Perfer et obdura; dolor hic tibi proderit olim
Be patient and tough; some day this pain will be useful to you.
Pioneer High School
2011-12Edition
AP European History
Major Assignments and Unit Readings
2
Introduction
First: I’d like to congratulate you at reaching this point, only the most dedicated students even attempt to take an AP
class. Hopefully this class will be intellectually rewarding, interesting, and at times even fun.
Second: Don’t panic! This booklet is designed to cover the whole year. If you were given most of your assignments for
any class, it might seem overwhelming. I’ve created this booklet so that you can get ahead, but more importantly so you
can plan your time well. I know that you will have other classes and activities; this is my attempt to give you a way to
manage your time effectively.
Third If it is available, for those of you who apply for the ACE program for the spring semester, you will have one
additional assignment- we will have a series of review sessions at lunch that you will be required to attend prior to the
AP Exam during the 4th quarter.
Fourth: You can write in this book, it’s yours. You can underline important passages, make corrections as needed and
make notes in the margins. For the readings, because they are primary sources, spelling was left as it was originally
written, but that doesn’t mean everything is perfect.
Last: Don’t get over confident. This is not “everything” that you will be doing this year. You will also be reading,
completing some small assignments, taking notes, reviewing your material, and just plain studying for quizzes and
exams.
3
Table of Contents
Assignments
Assessments
Course Unit Topics
General Assignments
Page
5
Cornell PERSIA Note taking System
DBQ Rubric
FRQ Rubric
Student Led Discussion s
Student Group Review
Semester Research Assignment
Online Class Components
8
12
14
15
18
19
24
Art Assignment
Book Review
Movie Critique
You Are There Newscast
25
Take It APPARTS Assignment
Art Analysis Assignment
32
38
40
Extra Credit Assignments
27
28
Unit Assignments and Readings
Summer Assignment
Multiple Choice
Quiz
Unit I Introduction: Late Middle Ages:
Social and Political Breakdown
47
Plague DBQ Practice
Black Death Discussion
Multiple Choice
Exam
Unit II Renaissance and Discovery,
Reformation
54
Renaissance Practice FRQ
Machiavelli’s Italy- Virtual Discussion
Reforming Sermons
Functions of Festivals Discussion
Multiple Choice
from Text, DBQ
Exam
Unit III Age of Religious Wars and
European State Consolidation
75
Parliament vs. Stewart Kings Debate and
Paper
77
Multiple Choice
from Text, FRQ
Exam
Unit IV New Directions in Thought and
Culture and the Old Regime
88
Scientific Philosophy Fair
Science vs. Religion Discussion
90
Multiple Choice
and DBQ Exam
Unit V The Transatlantic Economy,
Trade Wars, and Colonial Rebellion and
The Age of Enlightenment
99
Enlightened Facebook Activity
POV- Salons
Philosophes and Politics Discussion
Columbian Exchange Virtual Discussion
101
FRQ (Two
Questions) Exam
4
Unit VI- - The French Revolution and the
Age of Napoleon
116
The Trial of Robespierre Debate and Paper
Liberty, Equality, Fraternity Virtual
Discussion
118
Multiple Choice
Exam
Unit VII The Conservative Order,
Economic Advance and Social Unrest
128
Industrial Revolution DBQ Essay
British Textile Virtual Discussion
139
Multiple Choice
and DBQ Exam
Semester (Winter Break) Assignment
Unit VIII - - The Age of Nation States
143
145
147
153
National Unification Puppet Show
Bismarck and German Unification Virtual
Discussion
Multiple Choice
Exam
Unit IX European Society to WWI, The
Birth of Modern Thought
156
Ideologies on Stage
Rationalism, Racism, Nationalism Discussion
158
Multiple Choice
from Text, FRQ
(Two Question)
Exam
Unit X - Imperialism, WWI, Russian
Revolution
169
WWI Limericks
WWI DBQ
Settlement at Paris Discussion
171
Multiple Choice
Exam
Unit XI- Political Experiments of the
1920s Europe and the Great Depression
179
The Great Depression in Germany- The Nazi's
Discussion
You Are There Project
181
Multiple Choice
from Text, (Two
Question) FRQ
Exam
Unit XII – WWII
192
POV – Kristallnacht
Racism and the Holocaust Discussion
Multiple Choice
Exam
Unit XIII - Changing Europe Cold War
198
Post WWII FRQ
The collapse of European communism
Discussion
The rise of radical political Islam Virtual
Discussion
Exam Multiple
Choice
Unit XIV - AP Review and Test Prep
The Golden Years
Unit XV – The World After WWII
AP EXAM
210
211
212
5
Course Unit Topics
Summer Assignment
The Black Death
The 100 years War
Unit 1 Introduction: Late Middle Ages: Social and
Ecclesiastical Breakdown
Political Breakdown
The Great Schism and Impact
Medieval Russia
The French Invasions
Major Figures of Italian Ren Politics- Medici/ Machiavelli
The Northern Renaissance
Unit 2 Renaissance and Discovery, Reformation
Images of Renaissance Life & Thought
Society and Religion
Reformation and Counter-Reformation
Societal Change/English Reformation
Imperial Spain and Philip II
Religious Wars
30 years war
Unit 3 Age of Religious Wars and European State
Parliament vs. Stuart Kings
Consolidation
The Age of Absolutism
Absolute Monarchy in France
The Romanov’s
The Ottoman’s
The Scientific Revolution
Philosophy vs. Science
Unit 4 New Directions in Thought and Culture and the New Scientific Institutions
Old Regime
Women in Science
Witch-Hunting
Science vs. Religion
The Old Regime
The Agricultural Revolution
18th Century Industrial Revolution
Impact of Industrial Revolution on Women, Children, and
Urbanization
Overseas Empires
The Spanish Colonial System
Black Slavery, the Plantation
The Colombian Exchange
Unit 5 The Transatlantic Economy, Trade Wars, and Mid-18th Century Wars
The American Revolution
Colonial Rebellion, The Age of Enlightenment
The Enlightenment
The Philosophes and Religion
Enlightenment Society
Women in the Enlightenment
Philosophes and Politics
Enlightenment on Art and Architecture
Enlightened Absolutism- Frederick II
Enlightened Absolute Monarchs
The French Revolution
Crisis of the French Monarchy
Unit 6- The French Revolution and the Age of
Reconstruction of France
Napoleon
Reconstruction of France
6
Unit 7- The Conservative Order, Economic Advance
and Social Unrest
Unit 8 - The Age of Nation States
Unit 9- - European Society to WWI, The Birth of
Modern Thought
Unit 10 - Imperialism, WWI, Russian Revolution
Women and the Church End of the Monarchy
Reign of Terror
The End of the Monarchy, Europe at War
Reign of Terror
The Thermidorian Reaction
Rise of Napoleon
The Consulate in France
Napoleon's Empire
European Response to Empire
Congress of Vienna
Romanticism
Religion in the Romantic Period
Romantic Literature and Art
Religion and Nationalism in the Romantic AgeNationalism and Liberalism
Emergence and Ideals of Nationalism and Liberalism
Conservatives
Wars of Independence in Latin America
Conservative Failure
Conservatives Internationally
Toward an Industrial Society
Family Structures and the Industrial Revolution
Industrial Revolution
Crime and Order
Family Life and Child Labor
Women in the Industrial Revolution
Revolutions of 1848
The Crimean War
The Abolishment of Slavery
Italian Unification
The Habsburgs and Russian Emancipation
German Unification
The Third Republic
The Second Industrial Revolution
The Middle Classes in Ascendancy
Late 19th Century Urban Life
Varieties of Late 19th Century Women's Experiences Jewish
Emancipation
Labor, Socialism and Politics to WWI
The New Reading Public,
Science in Mid-century- Darwinism, Science and Ethics
Christianity and the Church Under Siege
Toward a 20th Century Frame of Mind - Science: The
Revolution in Physics
The Coming of Modern Art
Nietzsche and Freud
Anti-Semitism
African Imperialism
Emerging Alliance Systems
World War I
Russian Revolution
Settlement at Paris
Political and Economic Factors after the Paris Peace settlement
7
Unit 11 Political Experiments of the 1920s
Europe and the Great Depression
Unit 12 - WWII
Unit 13 - Changing Europe Cold War
The Soviet Experiment Begins
The Fascist Experiment in Italy
Women in a Totalitarian Government
Joyless Victors- Great Britain
Trials of the Successor states in Eastern Europe
The Weimar Republic
Toward Great Depression
Causes of the Great Depression
The Great Depression in Great Britain, France, Germany
Comparison of Soviet vs. Nazi Police States
Nazi Economic Policy
Women under the Nazi government
The Great Depression in Italy
The Great Depression in the Soviet Union
Again the Road to War
The Spanish Civil War,
The Anschluss,
Munich
WWII
The Nazi Assault on the Jews of Poland
The Fall of Nazi Germany
Racism and the Holocaust
Explanations of the Holocaust
The Domestic Fronts
The Emergence of the Cold War
The creation of Israel and the Korean War
Soviet Domination of Eastern Europe
The Khrushchev Era and Brezhnev Era
French Decolonization
The collapse of European communism
The collapse of the Soviet Union
The Yeltsin Decade
The 20th Century movement of people
New Patterns in Work and Expectations of Women
The rise of radical political Islam
Toward a Welfare State Society
Transformations in Knowledge and Culture
The challenges of the EU
The Christian Heritage
The arrival of the computer
Unit 14 - AP Review and Test Prep
AP Europe Exam
Unit 15- The World Outside of Europe
Africa After WWII
Impact of AIDS on the African Continent
The Middle East After WWII
The creation of Israel and modern Palestine
South Asia After WWII
Asia After WWII
Latin America After WWII
Transnational Issues- Overpopulation, Global Warming,
Terrorism
8
The Cornell P.E.R.S.I.A. Note-taking System
For most note taking, the typical Cornell note system follows this format:
1. Record: During the lecture, use the note taking column to record the lecture using telegraphic sentences.
2. Questions: As soon after class as possible, formulate questions based on the notes in the right-hand column. Writing
questions helps to clarify meanings, reveal relationships, establish continuity, and strengthen memory. Also, the writing
of questions sets up a perfect stage for exam-studying later.
3. Recite: Cover the note taking column with a sheet of paper. Then, looking at the questions or cue-words in the
question and cue column only, say aloud, in your own words, the answers to the questions, facts, or ideas indicated by
the cue-words.
4. Reflect: Reflect on the material by asking yourself questions, for example: “What’s the significance of these facts?
What principle are they based on? How can I apply them? How do they fit in with what I already know? What’s beyond
them?
5. Review: Spend at least ten minutes every week reviewing all your previous notes. If you do, you’ll retain a great deal
for current use, as well as, for the exam.
When students are asked to study a time period in history, they sometimes have difficulty organizing all the seemingly
unconnected facts about different people, dates, events, and issues related to that time period. The PERSIA approach is
one way to organize how the people lived in a society at a certain time in history, and thus helps students to understand
their culture. The PERSIA graphic organizer is an acronym for the six themes that people have had throughout history.
These concerns are expressed in six general areas and by six questions
Political: Who shall be in charge?
Economic: How shall we make a living?
Religious: What shall we believe?
Social: How shall we relate to each other?
Intellectual: How shall we learn?
Artistic: How shall we express ourselves?
The answers to these six questions – in different times and places – have created different kinds of political, economic,
religious, social, intellectual, and artistic institutions. All these institutions form the cultural components of a people at a
particular time and place. The following provides additional questions and more details on each aspect of a culture:
Political => Who shall be in change?
 Who was in charge?
 How did the leader(s) get their power? (for example, hereditary, military power, by elections)
 Was government based on power or a social contract?
 How was the government of the society structured?
 What kinds of freedoms were given to the people?
Economic => How shall we make a living?
 How did most people make a living? (agriculture, commerce, manufacturing, services, trades and professions,
etc.)
 What were the main agricultural products? The main industries? The main services?
 Did this society depend on imports? What were the main imports?
 Did other societies depend on their exports? What were the main exports?
Religious => What shall we believe?
 What were the main religious groups in the society?
 Where did we come from? (origins)
 What happens when we die? (destination after death)
 How shall we spend our lives? (purpose of life)
 Was there religious freedom in the society?


