Ima Student
Josie Tierney-Fife
English 9 Advanced
22 March 2010
Part 1
The topic that I am doing my I-search on is the history of film. I chose this as my topic for a
couple different reasons. One reason why I chose this topic is because I love films, and I am very
interested in how films came to come around and where they originated. Although I watch films very
often, usually a couple every week, I do not know nearly anything about the history of them, or the
process that is taken to create one. This is why I want to study the history of film. Another reason why
I chose this topic is because I know that film has changed much over the years that it has been around,
and it would be interesting to see how and when it changed.
I do not know much, if anything at all, about the history of film. I know things about it that
mostly everyone knows about it. These are simple facts like, films used to be in black in white, or that
films used to be captured on cameras much different than those that are used today. I also know that
over time new technology has been created and it and other factors, such as camera angles, have greatly
improved the qualities of films. Special effects that have been improving every day since it was
developed has also added immensely to the overall quality of films. I know that back before special
effects were created, the films were usually shot in front of a backdrop similar to those seen in plays or
musicals because they could not create backgrounds any other way. Before new and inventive camera
angles were developed and made possible, the camera usually would stay in one place and focus on one
overall scene without moving.
After I finish all of my research, and my paper is all written, I want to be a lot smarter and
knowledgeable. Right now, I know very little about the history of film. After I get done with all of
this, I want to know how films came about, and I want to know things like who created the first film,
how films have changed over time, and a lot of facts about films themselves and the history of them. I
want to know things like dates and years in specific, because that would help me to understand the
timeline of films, and how long it took for certain things to come around, and when they did. This is
what I want to learn from studying the history of film.
Ima Student
Josie Tierney-Fife
English 9 Advance
22 March 2010
Part Two
When I was told in class that we were going to be researching a topic of our choice for a big
paper, I thought of two topics immediately that I would want to research. I thought of guitars and
movies. Originally, I wanted to study the history of the guitar, or something that had to do with guitars.
However, when I started researching, I realized that there was not a lot of information on that subject. I
decided to go with my second subject, which was the history of films. I picked this as my runner up
because I am a big fan of movies, and I love to watch them, so I would enjoy to research them. When I
first started to do my research, I realized that history film was way too general of a subject to research,
and that there was way too much information about it. So, I had to narrow down my search. I decided
to research the history of sound in films because I was, and still am, amazed at all of the different
sounds that go into movies, and I wanted to learn more about it.
On February 2nd, I found five great websites that made it easy to take notes, and to research. At
that point, I felt good about my topic. At first, when I was finding the websites, I found that it was hard
to find good and reliable websites with the kind of information that I was looking for, but in the end, I
was able to find good websites with a lot of information.
On February 8th, I started taking notes on my print sources, like my websites and my articles.
Since the beginning of my research, I had already learned a lot of information that I did not know
before I started doing this project. When I started, I pretty much did not know anything about my
subject. At this point, I knew tons of facts about tons of subjects that I didn't even know existed before.
I, at that point, was in the process of taking notes on all my print sources. This was pretty difficult, and
it was by far the most difficult process that I had done yet. It was a process that took an incredible
amount of time because all of the websites and all of the articles that I had were very big and had lots
of information, and that made it hard to take notes. Also, the format of which we had to take our notes
in was kind of strange and unfamiliar to me, so it made it harder and a longer process to take the actual
notes.
On February 10, I finished taking notes on all my print sources. Taking notes was by far the
worst thing we had to do up to that point. Taking all those notes took an incredible amount of time, and
the format in which we had to take notes in was weird and time-consuming. I knew, however, that in
the end the format that we took them in would definitely help while writing the paper, but as I was
taking them, it seemed like a lost cause. I took notes on 5 different websites, and 2 different online
articles. Some of my websites were really good, and I got the most amount of information off of those
ones. However, these websites took a very long time to take notes on. I think that the worst thing
about taking notes, though, was reading the actual websites. I am not a huge fan on reading, and
although I think my topic is interesting, it was pretty boring to read about. We were supposed to have
an interview scheduled soon by then, but I did not know who I was going to interview yet. I thought
that I was going to interview Mr. Roy, because I heard that he may know some things about this topic,
and he may be able to help me out.
