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Persuasive Speaking
Aristotle is considered the father of persuasive thought. In his analysis of the persuasive
process, he noted that persuasion is a designed strategy of influencing attitudes to bring about
change. Note that the key word in this definition is “influence” –not power. Ethical persuasion
is more about influencing attitudes and beliefs than adopting a power play to coerce others to act
accordingly. For example, your professor wants the class to attend a guest lecture given by
Deanna Fassett, who recently published a book on the critical and cultural aspects of
communication. The professor mandates that all of the students in the class must attend; lack of
attendance will result in subtraction of attendance points. Most likely, students will view this
requirement not as persuasion, but as a form of coercion. The professor has the power to enforce
obedience. On the other hand, if the professor is more interested in influencing students’
initiative to attend rather than defeating students’ initiative with a mandate, the professor could
utilize some basic persuasive techniques of influence:
Arouse curiosity by foreshadowing some of the controversy inherent in the textGenerate interest by highlighting the author’s dubious rise to fameChallenge students’ beliefs about ethicsSuggest an opportunity of networking with a professionalNot all of the students in the class will attend the presentation, but those who do would
have done so because of the persuasive nature of influence rather than the power of coercion.
The focus of this chapter is to look at means by which receiver compliance may be gained
via influence rather than by coercive tactics of power.
Designed Strategy
Aristotle believed that the power to influence attitudes was based on “three proofs.”
These proofs are commonly referred to:
Ethos
Logos
Pathos
Speaker Credibility Evidence/Reasoning
Ethical & Sincere
Trustworthy
Logical
Human Emotion
Common Needs and Desires
Fears and Concerns
Aristotle believed that to use proofs effectively, a speaker must have an idea about the
beliefs and values of the audience in order to influence attitudes ethically and persuasively.
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Social Judgment Theory suggests that receivers evaluate persuasive messages based on
the beliefs they already hold. The beliefs are called anchors. The degree to which anchors can be
influenced will depend on how deeply committed the receivers are to their beliefs and values.
The degree or range to which one is willing to reconsider beliefs is called latitude. There are
three zones of latitudes:
Latitude of Acceptance Latitude of Non-commitment Latitude of Rejection.
Willing to Listen
Views Similar to
Anchors/Beliefs of
the Speaker
No Strong Opinion
Need More Information
Not Willing to Listen
Views are Not Similar
to Anchors/Beliefs of
the Speaker
Effective speakers are more likely to persuade listeners by focusing on their latitudes of
acceptance and non-commitment. How would a speaker know about the anchors/beliefs of the
audience? A speaker will be more knowledgeable about the overall attitudes and beliefs of the
audience by survey research and information from opinion leaders, who represent the audience.
For example, there is some controversy in high school districts regarding the use of a “block”
scheduling format versus the standard format of 7 class periods each day. A number of years
ago, in one school district in Illinois, the superintendent wanted to implement a “block”
scheduling format. Town meetings were held in which parents and others were able to listen to
arguments for the change and express their point of view. The local newspaper reported on the
reactions of parents at these meetings, and it became quite evident that the people who attended
the meetings were strongly opposed to the change as evidenced by newspaper articles and letters
to the editors. There was strong vocal opposition. It became evident to the school
superintendent that the latitude of rejection was fairly rigid and overshadowed those who were
unsure or in favor of the change. The superintendent realized that it would take a number of
years to slowly change the large zone of resistance and the movement to adopt block scheduling
was quietly put aside for a period of time.
It is important to understand that latitudes or zones are not rigid. Consider latitudes as
overlapping circles. As people’s viewpoints are altered, the belief associated with an issue may
be less rigid, opposition/rejection may shrink and give way to a larger circle of non-commitment.
Thus for an audience who initially was strongly opposed to block scheduling, it is possible that
their sense of rejection [Fig A] changes to a larger circle of non-commitment [Fig B].
Consequently, over time it is possible to sway people whose attitudes seem to be fixed. It is a
longer process and requires more energy.
Fig A
Fig B
Non-commitment
Non-commitment
Rejection
Rejection
Acceptance
Acceptance
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In summary, if audience members are already in favor of a speaker’s proposition, if their
latitude of acceptance is large, they are easier to motivate-influence-persuade. In fact, it may
not be necessary to refer to much evidence or reasoning-logos since the audience is aware of an
issue and agree that change is needed. That type of audience primarily needs a bit more emotion
or pathos to jump-start them to get involved. An audience whose latitude of non-commitment
overshadows acceptance or rejection needs specific evidence and reasoning –logos, before
they decide what to believe. Listeners opposed to a topic are difficult to convince. Yet, a speaker
should not be swayed by their latitude of rejection. In that situation, a speaker should be aware
that s/he is giving a presentation to an unyielding audience. However, by delivering a message
suggesting the sincerity of the speaker that also includes reasoning and logic and treats the
audience with respect while addressing their needs, feelings, and emotions, a speaker may be able
to “crack open the door” in their closed minds. Thus, the speaker’s goal for an audience who
is strongly opposed is to shrink the range or latitude of rejection.