9
Was religion part of the government?
What general beliefs did the society have?
Social => How shall we relate to each other?
 How was society organized?
 • Authoritarian society based on servitude and/or slavery.
 • Deference society based on rank in society.
 • Egalitarian society based on equal rights under the law.
 Did the society have different social classes? If so, what were they?
 What were the main ethnic groups?
 What were the main languages spoken in the society?
 Construct a social pyramid that indicates the different social classes.
Intellectual => How shall we learn?
 Was learning based on what others told you (authority), what you found out for yourself (self-discovery), or a
combination of both?
 Did free public education exist?
 Did all members of this society have access to education? If not, who did not and why not?
 Did centers of higher education exist? If so, for whom? If not, why not?
 What educational opportunities existed for women and minority groups?
 What information sources were available for different groups in the population?
Artistic => How shall we express ourselves?
 How did the society express itself artistically? (emotions, thoughts, ideas)
 What was its music and dance like?
 What were the major contributions of literature and writings?
 What were the major contributions in architecture and painting?
 What was the clothing like?
 What major discoveries or ideas were contributed by the society?
 What were the most popular sports and forms of entertainment?
For the question area of your notes, you should indicate as you review your notes, which themes did the particular
topic, person, or event address? You could streamline your note-taking with symbols, numbers or letters indicating
which part or parts relates to the PERSIA acronym. This will help with your overall review of your notes.
Enhanced Notes- For each chapter you will be given an outline of the main points of the chapter, but it is not everything
that you have to know. For each chapter you will have a set of terms, individuals and events. For all the terms,
individuals and events that are not defined or identified within the notes that you have been given, you should enhance
your notes by adding each term, individual and event into your enhanced note section. Feel free to use bullet points if
that is an easier and more efficient option for you.
Cornell PERSIA Note Organization
Your notes should have the following parts
PERSIA- the Initials, symbols or
letters for the PERSIA acronym
Enhanced Notes: - Terms,
Individuals and Events with their
descriptions that were not
included in the Core Notes
Core Notes: Notes provided by Guemmer
10
Your Notes should look something like this:
Cornell P.E.R.S.I.A Note Sheet
Themes
Enhanced Notes
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
Summary
Core Notes
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
11
Political
Economic
Religious
Social
Intellectual
Artistic
12
Document Based Questions
How to write…
Purpose: The document question is not to test your prior knowledge of subject matter, but rather to evaluate your
ability to formulate and support and answer from documentary evidence. The DBQ is designed to simulate the work of
the historian and differs only in the time for analysis.
Assessment: There is no one correct answer; instead, a variety of approaches are possible. The College Board expects
you to show “cogency and appropriateness of interpretation and the ability to marshal historical data in support of that
interpretation.”
In other words:
1. Use your knowledge by comprehending the facts and then apply those facts as evidence to prove your
thesis.
2. Analyze and evaluate the documents by determining relevance, credibility or biases of the sources, cause
and effect relationships, and assumptions.
3. Synthesize the facts (the information from the documents) and your ideas to create and original, wellorganized essay response to the assignment.
Hints for reading:
1. Read the assignment/question carefully. Analyze the statement to make sure you understand ALL the parts
completely. Breakdown the categories to use in structuring your essay.
2. Read all documents in order of presentation. Return to the more important documents only after you have
read all documents.
3. There are no decoy or intentionally misleading documents.
4. Look for ideas as you read the documents. Make notes or highlight in the margins as to the document
support of the question/categories.
5. Evaluate the credibility of the source by checking the date, the author, and key words on the document.
Think about motives, needs, and timing. Be sure to include this evaluation in your essay.
Hints for writing:
1. Respond to all aspects of the assignment/question. Cover all the bases.
2. Do not list or re-write documents when you organize your essay. In no case should documents be listed,
cited, or explained in a laundry list fashion.
3. Do cite documents and show the reader that you are aware of the source and its relevance.
Examples:
Type A – “…Northern and Southern France are compared (doc 4)…or…the view of a French
Bishop is given in (doc 6)…or the view of the intendant in (doc 13)…”
Type B – “As the French Bishop states in the homily regarding Protestants in 1545…or…the
clearness of Dutch involvement in trade declined as shown in the chart of trade balances…”
The important requirement is awareness of and relevance to your thesis!
4. You may refer to historical facts and developments not mentioned in the documents, however this is not
required. It simply shows your understanding of the situation. This differs from AP US DBQ’s
5. You may merge and integrate documents, this shows thinking on your part. (See #2 above)
6. This is not a term paper. Be concise. Get to the point. This is a timed exercise.
13
Purpose: Currently DBQs are scored using Core Scoring. The major difference is that well-written essays that may
read well on a holistic basis may not receive full credit. Structure your response accordingly.
Scoring: This means that essays will be scored using two parts, Basic Core and Expanded Core.
AP Point
Basic
1. Has an acceptable and explicit thesis that directly answers the question. Thesis MAY NOT just restate the
question.
 Not a simple rewording of the question or historical background.
2. Uses a majority of the documents individually and specifically by referring to anything within the document
box.
 It is not ok to simply write “in doc. 10 . . . “
 A majority is at least 1 more than half of the documents.
3. Demonstrates understanding of the basic meaning of a majority of the documents (may misinterpret no
more than one document)
 May misinterpret the content of no more than one (1) document; a major misrepresentation is one that leads
to an inaccurate grouping or a false conclusion.
4.
Supports the thesis with appropriate interpretations of a majority of the documents.

Documents must be used to support an argument, not just a laundry list of the docs.
5. Analyzes bias or point-of-view in at least three (3) documents.