February 22 was the first day back to school after the vacation. Over the vacation, I worked on
the I-Search a pretty good amount. I interviewed a professional sound recorder and post-sound mixer
named Jason Fyrberg. He lives in California, and he is a former student of Gorham High School. I
talked with him for a little over 45 minutes, and I got tons of information from him. I got a lot of
information about topics that my websites didn't cover, such as equipment, and the processes taken in
the actual filming of the movie. After the interview, I had to take notes on it. I thought that this was a
much easier thing to do than to take notes on the websites. I think that that was easier because I didn't
have to read anything, I could just listen to it. Also, I had already had the interview the day before, so I
remembered a lot of things he said, so I knew where the most information fell and what the most
important information was. I liked Jason, and he was very nice. I did an interview over the phone,
because he is in California. So, I put my laptop lid down over my phone which was on speaker phone,
and it recorded on garageband. At some points, it was kind of hard to hear, but for the most part I could
hear what he was saying in the first place, and listening back on garageband. After the interview, the
next thing to do was the actual writing part of the whole thing. The idea of having to write at least 7
pages on my topic made me a little bit nervous. I knew, however, that it sounded more than it actually
was. Still though, I wanted to get a good grade on this paper because it is a big part of our grade not
only for quarter 3, but also for our final grade. I hoped, then, that the way we had been made to take
notes will help out a lot in the end, because it was very tedious to take notes in that format, and to make
subtopics, and such. I thought it will help out in the end though, because our teacher said that it helps a
lot, and also previous students who have already done this assignment in their past said that it helped
them out a lot, and that writing the paper is basically copying down your notes into full sentences that
make sense.
Recently, a few days ago from March 1st, we officially started the writing process of the Isearch. I already noticed how much it helped to have taken notes in the format that was required. All I
had to do at that point, when I type, was pretty much to copy down what I wrote on my notecards, and
to transition them into full sentences that made sense along with the rest of the information. I had, at
that point, finished writing my intro and I was about a paragraph into my 1st subtopic, which is the
history of Edison sound films. At that point, I was writing about the kinetoscope. Although this
machine did not play sound, it was important to add this in because it gave background information
about Thomas Edison's next machine, the kinetophone, which did have sound. These 2 were very
similar, and I thought it would help readers to understand the kinetophone more if they knew about the
kinetoscope. I am felt pretty good about this project at this point. 1000 words was due the next day,
but with all the information I had from all of my websites, and my interview, I knew that that would be
a piece of cake. In fact, I thought that the whole thing wouldn't be too hard. That was what I was
hoping at least. I hoped that my information will carry me far enough to the required amount of pages
and information. That is the only thing I was a little bit nervous about.
On March 8th, I was mostly done with all of my paper. That was, the research and writing part.
I did not do it all because I knew that it wasn't all due until the next day, because Mrs. T-F was out on
the 8th. Writing the paper had been pretty easy. This was because I just took my notecards, which were
organized, and I typed right what was on them into my paper. Sometimes I had to add in other
sentences, but this was easy as well. The notecard format helped, but I did not see why each notecard
had to be so small. It would have been just as easy to have 2 or 3 big notecards with all of the
information on one topic by the same source, rather than 7 or 8 notecards. Still though, the format
definitely helped. I was done with 2 or 3 of my subtopics at this point, so I only had to do 2 or 3 more
later that night. Also, my last couple of topics were the shortest ones, so I did not think I had too much
work that I had to do for my I-Search that night. At that point, my paper was a little over 5 pages. So, I
knew that I should easily be able to get at least 7 pages of information on my topic.
After doing all of this, finding websites, taking notes, and interviewing Jason Fyrberg, I learned
a lot of things. I learned not only information about my topic, but also information about myself. I
learned that I could do a research paper as big as this one was. I also learned that I could successfully
write interview questions and interview an expert on my topic. This paper took a long time to write,
and while I was doing it I did not enjoy it, but now that it is all over, I think that it was a good
experience for me. I think this because it taught me how to properly take notes in notecard format, and
it taught me how to handle all of the information I was getting. So, all in all, I think that I benefitted
from this process.