Although there are differences in organizing persuasive speeches all include the elements
of pathos, ethos, logos. The degree to which pathos, ethos, logos is applied depends on the
attitude or latitude of acceptance of the audience. Let's take a closer look at the application of
pathos, ethos, logos.
Methods of Persuasion: Applying P.E.L.
Pathos: Emotional Appeals
Emotional appeals are intended to jump start an individual’s drive to do something. They
provide an external incentive for performing an action, whether the action is to change a belief
about a concept, such as the need to “be green,” or to motivate one to buy a product or subscribe
to a service. Few people are moved to change attitudes or take action if they don’t
experience a need or a problem-- if they don’t believe that a situation affects them in a personal
way. Some theorists argue that people buy for emotional reasons and then justify their purchases
with logic. Many lists of emotional needs are available. One of the most famous is Maslow’s
Hierarchy of Needs, which begins with the most basic need of survival and builds to the
higher needs of self-fulfillment:
Self Actualization - being the best one can be, fulfillment, potential
Self Esteem – self recognition, pride, achievement, status, fame
Love and Belonging – friendship, relationships, interpersonal acceptance
Safety Needs—security, stability, freedom from fear, anxiety, pain, inconvenience
Physiological Needs—air, food, water, shelter, warmth, sleep
In the 70’s, two more areas were added to the Hierarchy of Needs: aesthetic: appreciation of
and search for beauty, balance, harmony, and form.
Transcendence: helping others to achieve self-actualization.
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In addition to the Hierarchy of Needs, there are other basic emotions that create a need to act:
Fear—serious illness, disasters, sexual assault/illness, personal rejection,
economic hardship, lonelinessCompassion- for the disabled, for battered women, for neglected animals,
for kids in third world countries, for victims of illness
Pride- in one’s country, family, school, community, heritage,
accomplishmentsAnger-at the actions of terrorists, at members of Congress who abuse
public trust, at landlords who exploit student tenants, at a business
that sells unsafe products, at vandals and thieves-at a lack of social
justice, at not being treated fairly
Guilt- about not helping the less fortunate, about not considering rights of
others, about looking the other way when we should have caredReverence- for an admired person, for traditions and institutions, for one’s
deity-
Applying Emotional Appeals
To compel listeners to take action:
1. use vivid/descriptive language and examples that create a picture.
2. refer to situations your audience feels strongly about and are
relevant to them—have meaning for them
You’re tired. The Rogalski Café is closed. You’ve spent a long day at the St.
Ambrose Library and your eyes are burning, your head is pounding and you just
want to be in the secure surroundings of your house across Gaines Street with a
cold one and a Domino’s pepperoni pizza. As you leave the library, you forgot
how dark it gets and no one seems to be around. The wind whistles, the shadows
loom ahead, and for a few minutes you remember the slogan “use the buddy system,”
which you conveniently forgot. After all, the campus is safe? Isn’t it?
In this example, a number of references to specific locations are made that an Ambrose
audience can relate to. Second, the language is descriptive; it paints a picture. This scenario
creates a sense of dread and danger, of safety and security needs. A speaker who does not
consider the importance of emotional appeals might simply have stated:
You’re tired and want to go home. It’s dark outside as you leave the campus and
no one is around. As you make your way to your house, you wonder if you are
safe walking alone or if you might be accosted.
There is a difference between these two examples. If the goal is make the audience
question their sense of security and protection from fear, it’s obvious that the first example would
be more effective at doing that.
