(CHAPTER – 23 / SECTION -1)
The Hispanics, like some other minority groups, experienced discrimination for many years. However, it was after WWII and the treatment they received brought many of the people to stand up and demand change.
During the 1960’s the Latino population grows from 3 million to 9 million people. In 2009 a census report stated that 60% of the US population growth will come from the Latino population. In 2050 the Hispanic population will become the majority ethnic group in the US.
The
(UFW) is a labor union that evolved in 1966 with
as the president and
Dolares Huerta as vice president.
This union changed from a workers' rights organization that helped workers get unemployment insurance to that of a union of farm workers almost overnight
The union publicly adopted the principles of non-violence championed by Mahatma Gandhi and Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.
Chávez used fasts both as means of drawing public attention to the union's cause and to assert control over an unruly union.

However, it also resorted to both sabotage and violence, including such things as:

Nail "stars" scattered over roadways and throughout crops to flatten tires, two-by-fours straddled off either side of vehicles

Running between rows of grapes destroying the crops, mobs blocking roads and crop rows,

Attacking people in their vehicles and other such violence typical of the 1930's union fights.
These measures were used not only against large corporate growers in California, but also against small "mom & pop" family farmers with less than 10 acres.
The union was poised to launch its next major campaign in the
California grape fields in 1965 when the Mexican American and Filipino grape workers went on strike for higher wages.
The workers held out and won higher wage concessions .
The UFW also used strikes, lawsuits and boycotts of the retail grocery industry. In 1968 neither the boycott nor the strike was working. Chávez used an unusual tactic to encourage the workers.
He went on a hunger strike to support striking farm workers .
Presidential candidate, Robert Kennedy, met a thin and frail
Chávez and committed to helping him. Along with T.V. images the boycott gained new momentum when some 17 million Americans stopped buying grapes.
None

The
is the part of the American
Civil Rights Movement that sought political empowerment and social inclusion for Mexican Americans.
The Chicano Movement encompassed all political, social, and cultural movements by Mexican Americans.
The political movements included the struggle for the restoration of Spanish-era land grants to their original owners in New Mexico, to desegregate schools, for the election and appointment of
Mexican-American governmental officials, against police brutality, and for the bargaining rights of agricultural laborers.
Socially , the Chicano Movement addressed negative stereotyping and discrimination of Mexicans in mass media and the American consciousness through the works of literary and visual art that validated the Mexican ethnicity and culture pride.
During the Mexican Revolution, large numbers of Mexicans fled the violence and instability of their homeland to settle in the
United States, where they performed menial labor, especially in agriculture, as a means of survival.
______________________________________________________
The growth of Hispanic Americans entering public schools was growing quickly. Many of the schools did not offer bilingual education.
In Crystal City, TX, 85% of the students were Hispanic. In the fall of 1969 students staged a walkout to end discrimination.

The students stayed out of school until January of 1970 when the
Crystal School Board agreed to a series of reforms.
These various groups fought for classes taught in Spanish, smaller classes, more Chicano teachers and administrators, programs to reduce the dropout rate and programs in Latino studies.
:
which provided funds for schools to develop bilingual and cultural heritage programs for non-English-speaking children.
During the activism of the 1960s, the Chicano Mexicano people came to the realization that the mainstream political mechanism had only served to abuse and manipulate them.
After much soul searching, they finally concluded that the only solution to political, social and economic conditions was to organize their own independent political organization.
The
was established on January 1970 in Crystal City, TX. This new party would focus on improving the economic, social, and political aspects of the Latino community throughout Texas.
The Hispanic women played a key role in the party elections getting supporters registered to vote and attracting new members to the party.
La Raza Unida sponsored a number of winning candidates; Reies
Tijerina founded the Alianza Federal de Mercedes to help reclaim
U.S. land taken from Mexican landholders in the 1800s.

The Mexican American Political Association (MAPA) sponsored candidates, registered and educated voters, and lobbied for legislation.
: The
requires areas with large immigrant populations provide that translators or multilingual ballots be provided for US citizens who do not speak
English.
From 1954 to 1960 the US government began its
with the ending of federal control over tribes and reservations. Federal support for some 60 tribes came to an end.
With this came the end of any social welfare aid in health, or education. Tribes would lose land to investors; some fell apart and ceased to exist as organized groups.
The Native Americans faced many problems as in the death rate was twice as high for them as is was for a national average of white Americans and the life expectancy was several years less for an Native American v. that of a White American.
A group of 61 Native American organizations drafted the
Declaration of Indian Purpose, which advocated selfdetermination, an end to the termination program, and policies that would create economic opportunities on reservations.