Ima Student
Josie Tierney-Fife
English 9 Advanced
22 March 2010
Sound In Film
Films and the film industry itself combined make up one of the biggest and most important
industries in America and the world today. Without films and movie theaters, modern America would
have an extremely different culture. So much of today's culture is directly influenced by movies. For
instance, most products, clothing, and games can be traced back to being influenced in some way, by a
movie or movies. In a recent study done by the Motion Pictures Association of America, from the
summer of 2006 to the summer of 2007, in the United States alone, 1470 million people went to the
movie theater to see a movie (Lord). Also, America might not have as good of an economy, as movies
provide a steady stream of income to America and it's economy. For instance, the movie industry
contributes approximately 8 billion dollars to America's economy every year. A very important part of
a film is the sound that is incorporated in it. Without sound in films, many people would grow bored of
them, and they would not be as captivating as they are with sound. People should know about sound in
film, and a little bit of the history about it, because movies and films play such a big role in the daily
lives of people, and it also plays a big role in our culture. If the people learn more about this topic, and
the processes that workers go through to incorporate sound into film, people will learn to like and
appreciate movies more. There is so much to learn about the topic of sound in film. These are
subtopics along the lines of early sound methods, which include Thomas Edison's inventions and
developments in the field of sound films, jobs that work with sound films, and the equipment that is
used behind the scenes.
One of the earliest sound film experimentalists was Thomas Edison; not only did he invent
projectors, but he made sound films himself as well. One of Thomas Edison's first film innovations
was the kinetoscope. The kinetoscope was an early way to view moving pictures. An early prototype
use 18mm film and it was a camera with a peep-hole viewer. The finished product of the kinetoscope
was finished in 1892. The finished product was an upright cabinet made of wood. This cabinet had a
peephole and a magnifying glass on the top of it. The viewer would look into the peephole to see the
film move below. Inside of the cabinet was a film that was about 50 feet long that was arranged around
a series of spools. The film inside of the machine was drawn under the lens at a consistent speed due to
an electrically drawn sprocket wheel. Beneath the film strip was an electric lamp. Beneath the lamp,
there was a revolving shutter with a narrow slit in it. As each frame passed under the light, it made the
film look frozen. The continuous stream of frozen shots made it look to the human eye, and anyone
who looked through the peephole, like the pictures were moving. In the prototype for the kinetoscope,
a horizontal feed system was used on the interior to run the film strip through. However, in the final
product, the horizontal feed system was replaced by a vertical feed system. These kinetoscopes,
however, did not play sound.
Because they did not play sound, Edison invented a new projector that he released to the public
in 1895. This was the kinetophone. Kinetophones were kinetoscopes with phonographs in the cabinet.
A phonograph was a record player. The people would look through the peephole on the kinetophone
and listen to the phonograph at the same time. The kinetophone was an advanced invention because it
not only played sound and film simultaneously, but it also synchronized the two. He synchronized
them by attaching the phonograph and the film strip together using a belt. The initial idea of the
kinetophone drew attention, but the attention was slowed down when Edison's supervisor, William
Kennedy Laurie Dickson, stopped working with Edison. In 1913, Thomas Edison introduced a new
version of the kinetophone. This kinetophone could project the film onto a screen that people watched.
The kinetophone projected the motion picture onto the screen, while the phonograph was at the other
side of the theater. A long pulley connected the two machines and synchronized them.
Although Thomas Edison made so many innovations and strides towards the future of sound
film equipment in his inventions, he also made many of his own sound films for the entertainment of
the people. These films could be played on his kinetophones. By 1913, Thomas Edison had already
made and produced nineteen sound films. However, he abandoned sound films in 1915 for a few
reasons. The first reason that he abandoned sound films was because union rules made it so people
who were not necessarily trained as projectionists were made to be ones under the rules. This, in turn,
made it so synchronization was not always achieved in the theater. The second reason that he
discontinued from sound films was because the Motion Picture Patents Corporation broke up in 1915,
so Edison no longer had a patent on his kinetophone (“History of Edison Motion Pictures”). Thomas
Edison was one of the greatest inventors and innovators in the field of sound film. However, after his
time, many other people rose to stardom with their inventions whose technologies far surpassed those
of the technologies that Edison was capable of producing.