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Ethos: Sincere and Ethical Character
Establishing the character aspect of credibility is a matter of conveying sincerity,
trustworthiness, and ethical concerns for the audience by referring to audience concerns
and need. Therefore, references to the audience’s frame of reference [their experiences]
are important. Sincerity is not established if the speaker appears to be the only one who
would benefit from the acceptance/adoption of the persuasive message. If a goal is to sell a
particular type of water bottle, for example, the savvy speaker would first:
a. determine the type of water bottles audience members use to store liquid. That
suggests an awareness of the frame of reference of the audience
b. identify the problems of water bottles such as leakage, condensation, inferior or
plastic taste, inability to keep liquid cold
c. demonstrate how the new water bottle solves audience issues with current bottles
Logos: Evidence and Reasoning—Speaker Competence
Facts are helpful but not as persuasive when used alone since the goal of any persuasive
campaign is to ensure audience understanding. Facts need to be accompanied by examples,
expert testimony, printed sources, statistics, and demonstration. For example, Tupperware
is a well known company but what makes Tupperware a superior product to Glad Ware, for
example? Or why is a Chi flat iron so much better than a comparable flat iron made by
Remington? An audience needs to hear proof via experts, documentation, and
demonstration. If for instance, a Chi straightening iron is one of the best, a savvy speaker
would refer to its features that outshine its competitors. Facts from Consumer Reports,
an independent research firm, would add competent credibility about the superior quality of
the product. Evidence is a vital element, regardless of the persuasive topic.
MOTIVATED SEQUENCE
Although the goal for all persuasive speeches is to influence, the manner in which a
speech is organized varies based on the goal of the speech. The next section examines in more
detail one of the more commonly used organizational patterns for persuasive speaking--The
Motivated Sequence.
The Motivated Sequence pattern is designed for a speech in which the goal is to
motivate the audience to take action, to become involved [actuate]. It is intended for an
audience whose beliefs are grounded in the zone of non-commitment, more so than
rejection or acceptance. Although it is organized in a 5 step sequence, the steps can be outlined
following the traditional pattern of introduction, body, and conclusion.
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Introduction:
Step One-
Attention of Audience
Refer to audience as “you” [use rhetorical elements-]
[include psychographic and
demographic]
Apply emotional appeals—make the audience feel a
need for change is important by using cognitive dissonanceCreate cognitive dissonance: feelings of anxiety or
imbalance. Cognitive refers to thought-a sense of awareness.
Dissonance suggests a state of anxiety/discord/imbalance. If an
audience perceives that a problem or issue affects them
directly, they will be more receptive to listening to the
solutions.
Shake up the audience—get them out of their comfort zone.
Purpose Statement to end the introduction-
In the following introduction on Living Wills—the Final Destiny, note how the speaker applies
the topic to her college audience in a way to create a sense of anxious concern [cognitive
dissonance]. Although the speaker was much older than her classmates, she skillfully weaves a
descriptive picture of an example and relates that image to her audience.
Harry Smith was a cranky, obstinate, old farmer. He loved bowling, Glenn Miller music,
and Monday night football. He was also dying from cancer of the esophagus, which had
metastasized to his lungs. He didn’t like fancy doctors or hospitals. He used to say that he
remembered when three square meals, mom’s apple pie, and an occasional visit to the family
doctor were all that one needed to be happy and healthy. Harry didn’t want to live in pain,
and he hated being dependent on anyone else; yet like so many others, Harry never expressed
his wishes to his family. When his cancer became so debilitating he could no longer speak
for himself, his family stepped in to make decisions about his medical care. Since Harry
never told his family how he felt, his children, out of a sense of love and misguided concern,
refused to let him die. He was Dad. He was subjected to ventilators, artificial feedings, and
all that wizardry that modern medicine offers. Harry did die—a slow death—a process he
would not have chosen for himself. [descriptive story—a means to create pathos]
Harry’s doctor, my husband, agonized over the decisions regarding his care when he was alive.
[ethos—speaker’s personal experience] He knew that Harry’s family was acting out of
misguided love but since Harry had not documented his wishes, his doctor had no choice but to
prolong Harry’s life. The right to die issue may seem far removed from you, as college junior
or seniors, yet from the American Medical Association’s website, updated July 2010, it estimates
that over 50% of Americans do not have a living will, leaving them to the mercy
of the doctors and hospitals to decide treatment. [logos-printed source] How many of your
grandparents and parents have a living will? How many of them have clearly specified the
type of medical treatment they would choose if a major medical situation arose? What
would you do, how would you act, if the “Harry’s” of this world were members of your
family? All of us have the right to dictate medical choice and to inform our loved ones
of our choices. [questions to challenge audience’s comfort zone—means of creating
cognitive dissonance] It’s called a Living Will. Let’s better understand the need to craft a
living will and then explore the options that all of us can use to ensure that the people we love
have a right to choose their final destiny. [purpose statement]
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Body of the Speech:
Step Two-
Problem/Need
Evidence that a problem/situation exists [logos]
*Include examples—
*Refer to unbiased sourcesCauses of the problem [logos]
Explanation as to how a problem/issue affects audience
[logos and pathos]
Step Three-
Satisfaction/Solution
Explain what steps can be taken to alleviate the situation
[logos]
Describe benefits and features if topic is a product or service.