In 1968 President Johnson establishes the National Council on
Indian Opportunity (NCIO) to ensure that programs reflect the needs and desires of the Native Americans.
Law: In 1964 the
passed laws that protected the constitutional rights of American Indians. Also it affirmed their rights to self govern on reservations.
Some of the Indians viewed the NCIO as being too slow and in
1968 created the the “
Red Power ”,
(AIM).
The AIM is a Native American activist organization in the US that has the goal to gain backs the rights and properties guaranteed in the early treaties.
The AIM burst on the international scene with its seizure of the
Bureau of Indian Affairs headquarters in Washington D.C. in 1972 and the 1973 standoff at Wounded Knee in SD. Two AIM members were killed in the seizure of a trading post and church at
Wounded Knee.
In the decades since AIM's founding, the group has led protests advocating Native American interests, inspiring cultural renewal, coordinating employment programs in cities and in rural reservation communities across the United States.

: By the 1970’s Congress passed the
; the
and
. These laws gave the Native American nations greater control over their own affairs and over their children’s education.
AIM has been active in opposing the use of indigenous caricatures as mascots for sports teams, such as the professional, college and high school teams.
In 1972 the Native American’s launched a protest movement called “Trail of Broken Treaties” which was a march on
Washington D.C.
There the various groups used militant actions to confront the government. The Indians of all tribes seized and occupied
Alcatraz.
The American Indian Movement (AIM), led by Russell Means, seized and occupied the Bureau of Indian Affairs building in
Washington, D.C., and also the town of Wounded Knee. The various tribes also took their land claims to federal court.
: Alaska Native Lands Claim and the Settlement Act resulted in Native claims to almost all of Alaska were extinguished in exchange for approximately one-ninth of the state's land plus
$962.5 million in compensation
The Alaska Native Allotment Act was revoked and as yet unborn
Native children were excluded.

(CHAPTER – 23 / SECTION -2)
“
” is a 1963 book written by
which attacked the popular notion that women during this time could only find fulfillment through childbearing and homemaking. She encouraged women to organize and take action.
According to the New York Times obituary of Friedan in 2006, it
"
" and
"
."
“
The Feminine Mystique
” came about after Friedan sent a questionnaire to other women in her 1942 Smith College graduating class.
Most women in her class indicated a general unease with their lives.
The findings found that women are victims of a false belief system that requires them to find identity and meaning in their lives through their husbands and children
Such a system causes women to completely lose their identity in that of their family.

Friedan specifically locates this system among post-WWII middle-class suburban communities. She suggests that men returning from war turned to their wives for mothering.
At the same time, America's post-war economic boom led to the development of new technologies that were supposed to make household work less difficult, but most often the result made women's work less meaningful and valuable.
The book is a subject of controversy and complaints based on that the book does not address the lives of poor white women or women of color.
Another complaint was that the feminist movement is dominated by white, upper and middle class interests and perspectives, though claiming to speak for all women.
For example when Friedan and others argue that women need to leave the domestic sphere and get jobs, Hooks replies lower-class women have always had to work and domestic life is a luxury for them.
The new women’s movement in the 1960’s was
, a belief that women should have economic, political and social equality with men.
Provided a
for the women’s movement and gave it a point in which they can draw from for direction or inspiration.

In 1950, one in three women worked for wages. Ten years later the number had increased to about 40%. There still were ‘women’ jobs and ‘men’ jobs. Women again only made 60% of their male counter parts that had the same experience or skills.
The lower pay and the lack of promotion in jobs for women that they were equal to men in, exposed widespread wage and job discrimination and woke many women to their inferior social status.
______________________________________________________
The only means, in which women could voice their opinions and discuss matters that concerned them, without male interference, was through small groups/organizations.
The meetings or consciousness-raising sessions allowed women to discover that their personal experiences were part of a larger pattern of discrimination and that they were not unique.
______________________________________________________
As the women participated in the civil rights movement and the antiwar movements they began to sense and understand that discrimination also existed in their lives. Most of the protest groups were developed and ran by men (SDS / SNCC).
Women participated in lesser roles and if they raised their voice to protest the treatment they were met with a brush off by their male counter parts.