Throughout the early years of sound films, many new improvements and technology rose and
fell and came and went, but overall these improvements marked the beginning of a new nation that
would soon be filled with movie theaters and movie lovers alike. One of the earlier innovations in the
history of sound film was an invention called the eidoloscope. The eidoloscope was invented in 1910
by Eugene A. Lauste. He used the eidoloscope and the photophone to try to put sound directly on a
film strip. He used a light gate of a vibrating silicon wire between two magnets in the eidoloscope to
create the sound. Between 1910 and 1914, he made many sound films. Although his invention was an
important one, it never took off as a big and popular one (Schoenherr). In 1922, three German
inventors named Josef Engl, Hans Vogt, and Josef Engl patented the “Tri-Ergon” process. This process
prevented variations in film speed and audio distortion by using a patented flywheel mechanism (Kay
et. al). Later, in 1923, a bigger and more important innovation was made. An American inventor name
Lee De Forest demonstrated a method to put sound directly onto the film strip. This was important
because this was a relatively easy thing to do, and it was more efficient. Also, it synchronized the film
and the sound more efficiently. However, at this point in time, film companies were surprisingly
uninterested in sound film. They feared that it would take too long and cost too much money to
produce them (Mintz et. al). In fact, when the first sound film appeared in 1924, it was turned down by
the movie companies. The movie companies said that there were already a high number of silent films
in production, and the actors in these silent films were on long-term contracts.
Later that year, though, a small, struggling, motion picture company named Warner Brothers
bought the Vitaphone company who produced the sound film. The first sound film that premiered in
New York, was a movie by the Vitaphone company and Warner Brothers. It was titled Don Juan.
When Warner Brothers released the film, the public ended up loving the new sound films (Schoenherr).
Warner Brothers used sound to compete with other, larger film companies. They pre-recorded their
soundtrack, using the Vitaphone system, so as not to have to pay for live entertainment. The first 2
sound films that Warner Brothers released were very popular, and within a year, over 300 theaters were
enabled for sound. The Vitaphone company was the company used by Warner Brothers to put sound in
their films. The Vitaphone company used an actual vitaphone machine to put sound on their films. The
vitaphone was a system that used 33 1/3 rpm discs (Kay et. al). The sound was recorded onto the disc,
then played on a large turntable, which was physically attached to the projector. It was attached to the
projector to try to maintain synchronization. The vitaphone method was short-lived, however, because
synchronization was not always achieved, and disc recording space was limited (Masters).
The arrival of sound produced a large population increase in movie theaters throughout
America. The population that went to the theater went from 50 million a week, in the mid 1920's, to
110 million a week in 1929. The arrival of sound also produced many transformations in the films
themselves. For instance, new genres were introduced by the arrival of sound. These were genres such
as musicals, gangster films, and comedies that used wit rather than prop comedy. Sound also changed
the overall ambiance of the theaters. Before sound films, the audience was usually rowdy and loud,
and they talked to one another and out loud to provide dialogue for the actors on screen. In the sound
film theaters, the crowds became silent because they wanted to hear what was said in the films.
Another change that occurred with the arrival of sound films was the replacement of live entertainment.
In theaters before sound, there was usually live entertainment somewhere in the theater to entertain the
people who came to watch the movies. Now, however, these live performers were replaced by
newsreels or animated shorts. Another thing that sound did was it made films more American. Actors
now talked with slang, rather than just ordinary language printed on screen. Accents also appeared on
the screen. These were accents along the line of western drawls or New York accents (Mintz et. al).
With all of these great new innovations, however, came some problems. One problem was that
changing the theaters so they could play sound was extremely expensive. Also, the costs to make the
movies went up a lot. Another problem that early sound introduced was that many people lost their
jobs. These people lost their jobs because before sound films, there were many silent films, and many
silent film actors. However, after sound came, these silent films became less popular, which in turn
caused many of the silent film actors to lose their jobs (Foner and Garraty). Another problem that
sound introduced was problems with equipment. The early sound equipment was big and loud in the
theaters. They were so loud, in fact, that they had to build separate soundproof rooms to put all of the
equipment in. Also, early sound films were very static because the microphones were not good or
steady (Winokur and Holsinger).
After sound had been out in public for a couple years, many new innovations were made to
make sound films better and more enjoyable. One innovation that was made was a different way to set
up the speakers in the theater. For a while, speakers were put below or to the side of the screen.
However, in 1927, Earl Sponable created the porous screen. The porous screen allowed there to be
speakers behind the screen, rather than below it or next to it. Another innovation that was made was
the invention of electrical recording. In the new method of recording sound onto films, the sound was
recorded, via light waves, directly onto the 35mm film strip. The sound went on the side of the strip in
between the holes that attach the strip into the projector. This method was much easier and better
sounding, and it took over the old method of sound on disc around 1930 (Schoenherr).