Step Four-
Call for Action
Tell audience what can be done—be specific
Give names, addresses, how to get involved, whom to contact.
From the same speech on Living Wills, note the specificity of action the speaker proposes her
audience takes.
Our family members should have a living will stating their philosophy on terminal care.
I propose the use of what is referred to as the Medical Directive, which details twelve
specific treatments that could be offered from wanting treatment, not wanting treatment,
undecided, and discontinue if treatment does not work. This form is more specific and
detailed than other health directive forms and is available from Harvard Medical
School, 164 Longwood Ave, Boston Ma 02115. Additionally, designate a person to
make health care decisions should a family member become incompetent and also
designate a credible person as a Durable Power of Attorney for Health Care.
Conclusion:
Step Five-
Visualization [leads to the Clincher]
Predict what negative things will happen to the listeners if
they do not get involved
Use words like …”if,” “until,”….to introduce this step.
Follow the visualization with the clincher to end the speech
In her conclusion on her speech --Living Wills—The Final Destiny, the speaker predicts what
may happen if a living will is not drawn up and ends on an emotional note [pathos]—which
also reiterates the title of her speech.
I am passionate about this issue, because through my husband, I have seen patients suffer the
effects of not having a living will. We must choose to draw up our own living wills and health
care proxies. And we must choose to discuss this personal and sensitive issue with our families.
If we don’t want a grandparent or parent to suffer the same effects as Harry Smith, then
we have no choice but to open up dialogue and make sure our family members’ wishes are
clearly documented . Eventually all of us will walk down the path to our final destiny. May
it be a destiny of choice.
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The Motivated Sequence follows a logical process and leads the listeners step by step to
the desired action. Besides its usefulness on issues of concerns, it is also an effective pattern in
the world of advertising. It is a classic pattern that is useful and practical. Let’s see how by
applying it to a marketing sales presentation.

Pick Up Life’s Spills the Viva Way
Marketing-Sales Presentation
Topic: Viva Towels--Product
Audience: College Students
Purpose: To motivate audience to purchase Viva Towels since they are the best towels for
cleaning everyday messes.
Audience Beliefs: Latitude of Non-Commitment—no specific brand loyalty
Paper towels are helpful and used by most if not all of the members of
the audience. However, audience members believe that paper towels are
comparably designed and not worth the extra cost to pay more for a
particular brand
Pick up Life’s Spills the Viva Way
[Team Delivered Presentation]
As college students, we all know how fast and easy your dorm room or apartment can turn into a
cesspool of popcorn kernels, spilled coffee or tea stains, tracked in dirt from walking across
campus, kitty litter that was suppose to stay in the kitty box, and of course the residue of
someone’s, “ahem” spilled libation. [Attention Idea—relevant examples] How do you clean up
those messes quickly, easily, and inexpensively? As college students, we don’t have mom to
clean up the mess. Sponges are grime-laden pools of bacteria that tend to smear rather than
clean. Dishrags work well, but to prevent build-up of mold, they need to be washed on a regular
basis. How many of us do that? Paper towels tend to disintegrate with one wipe. So how can
you clean up messes easily and effectively without paying an arm and a leg for professional
cleaning tools or help? [Cognitive Dissonance—Create a Sense of Anxiety/pathos-inconvenience]
My name is _____ and ____and we represent the Kimberly-Clark Corporation, makers of Viva
Towels. Today we’d like to reinforce how Viva Towels can easily soak up life’s spills without
socking it to your pocketbook. [Purpose Statement/title of speech to end the Introduction]
First, let’s face it. Spills of liquids and food items occur all the time in our dorms and
apartments. Are all paper products equally effective in wiping up spills easily and quickly?
[Problem issue #1]. If you try to wipe up a coffee spill, some of you may reach for a napkin.
Let’s see what happens with a napkin. [demonstrate—napkins shreds]. Yuck—It only makes
the spill worse and also adds to the mess. [pathos—inconvenience] Ok, so you think you are
smarter than that and reach for the paper towels, which most of you buy as a generic brand, based
on the class survey. [psychographic reference] Or you purchase one of the lesser expensive
towels such as Scott towels or Mardi Gras. I’m going to use a generic brand; my partner will use
Mardi Gras to determine which picks up this recently spilled stain the easiest. Note how many
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towels have to be used.[demonstrate—evidence/logos]. As you can tell, neither towel worked
very well. Both just disintegrated. And we needed to use at least 5 sheets of each brand to soak
up just a little bit. [logos—evidence] Now I’m going to use Viva but add even more to the spill.