Women Movement Experiences Gains & Losses
The women movement would achieve great strides in creating enduring political and social gains. Through this effort to attain equality within the Constitution there were setbacks.
The women’s movement would gain some strength with the passage of the
. This act gave women legal tools to fight discrimination.
The act stated, “
______________________________________________________
( NOW)
The modern women’s rights movement began when more
Americans began to challenge the traditional role of women in society.
National Organization of Women ( NOW) was founded in June of 1966 to lobby for political issues that affect women . Betty Friedan became the organization's first president.
The organization's first Statement of Purpose in 1966 (the original was scribbled on a napkin by Friedan). The original statement described the purpose of NOW as "
."

The current Statement reads, "
."
NOW stands against all oppression, recognizing that racism, sexism and homophobia are interrelated, that other forms of oppression such as classism and ableism work together with these three to keep power and privilege concentrated in the hands of a few."
It claims 500,000 contributing members and 550 chapters in all 50
U.S. states and the District of Columbia. It helped establish daycares for women so they could go out and start a career.
A Job ad that was discriminatory and only opens to males was ruled illegal.
Despite the ERA’s failure other reform projects started in 1972 with greater success. Journalist ,
began publishing
.
During a Miss America pageant they staged protests of burning items that are used during the event and crowned a sheep the pageant winner.
The publication would cover and expose the issues of the day that effected women and
i nformed women about the women’s movement.

The movement further exposed the following:

Failing to allow females to participate in sports at the same level as males

To be accepted not upon their appearance but by their qualifications for jobs

That some women also ended using the title of Miss or Mrs. and opted for Ms. when being addressed and at times not take the last name of their husband.
______________________________________________________
In 1972 Congress banned gender discrimination in educational and other activities supported by federal funds
Expanded the powers of the Equal Employment Opportunity
Commission and gave parents a tax break for child-care expenses.
In 1963 Kennedy issued an executive order banning gender discrimination in civil service jobs.
Congress passed the
of 1963 aimed at requiring employers to pay men and women the same wages for the same job.

In 1973 the Supreme Court ruled in
case that, recognized women’s right to have an abortion during the first three months of pregnancy.
______________________________________________________
The
( ERA ) was a proposed amendment in 1972 that was created for the US
Constitution intending to guarantee equal rights under the law for
Americans regardless of sex.
The ERA's text, as proposed in 1972 by the 92nd Congress, reads as follows:
SECTION 1: Equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on
account of sex.
______________________________________________________
SECTION- 2: The Congress shall have the power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article .
______________________________________________________
SECTION- 3: This amendment shall take effect two years after the date of ratification ."

Strong critic of the ERA,
argued that its passage would have far-reaching implications, obliterating traditional distinctions between the sexes. Women, ERA opponents claim:
Would be required to register for the draft just as men currently do, and would have to serve in combat just as men must
That the ERA would also remove laws that specially protect women, such as labor laws in heavy industry or that a husband would no longer be required to care for their wives
Critics also maintain that the ERA would require the integration of single-sex schools, sports teams or even restrooms
Some opponents of the ERA contend that the amendment simply is not necessary because provisions of the Constitution and various rulings by the Supreme Court provide sufficient support for equal rights for both genders
______________________________________________________
Supporters of the ERA characterize these implications as "scare tactics" designed to obscure the real advantages of a constitutional guarantee of equal rights for men and women.
For instance, ERA advocates point out that the assertion that the
ERA would require women to register for the draft ignores the fact that, under Article I of the Constitution, Congress has always had the power to draft women.

of the Education Amendments Act of 1972 was a law that banned colleges and universities that received federal aid from discriminating against women.
Some women began to turn to politics. Female delegates at the
1972 Democratic and Republican conventions jumped some 30-
40%. In 1968,
Shirley Chisholm became the first African
American women elected to Congress.
Despite the growth in participation in politics women made little or no gain. Yet the movement set the tone that would change within the next few decades.
In the 1960’s Americans with disabilities began their battle for stronger rights. Their demands covered education, job opportunities and access to buildings.
In 1962 Ed Roberts challenged the U of Cal. Berkley decision to deny him admission due to his handicap and that the university did not have facilities to accommodate his needs. He succeeded and won admission.
Later in 1967 Roberts and 11 other disabled students, known as the
“
Rolling Quads
” fought the schools restrictions to buildings that inhibited from having wheelchair accessibility .

