pannonia, Veszprem, Hungary)
•
•
•
•
•
First the bearing is formed,
Then a drill bit drills through the membrane of the cell
Formation of a shaft is coming
Followed by the growth of the flagellum
A five finger form cover takes care that valuable
plasma material should not go wasted in the liquid.
• If problem, automatic restart follows
Animation of flagellar growth (based on ten
thousands of TEM pictures)
Keiichi Namba and Ferenc Vonderviszt (VE)
An area fitting our capabilities:
Micro-Electromechanical Systems, MEMS
• Using IC techniques to form non-IC structures
• Demands on lithography is less stringent –
micron size and below satisfactory
• Enabled by development of specific etching
techniques
– Chemical, etch rate depending on dopant, crystalline
orientation
– Ion etch (DEEP-RIE: deep reactive ion etch, etc.)
– Combined with e-beam lithography
• Shown will be early results in our institute, other
talks (P. Furjes) will deal with present status
“Micro hot plate" – pellistor type gas sensor, MFA
Heatable 200x200 μm2, Si platelet hanging over a cave formed by
etching, suspended by four leads, 2 for current, 2 for Pt-thermometer
Catalytic material is placed upon to oxidize organic gas
molecules at hot plate temperature, “Artificial nose”
Heater
implanted
conductor
meander
Thermometer
Pt meander
RESEARCH INSTITUTE FOR TECHNICAL PHYSICS AND MATERIALS SCIENCE -MFA, BUDAPEST
SENSOR AND MICROTECHNOLOGY LABORATORY
www.mfa.kfki.hu/laboratories/sensorics
Mass flow controller
Tactile sensor
Heater
Thermometer
Nanogas project using carbon nanotubes,
CNT
•
CNT must have defects, e.g.,
implantation defects
Demo chemicals
– water,
– acetone,
– ethylalcohol,
– chloroform,
– trichloretilene
„Artificial nose"
Investigation of wines of different wineries
KF: Blaufrank, different years,
Cabernet sauvignon of two wineries, and a
Lindenblatter of Tokaj
The future of sensorics and actuators
• All events, processes in science reads about ‘effects’ let
it be physical, chemical, biological, etc.
• Any system subjected to external effect, influence (light,
heat, bouncing body, chemical) will change its state
which can be detected and characterized.
• If we read this measurement backwards, can we
conclude on character of the primary state on base at
this second state?
• We denote the external influence as a “sensor”, if only
minute, negligible changes are caused by it on the
original state.
• If this change is undetectable with today’s techniques,
we even quote the sensor as ‘non-destructive’...
„Ceterum censeo...”:
•
Science and technology of today can only have one
mission and maybe two main directions –
corresponding somehow to preservation of self and
of the race:
1. Search ways, modes whether, and if positive, how
can 7 - 10 billion human live on Earth in kind of
symbiosis with other forms of life?…
2. Extension of life span of individuals attracts great
interest – causing unheard-of development of
biological science
If ‘recipes’ become known, will society absorb
them and put into action in time?
• To make that disciplined life tolerable, arts,
literature, or for believers, religion would help …
Buckminster Fuller, architect and one of Club of
Rome founders:
Operating Manual for Spaceship Earth - (1969)
“…One outstandingly
important fact regarding
Spaceship Earth, and
that is that no instruction
book came with it…„
Biosphere, Montreal, 1967
Recyling economy –
when?
Fullerens
Different types of scientists:
talented, diligent, fortunate
•
•
Either pair of properties may result in success in science; and all of them
have properties that can be learned or is useful to be learned
Supplement to talent:
– Examine all results, explanation from its back side, inverse; you may find nonconventional jewel, but you may face a difficult life.
– Dine together with your competitors – give and get information
– Look out for unexpected chances…
•
Supplement to diligence:
– Discuss and watch on conferences – it’s almost a substitution of literature
studies; who chooses his/hers topic after literature, is late by at least half a
year
– Be in good terms with your more modern students
– You should be the one who authors monograph of your suject (with super coauthors?)
– Build your own database for words, notions you use to forget.
•
Supplement to fortune:
– Remember, make note of names, of consorts, kids of your colleagues – keep
accessible notes even in later years
– Build contacts, especially, human ethical parts.
– Don’t show a greedy face!
– Be attentive, polite, but self-conscious
Thank you for your attention