Relates authorial point-of-view to author’s place politically and/or by nationality OR
Evaluates the reliability of the source OR
Recognizes the different kinds of documents serve different purposes OR
Analyzes tone or intent of documents OR
Analyzes Point-of-view in one document and gives consistent attribution.
6. Analyzes documents by explicitly grouping them in at least three appropriate (3) groups.
 A group consists of 2 or more doc’s
 Groups must be related to the question—can’t be “random” groupings
Expanded (1 – 3 points added to a total of 9 points)
 Must earn all six (6) points in the basic core before earning points in the expanded core.
 Additional points are earned for excellence in ONE, or All of the following:
 A clear, analytical, comprehensive thesis
 Persuasive use of documents as evidence
 Additional groupings or other forms of analysis
 Analysis of POV or bias in at least four (4) documents
 Relevant outside historical content woven into analysis of documents
 Use of all or almost all documents
 Careful and insightful analysis of the documents
Grading
Each AP point = 5.5 Grading points
6 AP points = 33 Grading points = 66%
14
FRQ Rubric
Points given will be indicated on the left, and the reasoning behind the points circled on the chart below.
Points
5
4
3
2
1
0
AP Rating
9-8
7-6
5-4
3-2
1
0
Thesis
Superior thesis Explicit and fully
responsive to the
question.
Organization
Extremely wellorganizedEssay
organization is
clear,
consistently
followed, and
effective in
support of the
argument
Balance
Addresses all areas of
the prompt evenly. If
the question requires
multiple arguments.
at least three ideas
are all covered at
some length
Analysis
Excellent use
of analysis to
support thesis
and main
ideas.
Evidence
All major
assertions in the
essay are
supported by at
least three specific
ideas, events, or
individuals being
used as relevant
evidence
Errors
Extremely wellwritten essay
Strong thesis Explicit and
responsive to the
question, contains
general analysis
Well-organized
essay – Essay
organization is
clear, effective
in support of the
argument, but
not consistently
followed, tends
to generalize.
Addresses all areas of
the prompt; may
lack some balance
between major areas.
Strong
analysis in
most areas;
needs more
detail.
All major
assertions in the
essay are
supported by more
than one specific
ideas, events, or
individuals being
used as relevant
evidence
Well-written essay
Most of the major
assertions in the
essay are
supported by at
least one specific
ideas, events, or
individuals being
used as relevant
evidence
Good Essay
Only one or two
specific ideas,
events, or
individuals are
mentioned, but
little to no use as
relevant evidence
Adequate Essay,
but is somewhat
incomplete (too
short)
Essay is
incomplete
Little to no
relevant facts
No specific ideas,
events, or
individuals are
mentioned or used.
No analysis
No evidence
Clear thesisThesis is explicit,
but not fully
responsive to the
question, tends to
stylistically
wander before
reaching the core
argument to be
addressed.
Organization is
clear,
consistently
followed, but
not effective
Underdeveloped
Thesis- Thesis
that merely
repeats/
paraphrases the
prompt
Organization is
unclear and
ineffective,
tends to jump
chronologically.
No discernable
attempt at a thesis
No discernable
organization;
stylistically
wanders and
jumps
chronologically.
Little to no
effort shown
Thesis is off topic.
If the question
requires multiple
arguments at least
three ideas suggested
by the prompt are
covered at least
briefly
Essay shows some
imbalance; there is a
Discussion of ideas,
but generalized
arguments.
Some
important
information
left out
Contains
some
analysis;
much more
detail is
needed.
Important
information
left out.
Essay shows serious
imbalance, If the
question requires
multiple arguments.
less than three
specific ideas, events,
or individuals being
used are discussed,
and only briefly.
Only one or no
arguments are
mentioned
No arguments
mentioned
Lacks
analysis of
key issues
Most major
events
omitted
No analysis
____ Introduction contains vague or “wasted” sentences
____ Essay contains vague statements or generalizations not supported by facts.
____ Essay attempted to tell a story rather than relaying facts.
____ Essay attempted to validate your personal opinion, rather than answering the prompt.
____ Don’t use “I” or “my” statements
____ Don’t connect issues to “today” (unless asked)
____ Don’t use “flowery” or slang style writing
____ Poor spelling and grammar
____ Poor penmanship: essay difficult to read
The errors that
exist do not detract
from the argument
May contain an
error that detracts
from the argument
such as the wrong
chronology,
associating the
ideas of one figure
with another.
Contains a few
errors that detract
from the argument,
Contains several
errors that detract
from the argument,
Contains numerous
errors that detract
from the argument
Completely
incorrect or not
turned in.
15
Student Led Discussion s
Before each class
1) Read and study the Discussion assignment
2) Think about and write down four or five Discussion questions based upon the assigned reading.
3) Assume that you will lead the Discussion ; write a brief (less than 5-minute) opening statement about the
assignment. Your statement should set the stage for, and end by raising, one or more of your Discussion
questions.
4) You are going to get two poker chips from your teacher. The goal will be for each student to put their two cents
in, literally, by tossing a coin or chip to the floor in the center of the room when they speak. Once a student has
put his/her two cents in, they cannot contribute further until every student has participated (though you can ask
questions).
During class
1.
A student(s) will be randomly chosen the day of the Discussion to lead it.
2.
If there is a supplementary reading, spend a few minutes reading it, and writing down some ideas from it.
3.
Your friendly neighborhood teacher is going to shut up for at least half of the Discussion . This is a student led
Discussion after all. The teacher will sit back, take notes on the Discussion , and will enter into the Discussion for
the second half.
4.
Listen to the statement by the designated Discussion leader and consider the Discussion question(s) or
issue(s) he or she raises.
5.
Discuss the issues raised, keeping to the subject of the readings, attempting -- preferably in this order -- to
analyze, criticize, and connect:
a) Analyze the readings to gain a deeper understanding of difficult concepts, examples, the author's position, and the
author's arguments.
b) Criticize the readings, articulating and defending personal opinions about the adequacy of the author's presentation
and arguments.
c) Connect the issues you have analyzed and criticized to material of previous assignments in order to discern broader
themes, similar concepts, and comparable or contrasting opinions.
7. As you participate, use the text, at times calling attention to specific passages relevant to the issue at hand. When
working with such a passage, allow time for others in the class to locate it and then read it aloud.
8. Ignore teacher during their period of enforced silence. Direct your attention to other students and regard teacher as a
recording secretary on hand to take down information for use later in Discussion .
9. Continue the student-led Discussion with the same goals after the teacher has joined in, using the teacher as needed
to provide examples, explanations, and/or alternative positions.
10. Take brief notes of points and examples that deepen your understanding; opinions that differ from your own; and
arguments that you find helpful, convincing, or worth trying to refute. These notes may be useful when you want to
contribute to Discussion , when you formulate study questions for future classes, or when you write papers. Do not,
however, allow note-taking to cause you to lose the thread of the Discussion .
16
How to lead a Discussion
Most students have never led a Discussion . It is normal to be somewhat nervous about your first try. Most of us
(including teachers) are afraid we'll be embarrassed by saying something wrong, being contradicted, or running out of
things to say. Here are some suggestions to help you overcome your fears, prepare, get the Discussion started, and
sustain it.
Preparing
To lead a Discussion , you must be familiar with the assigned material.
A. Read and study the assignment, make notes about the more important or interesting points
B. Think about and write down some of the main issues that the author raises and a few questions pertinent to
the issues.
C. If you can come up with a handful of questions, you're in good shape. Remember, everyone else in the class
is formulating such questions: you can take advantage of their work to make your job easier.
But what if you are not asked to lead? Is this work wasted? Nope! You are now very well prepared to participate as
someone else leads. With everyone prepared to lead, everyone is also prepared to discuss, and lively Discussion s will
almost always ensue.
Getting Started
Class has started and your name has been chosen. How do you begin?
A. Present your prepared statement. End by asking the first question or asking for Discussion of the first issue
on your list.
B. Start out on a positive note. Avoid beginning with an apology for being poorly prepared or for finding the
reading difficult (Avoid this by being properly prepared). Treat the day's topic as having real value. This will
help everybody become more interested and involved in the Discussion .
Keeping Discussion s Going
Sustaining Discussion
1) Get students to talk to each other. Ask for a response to the most recent comments. (Anyone have a response to Bob's
opinion?) Or ask a specific student to respond. (Maria, do you agree with David?)
2) Get students to defend or explain their opinions.
3) Encourage an exploration of differing points of view. When you hear conflicting views, point them out and get the
holders of those views to discuss their differences. Perhaps ask a third person to sum up the two positions.
4) Keep the class on the subject. If you are even halfway familiar with the material, you know when the Discussion is
no longer connected to it. Just say so. Or simply consult your list of questions. Any sensible response to one of your
questions is bound to be relevant.
5) Point to a particular passage in the text relevant to a comment made by one person, or to a Discussion among
several. This might be a passage that challenges, or sums up and confirms, the views being expressed.
6) Don’t talk all the time. Any Discussion will lapse occasionally. It is not your job as leader to avoid all silence. Some
quiet periods are productive. Students who are not so quick to speak will frequently get the chance they need when
others are quiet. If the silence gets too heavy, take advantage of the other students' lists of questions.
7. Remember, as Discussion leader you do not have to be the brains of the whole outfit. You are not expected to know
it all; the class is full of students who have read the same assignment that you read. Your job is to give them a chance to
17
talk about it and thus give others the benefits of their thinking. On the other hand, if any one student begins to do all
the talking, gently correct this problem by bringing other students into the Discussion . If students are talking to each
other about the reading material, things are going well; relax, listen, and contribute when you can.
The Goals of Discussion
Discussion should lead to three results.
A. Analysis and clarification of the material.
B. Better understanding of the material
C. Enjoyment of the Discussion
After class
A. Students (in groups of acquaintances, if possible)
Spend a few minutes reflecting on the Discussion , perhaps jotting down notes (or amplifying notes made in class) of
points that increased your understanding of the readings, and that may be useful in preparing for the next Discussion
or writing the next paper. Especially, take note of arguments that interested or surprised you.
Discussion Topics
Unit I
Unit II
Unit III
Unit IV
Unit V
Unit VI
Unit VII
Unit VIII
Unit IX
Unit X
Unit XI
Unit XII
Unit XIII
Unit XIV
Unit XV
Black Death
Machiavelli’s Italy Virtual Discussion
Functions of Festivals Discussion
Class Debate- No Discussion
Philosophy vs. Science
Science vs. Religion
Impact of Slavery on the Americas, Europe and Africa
Philiosophes and Politics
Liberty, Equality and Fraternity- Virtual Discussion
Women in the Industrial Revolution
Group Activity – No Discussion
Rationalism, Racism, Nationalism
Settlement at Paris – The Versailles Treaty
Women in a Totalitarian Government
The Great Depression in Germany- The Nazi's,
Racism and the Holocaust
The collapse of European communism
The rise of radical political Islam Virtual Discussion
Course Review- No Discussion
18
Study Group Review
In college level courses, it is very important to establish study groups to help share the work of reviewing material. In
high schools, however, this idea is only done informally until now. For this course, your instructor will place you into
specific study groups. Not only should you rely on each other to help fill in gaps in your own studying, your group is
going to help the rest of the class as well.
My Study Group #
Email Addresses
My name
Member # 1
Member # 2
Member #3
Member #4
Member#5
Member #6
Group Review Assignment
Your group is going to create a 15 question review quiz that the rest of the class will take, and your group will go over
Using the PERSIA Review format, you will each focus on one of the areas of review.
Each group will create a power point that will give a complete review of your Unit,
Each person should concentrate and present on a letter of the PERSIA review (if applicable), major figures, and major
events.
Extra members should provide an overview of the end of your groups presentation
With the quiz and your group's power point it should be approximately 45 minutes in length, to allow for clarification
questions at the end.
Your group should also distribute a “cheat “ sheet of terms, figures and events that your unit covers, that are in addition
to the terms that are in the Unit Worksheets as well as helpful hints to help the class remember important concepts.
Your project will be graded on the following
Thoroughness
Accuracy
Creativity
Group # 1Group # 2
Group #3Group # 4-
19
Semester Research Essay Assignment
Topics
All topics must be cleared with me prior to starting research (Why waste your time otherwise?)
The topics on the list are very broad in scope intentionally, it allows you to have some flexibility in your
research. You should either research in a specific topic, compare and contrast two topics, or use the broad
topic as a base for a more specific question you want to research. Special Note: While you can research a
particular individual and their impact on society, I do not want any biographies.
Format
The completed term paper is to be in a research style folder (The type with two or three fasteners.) or online at
Classjump or School Loop. The paper must be a minimum of six (6) pages and a maximum of eight (8) pages in length.
The final copy is to be typed (space and a half or double spaced) or computer generated. The paper length refers only to
the essay portion.
Title Page
Thesis
The best history papers begin with a tightly focused thesis argument, which is proven in the body of the paper through
thorough research. Narrowing down the topic or thesis is perhaps the most challenging part of writing a paper.
Procrastinating students will have a difficult time doing this. The most successful paper writers will select a focus area
to research, phrase their thesis as a question or historical problem, read enough about the topic to develop subquestions, and then formulate a very specific yet workable thesis.
Researching the Topic
Most students tend to avoid very narrow topics because the research may be difficult, because it requires you to find
specific information. One reason lies in the fact that many students prefer or are used to writing papers at the last
minute rather than reading as much about their topic as they can.
Good research papers can rarely be written from internet sources alone, so you should also use the library for secondary
sources. Book reading and research must be an integral part of any endeavor to craft a successful paper.
Parenthetical References
In addition to producing a list of works cited for your paper you must provide details about the information you derived
from each of your sources and where in the source you located this information. The best way to do this is to insert a
brief parenthetical acknowledgement whenever you use another person’s ideas or words.
EXAMPLE
Medieval Europe was a place both of "raids, pillages, slavery, and extortion" and of "traveling merchants,
monetary exchange, towns if not cities, and active markets in grain" (Townsend 10).
The parenthetical reference indicates that the quotation came from page ten of the work by Townsend. The
complete bibliographical information for this work will appear in your List of Works Cited (see below).
Additional Sources and Work Cited Page
If you refer to a specific location, chart or other form of data, you should try to include a map or chart as a reference to
the reader. All maps, charts or graphs are to be on unlined paper.
A minimum of five (5) sources must be used. For books, magazines, and online sources should follow the MLA format
for citations:
20
Example Townsend, Robert M. The Medieval Village Economy. Princeton: Princeton UP, 1993.
First Semester Topics
Renaissance
The Popes
Lorenzo de Medici
Artists
Humanism
Secularism
Individualism
Italian City- States
Niccolo Machiavelli
New Monarchs
Habsburg- Valois War
Reformation
Luther
Calvin
Zwingli
J. Hus
Huguenots
Anabaptist
Peasant Revolt
Edict of Nantes
War of the 3 Henry's
Diet of Worms
Charles V
Counter-Reformation
Council of Trent
Henry VIII
English Reformation
Age of Exploration
& Religious Warfare
Explorers
Spain & Conquistadores
France & England
Portugal Slave Trade
Incas
Aztecs
Mayans
30 yrs War
Dutch Independence
Spanish Armada
Elizabeth I
Mary Queen of Scots
Catherine de Medici
Rise of Nation - States
English Civil War
Absolutism
Louis XIV
Richelieu
Stuart Dynasty
Oliver Cromwell
Glorious Revolution
The Restoration
War of the Spanish Succession
Age of Absolutism
Romanov Dynasty
Hohenzollern
Habsburgs
Revolution of
Edict of Nantes
Prussian Absolutism
Great Northern War
Baroque Art
Peter the Great
Maria Theresa (Austria)
Frederick the Great
Pragmatic Sanction
War of Austrian Succession
Versailles
St. Petersburg
Scientific Revolution
& Enlightenment
Copernicus
Brahe
Kepler
Bacon
Newton
Galileo
Voltaire
Deism
Descartes
Locke
Encyclopedia
French Salons
21
Age of Revolution
French Revolution
Committee of Public Safety
Guillotine
Reign of Terror
Great Fear
Louis XVI
Robespierre
Third Estate
Napoleonic Era
Napoleon
Waterloo
Continental System
Invasion of Russia
Battle of Trafalgar
Fourth Coalition (Quad. Alliance)
Napoleons Reforms (code)
Peninsular War
Battle of Austerlitz
Industrial Revolution
Inventors
Child Labor
Steam Engine
Capitalism
Socialism
Communism
Karl Marx
Urban Life
Public Health Movement
Textile Industry
Reform Bill 1832
Reaction, Romanticism
& Revolution
Congress of Vienna
Concert of Europe
Metternich
Revolutionary Movements
July Revolution (1830) France
Greek Independence
Louis Phillipe
Art: Romanticism, Realism
Classical Liberalism
Great Famine (Ireland)
Suez Canal
Revolution of 1848
22
Second Semester Topics
European Society
Turn of the Century
Post-Impressionism
Feminism\Women's Movement
Impression
Dreyfus Affair
European Immigration
Third Republic (France)
Music and Literature
Technological Revolution
Imperialism
Algeciras conference
Boxer Rebellion
Congress of Berlin (1884-85)
Fashoda
Opium Wars
Rhodes
Sepoy Rebellion
Taiping Rebellion
White Man's Burden
Africa
India
China
World War I
Black Hand
Franz Ferdinand
Kaiser Wilhelm II
League of Nations
Battles of W.W.
Western Front
Eastern Front
Triple Alliance
Triple Entente
Technology
Zimmerman Telegram
Gavrilo Princip
Treaty of Versailles
Trench Warfare
Russian Revolution
Nicholas II
Rasputin
Lenin
Stalin
Trotsky
Civil War 1918-1920
March Revolution
November Revolution
Alexander Kerensky
Revolution 1905
Russo-Japanese War
Red Army
Totalitarian Societies
Italy-Fascism
Black Shirts
Mussolini
March on Rome
Germany
Hitler
Nazi Rule
Gestapo
Mein Kampf
Nuremburg Laws
Holocaust
Weimer Republic
USSR-Great Purge
Collectivization and Mechanization
Totalitarianism
Great Depression
Munich Conference 1938
23
World War ll
Battle of Coral Sea
Pearl Harbor
Midway
Invasion of Russia
Blitzkrieg
Nazi-Soviet Pact
Battle of Britain
D-Day
Stalingrad
El-Alemein
S.S.
Rommel
Churchill
Atomic Bomb
Wartime Conferences
Dunkirk
Tojo
Yalta
Cold War
Berlin Crisis\Airlift
Division of Germany
De-Stalinization
Berlin Wall
Korean War
Hungarian Revolution (1956)
Khrushchev
NATO
Warsaw Pact
Truman Doctrine
Cuban Missile Crisis
Common Market
Invasion of Czechoslovakia
Fall of Communism
Eastern Europe
USSR-Gorbachev
End of Imperialism
China
Mao Zedong
Revolution 1911
Chaig Kai-Shek
Civil War 1946-49
Balfour Declaration
Arab League
Zionism
6 Day War
Israeli Independence
African Independence Movement
Gandhi
Indian National Congress
Muslim League
Palestine
Nasser
Vietnam-Dien Bien Phu
Changing World: Technology
and Society
Acid Rain
Genetic Engineering
Greenhouse Effect
Military-Industrial Complex
Space Program
Semi Conductors
Computer Technology
Rain Forest
Family
Women
Chernobyl
24
Online Class Components
In an attempt to give students the closest approximation to a college class experience, without actually being there. To
be efficient with our time, to increase the variety of assignments and to increase group collaboration, several
assignments will have an online component.
Special Note: All these assignments can be completed in one way or another without a computer or online access.
Online Assessment Categories
Note taking
We can only cover about half of the content material in class, especially if we want to other activities
besides lectures (I know I do !), so you have to complete your notes at home. All the notes are available
online, in a couple of different locations- my web page at phs.wjusd.org. or the online wiki page.
If you have a computer but do not have the internet, if you bring in a flash drive, I can give you a copy of all
of the notes. Barring that, all the notes come from the textbook directly, so you can get them from there as
well.
Discussion s
We will have several Virtual Discussion s online, a specific topic(s) will be given with some questions
to answer. You will go to the class wiki page, answer the questions, and then respond to at least two other
individual answers.
If you do not have a computer, you will have a series of similar questions to answer for the same amount of
points.
Collaboration
Study groups can use the class wiki page to compare notes, to leave notes for each other for projects.
Additionally, I can use the wiki page to send messages and reminders to the whole class.
Podcasting
Some of the assignments have an alternative podcast component, which do require a computer
generally to complete. Specific information is available on the class wiki page.
Assignments
I try to put copies of all the major assignments and worksheets online in case you lose one, or you
need another copy. I try not to make too many extra paper copies to save on ink.
25
AP Euro Extra credit Art Assignment
For this assignment you are to recreate a famous work of European art from any period in the past 600 years, but you
are to recreate it in a different style or medium than it was originally. (Worth 50 points)
Book Review
Suggested Optional Reading for AP European History
Your optional reading assignment is designed to enrich your knowledge of European history, enhance your interest and
increase your commitment to our Advanced Placement European History course. This assignment is optional. It is
worth up to 20 bonus points. You may complete one book per semester.
Book Review Guidelines
The Summary: A book review often begins with a summary of the subject of the book. Sometimes the summary will
be spread throughout the review and interwoven with the commentary, and sometimes it will stand on its own at the
beginning.