In 1970 the New York Board of Education refused to give
a teaching certificate because she was a quadriplegic. In response she founded the Disabled in Action group .
The group was able to spear head the
Education for all
Handicapped Children Act . This Act in 1975 signaled a commitment to make sure every child in America, regardless of his or her disability, received a free and appropriate public education.
Federal law states that public schools must provide a “continuum of alternative placements to meet the needs of handicapped children for special education and related services.”
This continuum must include at least “instruction in regular classes, special classes, special schools, home instruction, and instruction in hospitals and institutions.”
______________________________________________________
The
Children's Defense Fund is a child advocacy and research group was founded in 1973 by Marian Wright Edelman.
Their motto Leave No Child Behind indicates their mission to lobby on behalf of children in the federal government and the states.

The principal public policy initiative is:

Prepare every child for school through full funding of quality childcare

Lift every child from poverty by 2010

Ensure that every child and parent has health insurance as a first step toward universal coverage

End child hunger through the expansion of food programs, living wages, tax credits, and family supports

Make sure every child can read by fourth grade and can graduate from high school able to succeed at work and in life

Provide every child safe, quality after-school and summer programs to learn, serve, work, and stay out of trouble

Protect all children from neglect, abuse, and other violence and ensure them the care they need
______________________________________________________
Gray Panthers
is an American organization promoting senior citizen’s rights opposed to ageism, was founded by Maggie
Kuhn in 1970, in response to her forced retirement at age 65 by the
Presbyterian Church forced her to retire.

The Gray Panthers' motto was "Age and Youth in Action," and many of its members were high school and college students.
Kuhn believed that teens should be taken more seriously and given more responsibility by society. To her, this was but another example of our fast-paced, exploitative culture wasting vital human resources.
Ageism
is bias against a person or group on the grounds of age.
Although ageism can refer to bias against any age group, age discrimination is usually focused on either of two targets the:

Adolescents
are stereotypically called immature, insubordinate and irresponsible

Elderly
are stereotypically called slow, weak, dependent and senile

(CHAPTER – 23 / SECTION -3)
A
is a term used to describe wide differences in cultural norms between members of a younger generation and their elders.
It was defined as "
."
The term first came into prominence during the 1960’s described as the cultural differences between the Baby Boomers and their parents.
During this era differences between the two generations grew significantly in comparison to previous times, particularly with respect to such matters as musical tastes, fashion, drug use, and politics.
The 1960s saw several examples of generational differences:

Rock and Soul music, popular among youth, were mostly detested by their elders

Parents frequently viewed long hair on young males as a shocking act of rebellion against societal norms

Large scale protests against the Vietnam War on U.S. college campuses contrasted sharply with earlier almost-universal national support for WWII


Traditional sexual mores were crumbling under the weight of the sexual revolution

Drug use increased among young people, and many youths
"dropped out" into the hippie counterculture.
Baby Boomers had a strong sense of generational identity during this period. A common catchphrase was " don't trust anyone over
30 ."
The influence of the Baby Boomers was so significant that the entire generation was named "Man of the Year" by Time magazine in 1966.
______________________________________________________
The 1960s counterculture began in the United States as a reaction against the conservative social norms of the 1950’s. The counterculture emphasized individual freedom.
Members of the movement were:

Idealistic or disillusioned young people

White, middle-class youths

Hippies; people experimenting with drugs and were followers of
Eastern religions

During the period in question, new cultural forms emerged, the pop music of the Beatles. Underground newspapers attempted to define and to communicate the radical political opposition to " The establishment ," or
“The Man”
.
The most visible radical belief element of this counterculture was the hippie. The counterculture rejected traditional society and, believed following the dictate of Timothy Leary to "
", hoped to change society by dropping out of it.
Most believed that the government was corrupt and was corrupted by big industries greed, askew of traditional morals and war was inhumane.
Goals of the movement were:

To have an idyllic setting of peace, love, and harmony—the
Age of Aquarius

Greater self-awareness and inner peace

Living together in communes and renouncing private property
______________________________________________________
Hippie action was in the San Francisco area, particularly the
neighborhood.
The language and communication between the young took on new meanings and styles.


Hep, hippy = knowledge, wisdom, well informed, up-to-date, to be aware of what is going on. Usage: "He is hip to the scene."