In all of the early sound films, there was only one channel that the sound went through. This is
called mono sound recording. The same sound is recorded and played through different speakers. So,
no matter which speaker you listened through, the same sound would come out. This changed in 1935,
when Alan Blumlein invented the first stereo variable soundtrack. In stereo recordings, sound is
different through the speakers. This means different sound would be coming out of different speakers.
Later, in 1952, a new theater called the cinerama was built. In the cinerama, a new wide screen was
made for the theater. This was built because the movie industries were trying to compete with the new
televisions. With the wider screens came the demand for wider and louder sound. More speakers were
set up behind the screen as well as throughout the theater. These speakers played both mono and stereo
soundtracks. These early innovations and technological advances were just the first step in a much
larger stride, taken by new companies and inventors that have helped to define what a movie is today.
In the later, more previous years, new companies with new and state of the art technology have
risen and defined themselves as titans of the sound and film industry; these are companies along the
lines of Dolby, THX, and Imax. Perhaps the biggest and most used company today is Dolby. Dolby
made its first appearance in 1965 when they released the first ever Dolby noise reduction system. This
technology made it so there was not as much background noise on the master track of the movie. Later,
in the 1970's this technology was used again, but for a different purpose. It was used, this time, to
make the overall sound quality of the movie better. Dolby's second professional sound system, Dolby
SR, made its appearance in 1986. This provided even more noise reduction than the last system. It
also had state of the art equipment that provided the best sound ever possible, next to live sound (Kay
et. al). Dolby, overall as a company, however does something much more important than just noise
reduction. They take large files, such as movie and sound clips that take up a lot of space on machines
and hard drives, and they turn them into small files, while keeping the sound quality the same. This is
very important because without them, sound would be worsened in the editing process by being
compressed to be able to fit in the amount of electronic memory that it needs to fit in (Fyrberg).
Another important company today is THX. THX is a sound reproduction system that was far
more advanced than the other sound systems released in it's time. THX was released in 1983 along
with its debut film, Star Wars: Return of the Jedi. THX could produce sounds a whole octave higher or
lower than any of the other previous sound systems. The last big company of the 70's and 80's, that
continues today, is Imax. Imax was created in the late 1960's, but the first actual Imax theaters were
not built until the 1970's. Imax theaters were larger and louder than any other theater of the time. 1
theater alone usually used between 10,000 to 20,000 watts of amplification, 6-track stereo surround
sound systems, and a 3,200 watt 3,000 pound subwoofer to produce bass sound (Kay et. al). These
companies and their services and products, help to make up what is the modern sound experience in a
movie. However, there are many other factors in making sound what it is today. One of these factors is
the workers.
Many people, today, do not realize what goes on behind the scenes of making a movie; there are
tons of people and equipment that make today's films possible. There are also many jobs that are to be
done. Sound editors are the main people who work on sound in movies. There are three kinds of
sound editors, or workers. There are dialogue editors, sound effects designers, and music editors. The
dialogue people handle the dialogue in the film. On set, as much sound is recorded as possible.
However, sometimes, dialogue cannot be used. When this happens, the actors go into a studio later to
talk over their part on screen as they watch themselves on screen. This helps to make the sound crisper
and clearer.
Another job is sound editing. A sound editor does a few different things. One thing the sound
editor does is something called Foley. Foley is when the sound designers add in sounds to film that
people would not be able to hear normally. For instance, after the film is shot, they add in sounds like
footsteps, handshakes, and clocks ticking. They do this because it makes the film sound fuller, and not
so empty. Another thing that sound editors do, is they edit the sound after everything is complete.
After sound is recorded, it goes to be edited to fit the action and movement on screen. They have to do
this because the sound is shot with different equipment than the camera. So, after a scene in a movie is
shot, a film without sound comes in along with sound of the filming. The sound editor has to fit in the
sound to the film. After the editor does this, they have to smooth out the sound to make it flow better
and not sound as choppy.
Another job is the special effects editor. For special sounds in the film, the special effects
designers choose sounds that they think would most represent the thing they are trying to give sound to
on screen. They take these sounds and mix them together to form a completely original and new sound
to fit the thing or action on screen. For example, TIE fighters in the Star Wars movies, are actually
trucks speeding by on a highway. This is the sound that the designers chose to represent the TIE
fighters. The last main worker in sound is the music editor. These editors take an orchestra or popular
music, record it, and put it in later in the film.
