MOTIVATION
EXTRINSIC
INTRINSIC
Extracted with permission from my friend and co-author Professor Bill Huitt’s website.
Motivation
Definitions:
The following definitions of Motivation were
drawn from textbooks. They reflect the
consensus that motivation is an internal state
(sometimes described as a need, desire, or
want) that activates behavior and thoughts
and gives them direction.
– internal state or condition that activates
behavior and gives it direction;
– desire or want that energizes and directs
goal-oriented behavior;
– influence of needs and desires on the
intensity and direction of behavior;
– the arousal, direction, and persistence of
behavior;
– physiological and psychological factors
that account for the arousal, direction, and
persistence of behavior (Davis and
Palladino).
Adapted with permission from my friend and co-author Professor Bill Huitt’s website.
Motivation and Emotion
• Emotion, a subjective sensation experienced
as a type of psycho-physiological arousal, is
different from motivation in that it has no goal
connected with it.
• Emotions occur as a result of the interaction
of the (a) perception of environmental stimuli,
(b) neural/ hormonal responses to these
perceptions (feelings), and (c) cognitive
labeling of these feelings (Kleinginna and
Kleinginna, 1981b).
• There is a small core of emotions (6 to 8) that
are uniquely associated with a specific facial
expression (Izard, 1990). This suggests these
are hard-wired in humans.
Adapted with permission from my friend and co-author Professor Bill Huitt’s website.
Sources of Motivation
• Explanations regarding the sources of
motivation can be categorized as extrinsic
(outside the person) or intrinsic (inside the
person). Intrinsic sources/theories can be
further subcategorized as either body/
physical, mind/mental (i.e., cognitive,
affective), or transpersonal/ spiritual.
• Needs are now viewed as dispositions toward
action. Action may be initiated by positive
and/or negative incentives.
• It appears likely that initiation of behavior may
be more related to emotions and/or the
affective area (optimism vs. pessimism; selfesteem; etc.) while persistence may be more
related to conation (volition) or goalorientation
Adapted with permission from my friend and co-author Professor Bill Huitt’s website.
Sources of Motivation
Behavioral
• wanting or needing to obtain desirable consequences
(rewards) or escape/avoid undesirable
consequences—anticipated or actual;
• wanting or needing something as elicited by classical
conditioning (bio-behavioral).
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Biological
wanting or needing an increase or decrease in
stimulation or arousal in order to resolve boredom
(under-stimulation) or stress (psycho-physiologically
over-stimulation);
wanting or needing to decrease hunger, thirst, pain,
terror, sex drive, etc., which also involves decreasing
aversive internal physical stimulation;
wanting or needing to sleep, rest, or wake up;
wanting or needing to have physical control of one’s
body;
wanting or needing to act on anger against others (bioemotional-social);
wanting or needing to act on psych-physiological
feeling of love for someone, oneself, or other things
such as animals, nature, and religious belief (biosocial);
wanting or needing to feel safe and secure (bio-social).
Sources of Motivation
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Cognitive
wanting or needing to attend to something interesting,
challenging, promising, or threatening;
wanting or needing to acquire knowledge or
understanding;
wanting or needing to decrease cognitive dissonance,
inconsistency, uncertainty, etc.;
wanting or needing to solve a problem or eliminate a
threat or risk;
wanting or needing to eliminate inconsistency between
one’s bad actions and one’s need for self-esteem—
mind games or distorting the facts in one’s own favor;
wanting or needing to be optimistic or hopeful;
wanting or needing to perceive sensory input as a form
of cognitive control;
wanting or needing self-respect or positive selfconcept;
wanting or needing to grow and to achieve specific
goals;
wanting or needing to create something good or
beautiful;
wanting or needing to be in control of one’s life;
wanting or needing to believe in a supreme being or
creator who values humans enough to give them
immortality;
wanting or needing to feel competent;
wanting or needing to attribute cause to events.
Sources of Motivation
Affective
• wanting or needing to increase specific good feelings
and moods;
• wanting or needing to decrease specific bad feelings
and moods;
• wanting or needing to act on feelings of empathy (biosocial-emotional).
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Social
wanting or needing to imitate models with status who
are able to obtain rewards;
wanting or needing to be valued and admired by
significant others (cognitive-behavioral);
wanting or needing to help and support others in need
when one is virtuous and not reacting to fear;
wanting or needing to punish those one believes have
wronged them or wronged someone they love or care
about (bio-social);
wanting or needing to help others in spite of threats to
self and related fear—courage (social-affective);
wanting or needing someone or many others to care
about (social-affective).
Theories of motivation
1. Behavioral
• Each of the major theoretical approaches in behavioral
psychology posits a primary factor in motivation.
• Classical conditioning states that biological responses
to associated stimuli energize and direct behavior.
• Operant conditioning says the primary factor is
consequences: the application of “reinforcers” provides
incentives to increase behavior; the application of
“punishers” provides disincentives that decrease
behavior.
2. Biological
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Human Instincts, if they exist, are involuntary,
unlearned, and triggered by environmental
events called releasing stimuli.
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Drive Reduction Theory views motivation as
reducing physiological imbalances. A drive is an
internal motivational state that is increased by a
physical need.
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Optimum Arousal-Level Theory proposes that
we seek an optimum level or arousal and that
our level at any given time can be too high or
two low. Any form of stimulation or cognitive
activity affects arousal.
3. Cognitive
• Cognitive Dissonance theory is similar to
disequilibrium in Piaget’s theory of cognitive
development. This theory states that when there
is a discrepancy between two beliefs, two actions,
or between a belief and an action, we will act to
resolve conflict and discrepancies.
• A second approach is Attribution Theory (Heider,
1958; Weiner, 1974). Every individual tries to
explain success or failure through "attributions,"
which are either internal (ability, effort) or external
(luck, ) and either under one’s control or out of
one’s control.