Cat, -kat = friend. Usage: "He is one crazy cat."

Hep-cat = person who understands. Usage: "He's a hep-cat."

Dig = understand, appreciate, and pay attention. Usage: "You dig what I'm saying?"

Bogus = fake, deceit, fraud. Usage: "This game is bogus."

Jive = lie, trick. Usage: "Don't jive me, fool."

Cool = calm, controlled, slow. Usage: "Be cool man."
The typical activities were listening to and playing rock ‘n’ roll music, wearing outrageous clothing, using drugs, living in communes, attending concerts, casualness and individuality—“do your own thing”.
______________________________________________________
What was once seemingly free and void of challenges turned to a life of uncertainty and violence.
The urban communes were once the center piece of how to live amongst each other in peace and harmony were now becoming dangerous and rip-offs for the people had no place to live or go.
The phrase “
Do your own thing
” did not give a person the direction or tools to exist or grow as a person.
Many of the young began to rebel with each other over the very same tasks they denied or rejected.

Others had fallen victim to drug use. The deaths of Janis Joplin and
Jimi Hendrix from drug overdoses exposed the problems of how to grasp the understanding of life.
Many would soon turn to the very thing they despised was the dependency of the government through food stamps or welfare checks.
______________________________________________________
The period was marked by a change in how art would express or define this era of time. It would be defined as a rebellious style of pop art and a more consumer oriented mass art.
Artists such as Andy Warhol tried to bring this style of art into the mainstream of culture.
The art of this period was described as bright simple commercial looking images that often displayed everyday life.
Critics of the style pointed out the simplicity that individual freedoms were lost to more conventional “
” depictions of life.
______________________________________________________
In 1959,
Berry Gordy
founded
Motown Records became the first major record label to be owned by an African
American.

Motown played an important role in the racial integration of popular music primarily featuring African-American artists that achieved crossover success and had a widespread lasting effect on the music industry.
In the 1960’s, Motown was the most successful producers of what came to be known as
, a style of soul music with distinctive characteristics, including the use of tambourine, drums, bass instrumentation and a distinctive singing style originating in gospel music.
______________________________________________________
During the 1960’s folk music became popular by using a wide range of blues, folk and gospel songs. Folk singers, Joan Baez and
Bob Dylan addressed political and social issues of the times.
______________________________________________________
The
was a rock festival held on a 600 acre dairy farm in Bethel, NY. For three days (August 15-August 18, 1969). It is arguably viewed as the most famous rock festival ever held.
For many, it exemplified the counterculture of the 1960s and the
"hippie era". Many of the best-known musicians of the times appeared.

The festival bears the name "Woodstock", because it was originally scheduled to take place in the town of Woodstock however, the town offered no appropriate site to host such a large event that over a million people may attend.

The show had been planned for a maximum of 200,000 attendees, over 500,000 eventually attended, most of whom did not pay admission.

The highways leading to the concert were jammed with traffic.
People abandoned their cars and walked for miles to the concert area.

Local residents of this modest tourist-oriented area gave blankets and food to some concertgoers.

Overall, attendees were remarkably well-behaved. Only two people died at Woodstock: one from a heroin overdose and one from being run over by a tractor while they were sleeping in a nearby hayfield.

At one point during The Who's set, political activist Abbie
Hoffman interrupted the show and attempted to rally the crowd with yippie slogans, but was knocked off the stage by the swinging guitar of the band's leader to the delight of the audience.

Jimi Hendrix had a big impact with his performance, including a distorted version of "The Star Spangled Banner". The song was somewhat controversial, as the Vietnam War was underway.


A young twenty-year old named Stephen Victor Tallarico (aka
Steven Tyler of Aerosmith) showed up in the crowd as a fan.
People wanted to go back to a time where they were proud to be an
American. They were tired of hearing people say how bad America was.
In the 1960’s much of America began to believe that the country had lost its sense of
.
Mainstream America questioned was the violence or social display of hatred the very thing our forefathers and warriors had died for in previous wars?
The leaders and protectorates of our nation looked upon our school campuses as centers of threat to the very existence of traditional values.
Society would take on the following:

A more casual approach to sexual and social behavior

The counterculture movement would eventually set the nation on a more conservative course
 Nixon’s election was a conservative reaction to the current state of existence in America
Was the 1960’s generation of youth looking for change that lost itself to an undisciplined existence?