[demonstrate-evidence/logos] It does work and I only needed to use one sheet. Thus, all paper
products don’t work equally well.
Second, when something spills, your natural inclination is to reach for the roll of paper towels
and you end up tearing off lots of sheets because you may feel that one sheet will not be enough
and each sheet tends to stick to each other. [Problem issue #2]. With Viva, the sheets are easy
to pull apart so when you reach to tear off one sheet, that’s all you get. When you try to tear off
just one sheet from these other brands, you usually end up with more than one sheet.
[demonstrate-evidence/logos]. Also with the help of volunteers, let’s compare how many wet
sheets you need to clean up this dried-up mud on a piece of tile. [demonstrate-evidence/logos].
Whoa—how amazing is that. We cleaned up this dried mud with just 2 sheets of Viva [pathos]
So why does Viva seem to work better? Viva towels include paper fibers that are woven together
with a polyester filament which makes each towel stronger. Regarding its ability to absorb spills,
like a sponge, each sheet contains little holes surrounded by cellulose, which absorbs and wicks
up moisture. According to Kimberly-Clark’s website on the product specifications of Viva, the
organization explained that the holes in each sheet make a difference. The surface of ordinary
paper towels is flat—like trying to clean up a spill with wax paper. It may skim the surface of the
spill, but because a flat surface has no depth, it can’t reach down and absorb the entire spill. Also
because it is a flat surface, ordinary paper towels are incapable of trapping much moisture and
once the sheets are saturated, they naturally fall apart. [logos-evidence—biased source].
Third, let’s test for strength. [Problem-issue #3] You can’t see the cellulose filaments in each
sheet but you can test for strength. Let’s wet a sheet of Viva, Scott and Mardi Gras towels.
Then, we’ll place this heavy mug on each sheet to see if the towel will break. [demonstrateevidence/logos-ask for volunteers]
No, it’s not surprising that Viva outperforms all other brands but don’t take Kimberly-Clark’s
word for it since it makes Viva. Consumer Reports of October 3rd 2010 tested various brands of
paper towels for their ability to absorb wet spills of various viscosity and ranked Viva as the most
absorbent and practical regarding the number of sheets needed to wipe up spills. [unbiased
printed source—evidence/logos]
So what would you prefer to have in your kitchen? Sure Viva costs more at $2.00 a roll of 60
sheets versus Mardi Gras at 1.25¢ a roll for 80 sheets. Sure it seems like Mardi Gras is a
bargain, but as we have shown you, if it takes 4 sheets to clean up a spill, to just one Viva towel,
where’s the bargain? [yeah-but -- diffuse audience objections]
So where can you find Viva Towels. Anywhere that sells paper towels!!! Locally, check out
Wal-Mart and Super Target on Elmore and 53rd, Hy-Vee on Kimberly, and Save a Lot down the
street on Locust. To encourage you to give Viva a try, we are passing out coupons for 50¢ off
your next purchase. [Call for Action]
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Life is messy. If you want to spend extra time and trouble cleaning up a mess because you want
to save a few pennies, go right ahead. [Visualization and pathos/emotional needs] But if you
want to get it done right the first time and move on to more enjoyable aspects of your life, the
only answer is Viva Paper Towels. [Visualization and pathos/emotional needs] [In unison]—
Soak up Life’s Spills the Easy Way—Use Viva Paper Towels. [Clincher]
******************************************************************************
**
Summary
Persuasion is a designed strategy of influencing attitudes using a variety of proofs.
Aristotle defined three proofs of persuasion as:
Pathos = emotional appeals- appealing to needs/desires/wants/concerns
Ethos = speaker character—sincere, trustworthy, and ethical
Logos = evidence/reasoning—arguments are logical—fact-based
The degree to which each one of these elements is incorporated in a presentation is based
on audience attitude. To understand attitudes, it is important to recognize the degree of
conviction the audience has regarding the topic. Latitude of acceptance suggests audience
beliefs are in favor of the topic. Latitude of non-commitment implies the audience is neutral or
uncertain about beliefs regarding a topic. Latitude of rejection indicates that the audience is
opposed to having their beliefs changed regarding a topic.
The Motivated Sequence is an organizational pattern designed for audiences whose beliefs
are primarily anchored in the latitude of non-commitment or acceptance.
Introduction: Attention-Cognitive Dissonance/Credibility/Purpose Statement
Problem/Issues/Need: Evidence the problems exist/documentation/demonstration
Solution/Satisfaction: Evidence of the practicality of the solutions/benefits/demonstration
Call for Action: Specific information on what audience can do
Visualization: Predict what will happen in the future if solutions are not adopted