The summary consists of a Discussion of the major features, trends, themes, ideas, and characteristics.
Use your own words. Combine ideas from the book into new sentences of your own. Generally, it is best when
summarizing to follow the organization of the original.
Your aim should be to give a true but condensed picture of the book, including the way it is organized.
The Critique
A critique consists of your thoughts, responses, and reactions to what you have read.
The following questions are examples of the kind you should consider as you read your book and prepare the critique:
 What is your overall opinion of the book, and why?
 How effectively and in what ways does the theme of the book or argument of the author reflect what you
already know?
 How does this book tie in with our history course?
 How well has the author achieved his / her aims? Are these aims supported or justified?
 Does the author seem fair and accurate? Is there any distortion, exaggeration, or diminishing of material? Is the
overall interpretation biased, subjective, slanted, and objective? Does the author try to look at both sides of the
issue?
 Is the book interesting or boring, and why? Does the material presented raise your curiosity about the subject,
and why?
 Is there enough information in the book? Is the subject treated thoroughly or summarily?
 Did you feel satisfied, disappointed, or puzzled by the book, and why?
 How well is the book written? (Should you use quotes as examples, keep them very short—preferably no more
than one sentence.)
 Is there anything distinctive or noteworthy about the book? (Give examples where useful).
Choose a book to read about a subject, era, or person in Europe between 1450 and now. See the list (below) of
books that students have found interesting. Spending a little time in selecting a book is well worth the effort.
ACE students, in addition to the required assignments for AP, you are to complete at least one book review each
semester. If you wish to do an additional review, it will be considered an extra credit assignment. Most of these texts
should be available in the PHS library, but also should be available in the CSUS library, or available for purchase
on amazon.com
26
First Semester Readings
A World Lit Only by Fire by William Manchester
The Witch-Hunt in Early Modern Europe by Brian Levack
The Prince by Niccolo Machiavelli
Girl with a Pearl Earring by Tracy Chevalier
Michelangelo and the Pope's Ceiling by Ross King
Mary, Queen of Scots by Antonia Fraser
The Wives of Henry VIII by Antonia Fraser
Galileo’s Daughter by Dava Sobel
Longitude by Dava Sobel
Rough Crossings by Simon Schama
Lunar Men by Jennifer Uglow
Catherine the Great by Isabel de Madariaga
Peter the Great by Robert K. Massie
Marie Antoinette: The Journey by Antonia Fraser From Publishers Weekly
Germinal by Emile Zola
Second Semester Readings
Five Sisters: Women Against the Tsar by Barbara Engel
Einstein in Love : A Scientific Romance by Dennis Overbye
All Quiet on the Western Front by Eric Remarque
The Guns of August by Barbara Tuchman
Dr. Zhivago by Pasternak
Darkness at Noon by Arthur Koestler
Weimar Culture: The Outsider as Insider by Peter Gay
Hitler and Stalin by Allan Bullock
Twelve Years: An American Boyhood in East Germany by Joel Agee
Heart of Europe: The Past in Poland's Present by Norman Davies
Twelve Days: The Story of the 1956 Hungarian Revolution by Victor Sebestyen
27
Movie Critique
(10 points- 4 a semester, only through the AP Movie Night!)
Name _____________________________Date ___________________Period_____
Title of Film:
Main Actors:
Setting:
The Plot: Condense the main story line into 5-8 sentences
Relationship to history: Were there any characters based on real people? Who were they and were they treated with
historical accuracy? Were there any real events (battles, migrations, laws, etc.)? How does this movie tie in with our
history course?
Evaluation: Give an evaluation of the film. Don't just say, "I liked it because it was a good movie," or "I hated it
because it was so boring." Like a real film critic, point out the strengths and weaknesses of the movie. Which actors did
a good job and which were inadequate? Were there places where the plot was vague, too slow, or too fast? What would
have made the film better? Would you recommend it to another student?
28
Extra Credit Assignment
News Broadcast
The purpose of this assignment is to create a 4-5 minute news broadcast story about the long and short term causes for a
major event. Your story should be centered on what the event was, and it should include “interviews” that provide a
variety of perspectives—political, religious, economic, etc.—that capture the many ways different groups of people
defined what these long-term conflicts, in their views, were really about. In addition for each event, you will create a
commercial for a product or service that would be
For APEH students, this assignment is DIFFERENT than the You Are There assignment for the spring semester, so do
not use these guidelines for that.
For all News Broadcasts, you should start with the same introduction- “Welcome to You Are There, “Specific Date”. . .
here are tonight’s headlines. . . . .
To earn points for the news story it will be scored on the following elements
Part One- Details
 What was the event
 When did the event happen
 Who was involved
 Where did the event take place
 How did the event occur
 Why was the event significant
Part Two- Creativity
 Was time and effort evident in the video?
 Did you present the event in a factual and yet entertaining way?
 Did you create or use props/back drops to enhance news story?
To earn points for the commercial
Was the product or service accurate for the time period?
Was the commercial connected in some way to the event?
Did you create or use props/back drops to enhance your commercial?
You may create two event news broadcasts with commercials for 25 points per broadcast each semester
You can either create a video or an audio news broadcast.
You can participate in as many news broadcasts and commercials as you wish.
1st Semester Sample Commercial Ideas
Tetzel’s Indulgences
Gutenberg’s Printing Press
A call for Spaniards to join the Armada
A New Play by Shakespeare
A Propaganda Ad from the Puritans
Jethro Tull’s new Seed drill
Mozart Live in Concert
Free Land in the New World Colonies
Propaganda Ad about the 7 years War
Smallpox Vaccine from Jenner
The Guillotine
Suffragette Movement
Chartist Movement
Ride the New Locomotive
The 1889 World’s Fair in Paris
2nd Semester Commercial Ideas
New book by Charles Darwin
Visit the new Suez Canal
Anti-Czar ad about freeing the serfs
Settler’s wanted in the New South African colony
Marconi’s new radio system
WWI propaganda ad
Lindbergh’s flight across the Atlantic
29
First Semester
1414-1418 Council of Constance
1415 Portuguese took Ceuta, Morocco started Age of Exploration
1438 Pragmatic Sanction
1450 Movable printing press
1452-1519 Da Vinci
1453 Ottomans capture Constantinople
1469-1527 Machiavelli
1485 Henry VII (Tudors) becomes first
English Tudor king
1492 Expulsion of Jews from Spain
1509 Erasmus, Praise of Folly
1512 Lateran Council; start of
Reformation
1513 Machiavelli, The Prince
1516 Concordat of Bologna; start of
Religious wars
1516 More, Utopia
1517 Luther’s Ninety-Five theses
1519-1522 Magellan circumnavigates
the globe
1519-1556 Charles V Holy Roman
Emperor
1524-1525 Peasant’s Revolt in Germany
1527 Imperial sack of Rome
1528 Castiglione, Book of the Courtier
1532-1534 Henry VIII breaks with
Rome
1534 Act of Supremacy
1541 Calvin establishes a theocracy in
Geneva
1550-1725 Baroque movement
1555 Peace of Augsburg
1556-1598 Philip II of Spain
1561-1626 Francis Bacon
1563 End of Council of Trent; end of
Reformation
1564-1642 Galileo
1566-1609 Revolt in the Netherlands
1572 St Bartholomew’s Day Massacre
1584-1613 Time of Troubles in Russia
1588 Defeat of Spanish armada
1588-1679 Thomas Hobbes
1598 Edict of Nantes
1603 Death of Elizabeth I
1605- The Gunpowder Plot
1618-1648 Thirty Years’ war
1625-1649 Reign of Charles I of
England
1630 Puritans settle Boston
1642-1649 English Civil war
1643-1715 Louis XIV
1648-1660 The Fronde in France
1651 Navigation Acts
1658 Cromwell died
1660 Restoration of English monarchy
1665 Plague hits London
1666 Great Fire of London
1673 Test Act in England
1685 Revocation of the Edict of
Nantes
1686 Fontenelle, Conversations on
the Plurality of Worlds
1687 Newton, Principia
1688-1689 Glorious Revolution
1690 Locke, Second Treaties on Civil
Government
1694-1778 Voltaire
1697 Bayle, Historical and Critical
Dictionary
1701 Foundation of St. Petersburg
1701 Tull invents the seed drill - start
of Agricultural Revolution
1701-1713 War of Spanish
Succession
1707 Act of Union with Scotland
1711-1776 David Hume
1712 Savery and Newcomen steam
pump
1713 Peace of Utrecht
1715-1774 Reign of Louis XV of
France
1720 Last appearance of the bubonic
plague
1733 Kay's flying shuttle
1740-1786 Reign of Maria Theresa
of Austria
1740-48 War of Austrian Succession
1748 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ends
war of Austrian Succession
1751-1765 Publication of the
Encyclopedia by Diderot and
d’alembert
1756-1791 Mozart
1756-63 Seven Years War (French
and Indian War)
1762-96 Reign of Catherine the Great
of Russia
1765 Hargreaves invents the spinning
jenny
1765 Richard Arkwright invents the
water frame
1770-1827 Beethoven
1774-1792 Reign of Louis XVI of
France
1776 Smith, Wealth of Nations
1789 Start of the French Revolution
1790-1850 Romantic movement
1796 Jenner creates smallpox vaccine
1798 Malthus, Essay on the Principle
of Population
1799-1814 Napoleonic era
1814-15 Congress of Vienna
1815: Corn Law in Great Britain
December 1816: Corn Law riots
1817: Buschenschaft holds congress
at Wurtburg
1818: Prussian Zollverein created
1818: International Congress held at Aixla-Chapelle
1818: Mary Shelley publishes
Frankenstein
1819: Metternich initiates Carlsbad
Decrees
1819: Peterloo Massacre
1820: Several members of Cato Street
Conspiracy executed
1820: Louis XVIII's nephew (the Duke de
Berry) assassinated
1824: Louis XVIII dies
1825: Decembrist Revolt
1829: First truly successful locomotive
tested
July 1830: Charles X passes "Four
Ordinances" in France
July 1830: July Revolution in France
1831: Mazzini founds Young Italy
1832: Goethe completes Faust
1832: Parliament passes Reform Bill
1833: Factory Act restricts child labor
1834: Poor Laws passed (Great Britain)
1838: Anti-Corn Laws League
1838: Chartist movement begins
1840: Frederick William IV comes to
power
1840s: Corn Laws repealed
1842: Chartist movement
1847: Ten Hour Act
January 1848: Marx and Engels publish
Communist Manifesto
February 1848: February Revolution in
Paris, barricades in the streets
1848: Louis Napoleon Bonaparte
becomes President of France
March 15, 1848: Hungary granted
independence
June 1848: Pan-Slavic Congress
May 1848: Frankfurt Assembly
December 1848: Ferdinand of Austria
abdicates
1848 Karl Marx publishes the Communist
Manifesto.
February 24, 1848 Revolution in France
March 1848 Uprisings in some German
states
March 1848-June 1849 Revolutions in
Italy.
April 1848 Revolutions in Vienna,
Budapest, and Prague.
May 1848 Frankfurt Assembly meets
December 1848 Louis Napoleon wins
presidential election
30
Second Semester
1853-1856 Crimean War.
1856-1939 Freud
1859 Charles Darwin publishes On the
Origin of Species
1860 Sardinia annexes provinces in
central Italy after plebiscites;
March 3, 1861 Emancipation of
Russian serfs.
March 14, 1861 Kingdom of Italy
proclaimed
1862-1890 Bismarck in power
1863 Maximilian crowned emperor of
Mexico
1864 Pope Pius IX, Syllabus of Errors
1864-1871 Unification of Germany
1866 Seven Weeks' War
1867 Karl Marx publishes Das Kapital.
1867 Second Reform Bill
1869 Suez canal opens
1869 Tolstoy, War and Peace
1870-1940 Third Republic in France
July-September 1870 Franco-Prussian
War ends
September 20, 1870 Italy annexes
Rome.
January 18, 1871 German Empire
proclaimed.
1878 Congress of Berlin
1878 ·End of Kulturkampf campaign
1879 ·Dual Alliance
1882 ·Triple Alliance
1884 ·Berlin Conference
1885 ·Second Balkan
1889 ·Boulanger Affair in France.
1890 ·Kasier Wilhelm II dismisses
Otto von Bismarck.
1894 ·"Dreyfus Affair" in France
1896 ·Battle of Adowa in Ethiopia,
1896 Kruger Telegram
1898 Fashoda crisis
1899-1902 ·Boer War in South Africa.
1899 Kipling, "The White Man’s
Burden
1900 ·Boxer Rebellion in China.
1904 Entente Cordiale
1907 ·Triple Entente
1911 ·National Insurance Act passed
1913 ·Third Balkan Crisis: Serbia and
Bulgaria go to war.
1914 World War I
June 28, 1919: The treaty of Versailles
1916 Easter Rising, Dublin
November 1920: The First Meeting of
the League of Nations
November 1921: The Washington
Conference is Held
October 30, 1922: Benito Mussolini is
Made Italian Premier
November 9, 1923: The Beer Hall
Putsch
January 21, 1924: Vladimir Lenin Dies
May 11, 1924: The Cartel des Gauches
wins the French Election
August 27, 1924: Dawes Plan
December 1, 1925: The Locarno Pacts
1926: Joseph Pilsudski Becomes
Virtual Dictator in Poland
April 14, 1931: The Spanish Monarchy
is Overthrown
1932: General Gyula Gombos Comes
to Power in Hungary
February - July 1932: The final League
of Nations Disarmament Conference
1933 - 1934: 1,140,000 Communist
Party Members are Expelled by Stalin
January 30, 1933: Hitler is Appointed
Chancellor of Germany
March 23, 1933: The German
Reichstag Passes the Enabling Act
June 3, 1936: Leon Blum's Popular
Front Government
July 17, 1936: Spanish Civil War
Begins
April 25, 1937: Spanish Nationalists
Bomb Guernica
September 18, 1938: The Munich Pact
September 3, 1939: Britain and France
Declare War on Germany
June 6 1944- D-Day
1945- Yalta Conference
April 30 1945- Hitler dies
May 8 1945- VE Day
1945- United Nations established
1946- Churchill’s Iron Curtain Speech
1947-Marshall Plan
1948-Berlin Blockade
1949- Federal Republic of Germany
established
1949- NATO established
1952 Elizabeth II becomes queen
1953- Stalin dies
1953- DNA discovered
1953- Josef Tito becomes president of
Yugoslavia
1954- Algerian War of Independence
begins
1955-Warsaw Pact Signed
1955- Western European Union created
1956- Hungarian Revolution
1956- Khrushchev denounces Stalin
1956 Suez Crisis
1957- Sputnik is launched
1958- Common Market created
1958- De Gaulle becomes French
President
1961- Berlin Wall Built
1962- Second Vatican Council
1964- Beatles appear on Ed Sullivan
show
1968- Prague Spring
1972 "Bloody Sunday" in Northern
Ireland
1973- Military Junta in Greece
1978- Pope John Paul II elected
1979- Margaret Thatcher becomes
British PM
1982 Falkland War
1982- Brezhnev dies
1984- Soviet Union boycotts Olympics
1985- Gorbachev and Reagan summit
meeting
1986- Chernobyl power plant explodes
1989- Berlin Wall Falls
1989- Romanian President Ceauşescu
executed
1990- Lech Walesa elected Polish
president
1991- Soviet Union collapses
1991- Lithuania, Estonia, and Latvia win
independence
1993- Czechoslovakia split in two
1993- Havel elected Czech President
1993 Maastricht Treaty takes effect- EU
is created
2002 – Euro is introduced
31
Unit Assignments and Readings
32
Take it APPARTS Assignment
For each unit you will have a specific homework assignment based on the textbook and primary documents. The
assignment will fall into three categories
 APPARTS Essays
Each APPARTS paper is worth 35 points, 5 points for every letter of the acronym. Points will be subtracted
from your overall grade for failure to format your paper according to the above requirements. To get an “A,”
your paper must meet the following requirements:
o
o
o
o