• A third cognitive approach is Expectancy Theory
(Vroom, 1964). It proposes that Motivation =
Perceived Probability of Success (Expectancy)
times Connection of Success and Reward
(Instrumentality) times Value of Obtaining Goal
(Value). Since the three factors of Expectancy,
Instrumentality, and Value are multiplied by each
other, a low value in one will result in a low value
in motivation. If an individual doesn't believe he
can be successful OR does not see a connection
between his activity and success OR does not
value the results of success, then motivation is
absent.
Adapted with permission from my friend and co-author Professor Bill Huitt’s website.
Extracxted from http://web.utk.edu/~gwynne/maslow.HTM
4. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Humanistic (Social-Biological) Theory of
Motivation
Abraham Maslow is known for establishing the
theory of a hierarchy of needs, writing that human
beings are motivated by unsatisfied needs, and that
certain lower needs need to be satisfied before
higher needs can be satisfied.
According to Maslow, there are general types of
needs (physiological, safety, love, and esteem)
that must be satisfied before a person can act
unselfishly. He called these needs "deficiency
needs." As long as we are motivated to satisfy
these cravings, we are moving towards growth,
toward self-actualization.
Maslow’s Needs in Detail
Extracxted from http://web.utk.edu/~gwynne/maslow.HTM
Physiological Needs
Physiological needs are the very basic needs such as air, water, food, sleep, sex, etc. When
these are not satisfied we may feel sickness, irritation, pain, discomfort, etc. These feelings
motivate us to alleviate them as soon as possible to establish homeostasis. Once they are
alleviated, we may think about other things.
Safety Needs
Safety needs have to do with establishing stability and consistency in a chaotic world.
These needs are mostly psychological in nature. We need the security of a home and
family. However, if a family is dysfunction, i.e., an abusive husband, the wife cannot move to
the next level because she is constantly concerned for her safety. Love and belongingness
have to wait until she is no longer cringing in fear. Many in our society cry out for law and
order because they do not feel safe enough to go for a walk in their neighborhood. Many
people, particularly those in the inner cities, unfortunately, are stuck at this level. In addition,
safety needs sometimes motivate people to be religious. Religions comfort us with the
promise of a safe secure place after we die and leave the insecurity of this world.
Love Needs
Love and belongingness are next on the ladder. Humans have a desire to belong to groups:
clubs, work groups, religious groups, family, gangs, etc. We need to feel loved (non-sexual)
by others, to be accepted by others. Performers appreciate applause. We need to be
needed. Beer commercials, in addition to playing on sex, also often show how beer makes
for camaraderie. When was the last time you saw a beer commercial with someone drinking
beer alone?
Esteem Needs
There are two types of esteem needs. First is self-esteem which results from competence or
mastery of a task. Second, there's the attention and recognition that comes from others.
This is similar to the belongingness level, however, wanting admiration has to do with the
need for power. People who have all of their lower needs satisfied, often drive very
expensive cars because doing so raises their level of esteem. "Hey, look what I can affordpeon!"
Self-Actualization
The need for self-actualization is "the desire to become more and more what one is, to
become everything that one is capable of becoming." People who have everything can
maximize their potential. They can seek knowledge, peace, esthetic experiences, selffulfillment, oneness with God, etc. It is usually middle-class to upper-class students who
take up environmental causes, join the Peace Corps, go off to a monastery, etc.
5. Psychoanalytic
The psychoanalytic theories of motivation
propose a variety of influences. Freud
(1990) suggested that all action or
behavior is a result of potentially harmful
internal, biological instincts classified into
two categories: life (sexual) and death
(aggression). Freud's students broke with
him over this concept.
For example, Erikson proposed that
interpersonal and social relationships are
fundamental; Adler proposed that the need
for power is basic; Jung proposed
temperament and the search for meaning
is basic.
6. Social Learning
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Social learning theory suggests that modeling
(imitating others) and vicarious learning (watching
others have consequences applied to their
behavior) are important motivators.
7. Social Cognition
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Social cognition theory proposes reciprocal
determination. In this view, the environment, an
individual's behavior, and the individual's
characteristics (e.g., knowledge, emotions,
cognitive development) influence and are
influenced by each other.
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Albert Bandura highlights self-efficacy (the belief
that a particular action is possible and that the
individual can accomplish it) and self-regulation
(the establishment of goals, the development of a
plan to attain those goals, the commitment to
implement that plan, the actual implementation of
the plan, and subsequent actions of reflection and
modification or redirection.
8. Eclectic
Leonard et al. proposed 5 factors as the sources: (1)
Instrumental Motivation (rewards and punishers), (2)
Intrinsic Process Motivation (enjoyment, fun), (3) Goal
Internalization (self-determined values and goals), (4)
Internal Self Concept-based Motivation (matching
behavior with internally-developed ideal self), (5)
External Self Concept-based Motivation (matching
behavior with externally-developed ideal self). Individuals
are influenced by all five factors, though in varying
degrees that can change in specific situations.
Factors one and five are external. Individuals who are
instrumentally motivated are influenced by immediate
actions in the environment (e.g. operant conditioning);
individuals who are self-concept motivated are influenced
by their constructions of external demands and ideals
(e.g., social cognition).
Factors two, three, and four are internal. Intrinsic means
the specific task is interesting and provides immediate
internal reinforcement (e.g., cognitive or humanistic
theory). The individual with a goal-internalization
orientation is task-oriented (e.g., humanistic or social
cognition theory) whereas the person with an internal
self-concept orientation is influenced by individual
constructions of the ideal self (humanistic or
psychoanalytic theory).
Adapted with permission from my friend and co-author Professor Bill Huitt’s website.