In addition to workers, lots of different equipment is needed as well. Microphones are among
the most common of all of the equipment. There are wireless microphones and not wireless
microphones. On set, there are usually 4 wireless microphones. These wireless microphones are easier
to use, but sometimes they do not sound as good as the regular microphones. There are usually 2 or 3
boom microphones, which are wired microphones on top of poles, held by people. These are the best
sounding microphones, but they can sometimes get in the way. The last kind of microphone is the plant
microphone. These are wireless mics that you can plant at different places out of scene and view.
Wireless receivers are what receive the wireless microphone signals.
Another type of equipment that is on the set of movies, is the multitrack recorders. Multitrack
recorders use 8 tracks, so 8 different microphones are used in the shooting of a scene using a multitrack
recorder. On set, 2 of these are usually present. A commonly seen piece of equipment is the clamper
stick. The clamper sticks are used to show footage, the time, and the scene, so the sound editors can
start the sound precisely, and synchronize the sound with the picture easily. The last common pieces of
equipment on set are sound carts. Sound carts hold all of the equipment on it. These include
multitrack recorders and wireless receivers. It also holds mixers. A mixer is used on set to mix sound
on set. Workers want to try to use these on set and mix on set because it costs a lot of money to use the
studio after the filming (Fyrberg).
Films and the film industry itself combined make up one of the biggest and most important
industries in America and the world today. It's beginnings with the inventions of Thomas Edison and
the kinetophone helped it to become what it is today. Thomas Edison was only the beginning of sound
films however. After him came people and inventions like the eidoloscope, the Vitaphone company,
Warner Brothers, stereo variable soundtracks, the porous screen, and many other early sound advances
and innovations. However, with these new innovations also came problems. These were problems
along the lines of money, because making sound cost more money, noisy equipment, synchronization
problems, and people losing their jobs. New companies, such as Dolby, THX, and Imax, make today's
movie going experience more memorable and enjoyable with their own state of the art technology.
Behind the scenes of a movie, though, many different things go on. Workers like sound editors, music
editors, and special effects editors help make the incredible sounds that is heard in almost every movie
made today. These workers use a number of different equipment, like microphones, multitrack
recorders, sound carts, and on set mixers. People should care about my topic because movies play a
huge role on our culture. Another thing that movies do, is they bring in a constant and steady source of
income every year. Without movies and films, America would be an extremely different place with a
different sense of identity, and it is important for people to know why a lot of popular culture is what it
is.
Works Cited
Foner, Eric, and John A. Garraty. “Movies.” The Reader's Companion to American History (1991).
SIRS Researcher. Web. 9 Feb 2010.
Fyrberg, Jason. Personal interview. 20 Feb. 2010.
“History of Edison Motion Pictures.” History of Edison Motion Pictures. U.S Library of Congress, 13
Jan 1999. Web. 9 Feb 2010.
Kay, Johnathan, Kimber Ghent, Brian Chumney, and Erik Lutkins. “Film Sound History.” Film Sound
History. Middle Tennessee State University, Web. 9 Feb 2010.
Lord, David B. “How Many People go to the Movies Each Year?” How Many People go to the Movies
Each Year? Motion Picture Association of America, Web. 9 Feb 2010
Masters, Ian G. “Tech Countdown—No. 10: The Evolution of Moving Pictures.” The Toronto Star
(1999). SIRS Researcher. Web. 9 Feb 2010.
Mintz, Steven, Sarah McNeil, John Leinhard, Kai-Ju Hsieh, Meng-Fen (Grace) Lin, You-Mei Lui, Jerry
Price, Michael Rapp, and Sam Hanlon. “Hollywood's America.” Digital History: Using New
Technologies to Enhance Teaching an Research. The University of Houston, 9 Feb 2010.
Web. 9 Feb 2010.
Schoenherr, Steven E. “Motion Picture Sound.” Motion Picture Sound. Steven E. Schoenherr, 7
Dec 2000. Web. 9 Feb 2010.
Winokur, Mark, and Bruce Holsinger. “A Brief History of Sound in Movies.” Movies and Film.
Penguin Group (USA) Inc., 2001. Web. 9 Feb 2010