Communicate that you understand the meaning of the document
Describe the speaker & audience rather than simply stating them
Relate the document to what is going on in history at the time of its creation include your analysis of the
document’s purpose - this means that it simply does not summarize or restate the main points of the
document, but includes your insight
Meet all formatting requirements listed above
Unit Worksheets
o For each chapter you will have one or more worksheets to complete. You are required to complete the
Textbook DQ’s, for each worksheet, the chapter questions are bonus points
o Each worksheet will have three basic parts:
Terms
A list of individuals, groups, terms or events you are to identify. Identify- indicate
the significance or meaning of each term. You should incorporate these terms into
your enhanced notes.
Chapter Questions = 5 points
A series of questions based on the chapter reading.
Responses must be in complete sentences. Spell out words such as: and, with,
because. Capitalize proper nouns. Watch your spelling. I may not take off points
for misspellings, however, if a proper name is misspelled and it is included in the
document, I will consider that a sign of laziness. Remember this is an Advanced
Placement course.
Textbook DQ’s = 5 points a
document
A series of questions based on the primary and secondary documents in the
chapter. For questions that “seem” to just be a yes/no answer, you need to answer
Why or Why not for each question
While every document may not be discussed in class, every document assigned is
required homework. If there are no questions for the document, you still should
read it.

Art Analysis Assignment
o Throughout the course, you will have several units that place all an emphasis on specific artistic styles.
For units that require an Art Analysis, you will turn them in with your TIAA assignment.
All Take it APPARTS assignments are due the day of the Unit Exam (Within reason, I will take late work with
points reduced. However, I will not take any late work that is over one week late or that laps over into the next grading
period)
“ Since you have to read the textbook to write notes anyway, it’s easiest to do the chapter readings as you get to them.
Don’t wait until the weekends to catch up ! Plan your homework time and watch out for procrastination!”
”These assignment are worth a lot of points, and can really damage your grade if you don’t get them in on time!”
33
The APPARTS Method of Document Analysis
Historians work with primary documents in trying to understand the past. However, the documents are hard to
decipher unless one knows about the creator of the document, the background of the document, and why it was created.
In an APPARTS analysis, historians look at a document this way:
Author—Who created the document? This is more than simply providing a name. Sometimes the author is someone
everyone knows. Other times, it is someone no one knows. In any case, WHO is the person? What does this document
say about the author? Describe the author as completely as possible. Base your description on the contents of the
document. Do NOT view this part of the analysis as a biography of the author.
Place and time—Where and when was the source produced? This is more than simply a date. What event(s) and/or
era(s) provide the backdrop and context for the document? What was going on in history that might help explain why
this document was created when it was? What was the specific event/issue of the time that prompted the document’s
creation?
Prior knowledge—What do you already know that would further your understand of the source?
Audience—For whom was the source created? Does this affect the reliability of
the source? Who does the author plan on delivering this message to? What does the author think about his/her
audience? Why is the audience paying attention to this document? Describe the audience as completely as possible.
What do you think the audience’s reaction(s) was/were?
Reason—Why was the source produced at the time it was produced? What does the speaker hope to accomplish? This
paragraph is a perfect place for a quote from the document to illustrate meaning (with an explanation of its relevance).
The main idea—What is the source trying to convey?
Significance—Why is this source important? What does it say about the era in which it was created? What, if anything,
did it lead to? What was the response to the document? Did the speaker accomplish his/her purpose? Explain. Is there a
connection to later historical events or the modern world? If so, explain.
Writing & Formatting your APPARTS Papers
When writing a APPARTS paper, use the questions on the reverse as a guide, not a checklist. Do not attempt to answer
every question. Some questions apply to some documents but not others. Use your best judgment.
All APPARTS papers must be typed in an easily-readable font sized 12, be double-spaced, and have margins of 1 inch
on all sides. Papers (unless otherwise noted) are limited to two pages.
Each paper should include a heading with your name & date, and include the title & author of the document as the
paper’s title. Words in the heading and title do not count towards your 350-word limit.
Each APPARTS paper should be made up of 7 short paragraphs, one for each letter of the APPARTS acronym.
While substance is the most important part of your grade for these assignments, pay attention to rules of grammar and
style. Most importantly, make sure to







use only 3rd person (no I, me, we, you, your, us, our)
avoid use of contractions
use quotation marks when quoting the document (no more than 2 quotes)
use active voice whenever possible
write in the past tense (present tense acceptable in the final paragraph)
write only in complete sentences with correct capitalization & end punctuation
use the spell check feature of your word processor
34
Introduction- Summer Assignment (100 points with
Geography portion of assignment)
Textbook: The Western Heritage Introduction
Textbook DQ’s
 The second Isaiah Defines Hebrew Monotheism
 Husband and Wife in Homer’s Troy
 Plato on the Role of Women in His Utopian Republic
 Juvenal On Life in Rome
 Mark Describes the Resurrection of Jesus
 The Carolingian Manor
 The English Nobility Imposes Restraints on King John
 Student Life at the University of Paris
Unit II The Renaissance and the Age of Reformation
Textbook: The Western Heritage Chapters 10-11
Art Analysis- Renaissance and Northern Renaissance
Art
APPARTS Essay:
1513-The Prince
1517- Luther's 95 Theses
Textbook DQ’s
 Christine De Pisan Instructs Women on How to Handle
their Husbands
 Pico Della Mirandola States the Renaissance Image of
Man
 Michaelangelo and Pope Julius II
 A Defense of American Natives
Montaigne on “Cannibals” in Foreign Lands
 German Peasants Protest Rising Feudal Exactions
 Zwingli Lists the Errors of the Roman Church
 Ignatius of Loyola’s “Rules” For Thinking With the
Church
Secondary – Textbook DQ’s
 The Renaissance Garden
 A Child is Born: Welcoming the Newborn in Late
Medieval Europe
Unit IV - New Directions in Thought and Culture.
Society and Economy under the Old Regime,
Textbook: The Western Heritage Chapters 14and 15
Art Analysis- Baroque Art
APPARTS Essay:
1486-Excerpts from the Malleus Maleficarum
Textbook DQ’s
 Copernicus Ascribes Movement to the Earth
 Descartes Explores the Promise of Science
Unit I- the Late Middle Ages
Textbook: The Western Heritage Chapter 9
APPARTS Essay:
1415-The Battle of Agincourt
Textbook DQ’s
 Boccaccio describes the Ravages of the Black Death in
Florence
 Joan of Arc Refuses to Recant Her Beliefs
 Marsilius of Padua Denies Coercive Power to the
Clergy
 The Chronicler Calls the Roll at the Council of
Constance
Secondary – Textbook DQ’s
 Dealing with Death
Unit III Age of Religious Wars and European State
Consolidation
Textbook: The Western Heritage Chapters 12-13
APPARTS Essay
1598-The Edict of Nantes
1698-Bishop Burnet describes Peter the Great
Textbook DQ’s
 Theodore Beza Defends the Right to Resist Tyranny
 Henry IV Recognizes Huguenot Religious Freedom
 An Unknown Contemporary Describes Queen
Elizabeth
 King James I Defends Popular Reaction Against the
Puritans
 John Milton Defends Freedom to Print Books
 Louis XIV Revokes the Edict of Nantes
 Louis XIV’s Sister-in-law Grieves for her Homeland
 The Great Elector Welcomes Protestant Refugees from
France.
 Peter the Great Tells His Son to Acquire Military
Skills
Secondary Textbook DQ’s
 Going to the Theater
 Early Controversy Over Tobacco and Smoking
Unit V - The Transatlantic Economy and the Age
of Enlightenment
Textbook: The Western Heritage Chapters 16 and 17
Art Analysis- Rococo Art
APPARTS Essay:
1780's- King George III letter- Loss of America
1763-Rousseau- The Social Contract
Textbook DQ’s
 Visitors describe the Portobello Fair
 Buccaneers Prowl the High Seas
35
 Margaret Cavendish Questions the Fascination with
Scientific Instruments
 Galileo Discusses the Relationship of Science to the
Bible
 Why More Women than Men are Witches
 Rules for the Berlin Poor House
 Turgot describes French Landholding
 Priscilla Wakefield Demands More Occupations for
Women
 Byelorussian Jews Petition Catherine the Great
Secondary DQ’s
 Midwives
 Water, Washing and Bathing
Unit VI
The French Revolution/ Age of Napoleon
Textbook: The Western Heritage Chapters 18 and 19
Art Analysis- Romantic Art
APPARTS Essay:
1789-Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
Robespierre’s Justification of the Use of Terror
Textbook DQ’s
 The Third Estate of a French City Petitions the King
 The National Assembly Decrees Civic Equality in
France
 The Revolutionary Government Forbids Workers’
Organizations
 French Women Petition to Bear Arms
 Burke Denounces the Extreme Measures of the French
Revolution
 The Paris Jacobin Club Alerts the Nations to Internal
Enemies of the Revolution
 The Convention Establishes the Worship of the
Supreme Being
 Napoleon Makes Peace with the Papacy
 Napoleon Advises His Brother to Rule Constitutionally
 A German Writer Describes the War of Liberation
 Madame de Stael Describes the New Romantic
Literature of Germany
 Hegel Explains the Role of Great Men in History
Secondary DQ’s
The Metric System
Sailors and Canned Food





A Slave Trader Describes the Atlantic Passage
Major Cartwright Calls for Reform of Parliament
Immanuel Kant Defines Enlightenment
Denis Diderot Condemns European Empires
Rousseau Argues for Separate Spheres for Men and
Women (from Emile)
 Mary Wollstonecraft Criticizes Rousseau’s View of
Women
 Maria Theresa and Joseph II of Austria Debate
Toleration
Secondary DQ’s
 Sugar enters the Western Diet
 The Colombian Exchange
 Coffeehouses and Enlightenment
Unit VII -The Conservative Order
Economic Advance and Social Unrest
Textbook: The Western Heritage Chapters 20 and 21
APPARTS Essay
1819- The Peterloo Massacre
1842-Women Miners in the English Coal Pits
Textbook DQ’s
 Mazzini Defines Nationality
 Benjamin Constant Discusses Modern Liberty
 Metternich discusses Sources of Political Unrest
 Thomas Babington Macaulay Defends the Great
Reform Bill
 Women Industrial Workers Explain their Economic
Situation
 A Young Middle-class Frenchwoman Writes to Her
Father about Marriage
 Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels Describe the Class
Struggle
 The Pan-Slavic Congress Calls for the Liberation of
Slavic Nationalities
Secondary DQ’s
Gymnastics and German Nationalism
The Potato and the Great Hunger in Ireland
The Abolition of Slavery in the Transatlantic Economy
36
Unit IX- The Age of Nation States
Textbook: The Western Heritage Chapters 22
APPARTS Essay
1844-Joseph Mazzini - An Essay On the Duties of Man
1848- Documents on German Unification
Textbook DQ’s
 Heinrich von Treitschke Demands the Annexation of
Alsace and Lorraine
 Lord Acton Condemns Nationalism
 The People’s Will Issues a Revolutionary Manifesto
 Parnell calls for Home Rule for Ireland
Secondary DQ’s
The Arrival of the Penny Postage
Unit XI
Imperialism, WWI, Russian Revolution
Textbook: The Western Heritage Chapters 25
APPARTS Essay
1900-Karl Pearson- On Social Darwinism
1918- Wilson's 14 points
Unit X
European Society to WWI
The Birth of Modern Thought
Textbook: The Western Heritage Chapters 23 and 24
Art Analysis- Realism and Impressionism Art
APPARTS Essay
1861-Alexander II The Abolition of Serfdom in Russia
John Stuart Mill: from The Subjection of Women
Textbook DQ’s
 Paris Department Stores Expand their Business
 A French Physician Describes a Working-class Slum
in Lille before the Public
 An English Feminist Defends the Cause of the Female
Franchise
 Eduard Bernstein Criticizes Orthodox Marxism
 Lenin Argues for the Necessity of a Secret and Elite
Party of Professional Revolutionaries
 T.H. Huxley Criticizes Evolutionary Ethics
 Leo XIII Considers the Social Question in European
Politics
 Alexis de Tocqueville Forecasts the Danger of
Gobineau’s Racial Thought
 H.S. Chamberlain Exalts the Role of Race
 Herzel calls for a Jewish State
 Virginia Woolf Urges Women to Write
Secondary DQ’s
The Birth of Science Fiction
Unit XII- Political Experiments of the 1920s and the
Great Depression of the 1930s
Textbook: The Western Heritage Chapters 26 and 27
Art Analysis- Propaganda Art
APPARTS Essay
1923-Beer Hall Putsch
1925- NAZI program
Textbook DQ’s
 Social Darwinism and Imperialism
 Bismarck Explains His Foreign Policy
 The Kaiser Comments on the Outbreak of the World
War
 The Outbreak of the Russian Revolution
 An Eyewitness Account of the Bolsheviks Seizure of
Power
Textbook DQ’s
 Trotsky Urges the Use of Terror
 Alexandra Kollontai Demands a New Family Life in
the Soviet Union
 Mussolini Heaps Contempt on Political Liberalism
 Hitler Denounces the Versailles Treaty
 John Maynard Keynes Calls for Government
Investment to Create Employment
 An American Diplomat Witnesses Kristallnacht in
Leipzig
 Hitler Rejects the Emancipation of Women
 Stalin Calls for the Liquidation of the Kulaks as a
Class
Secondary DQ’s
War Propaganda and the Movies: Charlie Chaplin
Imperialism: Ancient and Modern
Secondary DQ’s
The Coming of Radio- The BBC
Cinema of the Political Left and Right
37
Unit XIII- WWII
Textbook: The Western Heritage Chapters 28
APPARTS Essay
1939-Molotov-Ribentropp Pact
1941-The Atlantic Charter
Textbook DQ’s:
 Hitler Describes his Goals in Foreign Policy
 Churchill’s Responses to Munich (1938)
 Mass Murder at Belsen
Secondary DQ’s
 Rosie the Riveter and American Women in the War
Effort
Unit XIV: The Cold War Era and the Emergence of
the New Europe
Textbook: The Western Heritage Chapter 29 and 30
APPARTS Essay
1932-Letter from Feigin
1962-Letter From Chairman Khrushchev to President
Kennedy
Textbook DQ’s:
 The Truman Doctrine Declared
 The Church and the Communist Party Clash over
Education in Hungary
 Khruschev Denounces the Crimes of Stalin
 Gandhi Explains his Doctrine of Nonviolence
 Gorbachev Proposes that the Soviet Communist Party
Abandon its Monopoly of Power
 Margaret Thatcher Asserts the Need for Individual
Responsibility
 Simon De Beauvoir Urges Economic Freedom for
Women
 Sartre Discusses His Existentialism
 Pope John Paul II Discusses International Social
Justice
Secondary DQ’s
 Rock Music and Political Protes
 Toys from Europe Conquer the United States
 Energy and the Modern World
38
Art Analysis and Interpretation Assignment
Choose three of the artistic pieces from the period that we are studying, from the text, the supplemental images in the
Art Index and from suggested sources answer the following questions.

Formal analysis
1. Who were the artists, when and where did they create their pieces
2. Summarize their overall appearance, then describe the details of the object
3. describe the composition and then move on to a description of the materials used (acrylic, watercolor, plaster)

Stylistic analysis
4.
5.
6.
7.
What artistic style(s) do the pieces represent? (Refer to the basic style definitions in the reader)
How do the works fit the stylistic category?
How do the works fail to fit the category?
If the two works have similar content, how do the two works with the same type of content look totally
different from each other, because of the style (for example, both paintings are still life’s, but they show
different approaches to three-dimensionality, etc.)

Iconography/iconology
8. Have the images in the pieces occurred in other objects through history and how are these objects
representation of it is unique?
9. What association would an art historian might make between that depiction and some other thing?.
10. Have these pieces inspired future and current imagery?

Provenance/Patronage
11. How, when, where, and why the patron (the person who orders or buys the object, or generally supports the
artist) asked for or acquired the object from the artist.
12. Do the pieces reflect the personality of the patron or of the artist?

Compare and Contrast
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
How are the styles of the two pieces different?
How are the subjects shown differently in each?
Is there a sense of form and depth in them?
Are they decorative (nice to look at) or expressive (deep and meaningful)?
Are they abstract (distorting reality) or representational (life-like)?
Are there any similarities between them?

Your Reaction
19. Which of the two artworks appealed to you the most and which ones didn't move you at all.
20. Which works did you react to, either in a negative or positive way.
39
Summer Assignment
Due the first day of class!
40
Summer Assignment
Part I
• You MUST bring the following with you on the first day of class:
Three-Ring Binder: with a plastic slip for a cover page.




An appropriate cover page on the first page, titled “AP European History," that identifies the notebook as
yours.
A clear, readable map of all of Europe!
Completed, labeled grids for a fifteen-unit “Table of Contents."
The Unit I schedule placed opposite where the Unit I title page will go.
Part II
Before the beginning of the semester it is strongly suggested ( I can’t require it, but it is a really good idea) you
purchase the following book: Best Test Prep AP European History Exam (REA) 10th Edition
Part III Europe Map Poster Assignment
Part IV Kagan xxxii-Lxxvii - The West Before 1300 Worksheet
Part V We need to have a running start to the semester, so. . . copy down the following notes into your Binder
Roots of the West Notes :
http://apeh-guemmer.wikispaces.com/file/view/Roots%20of%20the%20West.ppt
These notes need to be put into Cornell PERSIA style. I will be collecting these notes on the first day of class.
Part VI. To get used to what you have to do for enhancing your notes- Follow these directions:
Enhanced Notes- For each chapter you will be given an outline of the main points of the chapter, but it is not
everything that you have to know. For each chapter you will have a set of terms, individuals and events. For all the
terms, individuals and events that are not defined or identified within the notes that you have been given, you should
enhance your notes by adding each term, individual and event with their descriptions into your enhanced note section.
Feel free to use bullet points if that is an easier and more efficient option for you.
41
Summer Assignment Part III
• Please acquire the following as soon as possible:
- One full sheet of white poster board
- One set of colored pencils
- One ultra-fine point felt-tip black pen
- One fine-point felt-tip black pen
- One fine-point felt-tip blue pen
Map Poster Assignment
(I will not lie, or deny, this assignment I found online, but it is very good)
The Perfect Europe Map Poster
- Follow these 9 steps to complete your map poster:
1. Use a pencil to lightly draw a latitude and longitude grid on your poster.*
- Your grid should includes the following latitude and longitude ranges:
latitude: 25W - 65E
longitude: 75N - 30N
*An alternative to the step 1 grid is to come in during the summer to trace, in pencil, an outline of the map using an
overhead projector. The specific date will be determined as needed.
2. Use your fine-point felt-tip black pen to draw an outline of the entire continent and all islands - from the Ural
Mountains in the east to Iceland in the west. Be sure to include outlines of those portions of Africa and Asia that should
appear on your map.
3. Use the ultra fine-point felt-tip black pen to draw in the borders of all of Europe's nation-states and territories (see
the attached list).
- Be sure to label the four "countries" which make up the United Kingdom,
but color the UK as one.
4. Use the fine-point felt-tip blue pen to NEATLY write the names of every European nation-state and territory.
5. Use the ultra fine-point felt-tip black pen to NEATLY write the names of all the European cities from the attached
list. Use a * to identify the location of each city - be careful where you place them!
6. Use the colored-pencils (no markers or crayons!) to NEATLY color each European nation-state and territory. Use
only green, orange, purple, red, or yellow (no blue). Be sure not to have two countries of the same color next to one
another.
- Be sure to color the United Kingdom as a single nation-state.
- Be sure to color all islands the same color as their "mother country."
7. Use the ultra fine-point felt-tip black pen to NEATLY write the names of all bodies of water from the attached list.
8. Use the blue colored-pencil to NEATLY color in all bodies of water.
9. Use the brown colored-pencil to NEATLY color in the lands of Africa and Asia which appear on your map.
- Sloppy, incomplete, or late map posters will earn a grade of zero! Partial credit will not be given, and no credit will be
given when directions are not followed.
- Acceptable maps posters must be NEAT, ACCURATE, and COMPLETE.
42
EUROPEAN NATION-STATES, TERRITORIES, and BODIES of WATER
Turkey
Nation-States
Albania
Ukraine
Andorra
United Kingdom
Austria
- England, Scotland,
Belarus
Wales, Northern Ireland
Belgium
Vatican City
Bosnia-Herzegovina
Bulgaria
Territories
Croatia
Balearic Islands (Spain)
Cyprus
Bornholm (Denmark)
Czech Republic
Channel Islands (UK)
Denmark
Corsica (France)
Estonia
Crete (Greece)
Finland
Elba (Italy)
France
Faroe Islands (Denmark)
Germany
Gibraltar (UK)
Greece
Gotland (Sweden)
Hungary
Isle of Man (UK)
Iceland
Kaliningrad (Russia)
Ireland
Sardinia (Italy)
Italy
Shetland Islands (UK)
Latvia
Sicily (Italy)
Liechtenstein
Lithuania
Bodies of Water
Luxembourg
Adriatic Sea
Macedonia
Aegean Sea
Malta
Atlantic Ocean
Moldova
Baltic Sea
Monaco
Bay of Biscay
Montenegro
Black Sea
Netherlands
Bosporus
Norway
Caspian Sea
Poland
Dardanelles
Portugal
English Channel
Romania
Ionian Sea
Russia
Irish Sea
San Marino
Mediterranean Sea
Slovakia
North Sea
Slovenia
Norwegian Sea
Serbia
Strait of Gibraltar
Spain
Tyrrhenian Sea
Sweden
Switzerland
43
EUROPEAN CITIES
Amsterdam,
Athens,
Antwerp,
Barcelona,
Belfast,
Belgrade,
Berlin,
Bratislava,
Bremen,
Brussels,
Bucharest,
Budapest,
Copenhagen,
Dresden,
Dublin,
Edinburgh,
Florence,
Frankfurt,
Gdansk,
Geneva,
Glasgow,
The Hague,
Hamburg,
Helsinki,
Istanbul,
Kaliningrad,
Kiev,
Koeln,
Krakow,
Lisbon,
Liverpool,
Ljubljana,
London,
Madrid,
Maastricht,
Manchester,
Milan,
Minsk,
Moscow,
Munich,
Naples,
Nürnberg,
Odessa,
Oslo,
Paris,
Prague,
Reykjavik,
Riga,
Rome,
Saint Petersburg,
Salzburg,
Sarajevo,
Sevilla,
Skopje,
Sofia,
Stockholm,
Strasbourg,
Tallinn,
Tirana,
Venice,
Vilnius,
Volgograd
Warsaw
Vienna,
Zagreb,
Zürich,
44
Summer Assignment Part IV- The West Before 1300 Worksheet
You need to read the Introduction to the Textbook. You are to answer the following questions using the introduction.
Additionally, within the Introduction, there are several "Primary Source" documents with questions. You are to read all
the documents and answer all the questions in complete sentences.
If you are confused about HOW to read these documents, I refer you to one of the overall assignments you will have to
complete this year, Take it APPARTS Assignment.
Chapter Questions
What was the significance of Hebrew monotheism for the future of Western civilization?
Define the concept of polis
Why did Sparta develop its unique for of government?
What solutions did Emperor Augustus provide for the problems that had plagued the Roman republic?
What role did the Church play in the world after the fall of the western Roman Empire?
Textbook DQ’s
The second Isaiah Defines Hebrew Monotheism
How is the deity in this passage different from the deities of the Mesopotamian and Egyptian societies?
Are there any similarities?
Many peoples have claimed that a single god was the greatest and the ruler over all others. What is there in this
selection that claims a different status for the Hebrew deity?
Husband and Wife in Homer’s Troy
How does Homer depict the feelings of husband and wife toward one another?
What are the tasks of the aristocratic woman revealed in this passage?
What can be learned about the attitude toward death and duty?
Plato on the Role of Women in His Utopian Republic
What are Plato’s reasons for treating men and women the same?
What objections could be raised to that practice?
Would that policy, even if appropriate in Plato’s utopia, also be suitable to conditions in the real work of classical
Athens?
How about in the world of today?
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Juvenal On Life in Rome
According to Juvenal, what dangers awaited pedestrians in the Rome of his day?
Who had the responsibility for the conditions of Rome?
If the situation was as bad as he says, why was nothing done about it?
Why did people choose to live in Rome at all and especially in the conditions he describes?
Mark Describes the Resurrection of Jesus
Why are the stories of miracles such as the one described here important for the growth of Christianity ?
What is special and important about this miracle?
Why is it important in the story that days passed between the death of Jesus and the opening of the tomb?
Why might early Christians believe this story?
Why was belief in the resurrection important for Christianity in the centuries immediately after the life of Jesus?
Is it still important today?
The Carolingian Manor
What gave the lord the right to absolutely everything?
Was there anything overlooked?
How did the stewards and workers share in the manorial life?
Was the arrangement a good deal for them as well as for the lord?
The English Nobility Imposes Restraints on King John
Does the Magna Carta protect basic rights or privileges?
Does this protection suggest that there was a sense of fairness in the past?
Does the granting of such protection in any way weaken the king?
Student Life at the University of Paris
Why were the students from different lands so prejudiced against one another?
Does the rivalry of faculty members appear to be as intense as that among students?
What are the student criticisms of the faculty?
Do they sound credible?
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Summer Assignment Part VI
Aachen
Abraham
Akhenaton
Akkad
Alexander the Great
Aristotle
Athenian Academy
Athens
Babylon
Barbarossa,Frederick
Battle of Bouvines
Battle of Milvian Bridge
Battle of Thermopylae
bourgeois
Bronze Age
burgher
catholic
Charlemagne
Cicero
Classocal Age
Cluny reformers
coloni
Concordat of Worms
Constantine
Constantinople
Darius
deme
dialectic
Diocletian
episteme
feudal society
fief
First Crusade
Gnaeus Pompey
Greek Dark Ages
Gregory VII
High Middle Ages
Homer
Homo Sapiens
Hyksos
imperator
Jesus of Nazareth
Julius Caesar
Justinian
Leo III
Lycurgus
Magna Carta
manors
Martel, Charles
Memphis
Menes
Mesopotamia
Messiah
Middle Kingdom
Monotheism
Mount Olympus
Muhammad
Muslims
Nebuchadnezzar II
Neolithic
New Kingdom
Nile River
Old Kingdom
Paleolithic
Palestine
papal primacy
Peloponnesian War
Plato
polis
politeia
princeps
Punic Wars
quadrivium
Semitic
Senate
serfs
Socrates
Sparta
Sumerians
Theodosius
Treaty of Verdun
trivium
Urban II
vassalage
Vergil
William the Conqueror
Xerxes
Year 476
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Unit I- Introduction: Late Middle Ages: Social and Political Breakdown
Chapter 9
After reading this chapter you should understand:
o The Hundred Years’ War between England and France.
o The effects of the bubonic plague on society.
o The growing power of secular rulers over the Church.
o Schism, heresy, and conciliar reform in the Church.
o The Mongol invasions and the origins of the Russia.
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Major Unit Assignments
The Plague POV DBQ
Black Death Discussion
TIAA Assignment – Chapter 9 Worksheet
49
Chapter 9 Worksheet - The Late Middle Ages
Terms to Identify
annates
Avignon
Babylonian Captivity
Black Death
Boccaccio, Giovanni
Boniface VIII
Boyars
Cahiers dolances
Charles of Anjou
Clericis laicos
Conciliar theory
Council of Basel
Council of Constance
Council of Pisa
Crecy, Battle of
Curia
Defender of the Peace,
Dimitri of Moscow
Donatism
Edward III
Estates General
Four Articles of Prague
Golden Horde
Great Schism
Gregory X
Hundred Years War
Huss, John
Hussites
indulgences
Jacquerie
Joan of Arc
John XXII
Khan, Genghis
Lollards
Marsilius of Padua
Peace of Bretigny-Calais
Peasants Revolt of 1381
Philip VI
Plenitude of power
pogroms
Poitiers, Battle of
Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges
purgatory
Rota Tomana
Statute of Laborers
Tallie
Treaty of Troyes
Unam Sanctum
Vladimir of Kiev
Wycliffe, John
Chapter Questions
How did the Black Death effect politically, economically and socially the lives of European peasants?
Who won the Hundred Years War and how?
How did European monarchies use the Great Schism to gain power over the Catholic Church?
Textbook DQ’s
Boccaccio describes the Ravages of the Black Death in Florence
What did people do to escape the plague?
Was any of it sound medical practice?
What does the study of calamities like the Black Death tell us about the people of the past?
Dealing With Death (Secondary)
How does illness and death shape history and culture?
How effective were the physicians and the clergy in the face of everyday afflictions?
Why did people bother with them?
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Joan of Arc Refuses to Recant Her Beliefs
Do the judges appear to have made up their minds about Joan in advance?
How does this judicial process, which was based on intensive interrogation of the accused differ from a trial today?
Why was Joan deemed heretical and not insane when she acknowledged hearing voices?
Marsilius of Padua Denies Coercive Power to the Clergy
Does Marsilius’s argument, if accepted, destroy worldly authority of the church?
Why was his teaching deemed heretical?
The Chronicler Calls the Roll at the Council of Constance
How “representative” of the church was this council?
What does the presence of foreign embassies suggest about the power of councils in the late Middle Ages?
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APPARTS Essay Reading- The Battle of Agincourt, 1415
The English victory at the Battle of Agincourt gave birth to a legend that was immortalized in William Shakespeare's
King Henry V. The battle took place in a muddy farmer's field in northern France on October 25, 1415 and was one in
a series of encounters between France and England that has become known as the Hundred Years' War (1337-1453).
The story begins two months before the battle. Henry and his army had landed in France on August 14 near the mouth
of the Seine River. The objective was to regain English territory lost to France over a period of centuries. The first task
was to besiege and conquer a nearby town. Henry was successful, but the time-consuming effort took over a month. It
was now early October. Henry realized that his reduced force and the limited time left in the campaigning season,
meant that he would not be able to press his attack on the French. Instead, he lead his army north in a "show of force"
that would end at the English port of Calais and embarkation back to England.
As the English army marched north, it was dogged by a French force intent on bringing Henry to battle. The French
were able to slip ahead of Henry and block his path to the sea at Agincourt. On the morning of October 25, the two
armies faced one another on a recently plowed field muddied by an overnight rain and constricted by woodlands on
either side. The majority of Henry's army was made up of archers; the remainder consisted of armored knights who
fought on foot. His opponent's force consisted primarily of knights who fought on foot and on horseback, supported by
archers. Although estimates of the relative strength of the two armies vary, there is no argument that the English were
vastly outnumbered.
The two enemies faced one another, exchanging taunts designed to provoke an attack. Henry marched his force close
enough to allow his archers to unleash a hail of arrows upon the French. The French knights charged forward only to
be caught in a slippery quagmire of mud. To make matters worse, the French attackers were unable to effectively swing
their broadswords because of the tight quarters of the battlefield and the continuing forward rush of their comrades
behind them. Henry's archers fired lethal storms of arrows into this dense mass of humanity until the French began to
retreat. The archers then dropped their bows, picked up what weapons they could find and joined the English knights in
slaying their foe. The setting sun left a battlefield heaped with the bodies of thousands of French knights and the cream
of France's ruling class. The English had dealt their enemy a disastrous blow.
"...their horses stumbled among the stakes, and they were speedily slain by the archers."
Jehan de Wavrin was the son of a Flemish knight. His father and older brother fought with the French at the battle.
Both were killed. The young de Wavrin observed the battle from the French lines and we join his account as the two
armies prepare for combat:
"When the battalions of the French were thus formed, it was grand to see them; and as far as one could judge by the
eye, they were in number fully six times as many as the English. And when this was done the French sat down by
companies around their banners, waiting the approach of the English, and making their peace with one another; and
then were laid aside many old aversions conceived long ago; some kissed and embraced each other, which it was
affecting to witness; so that all quarrels and discords which they had had in time past were changed to great and perfect
love. And there were some who breakfasted on what they had. And these Frenchmen remained thus till nine or ten
o'clock in the morning, feeling quite assured that, considering their great force, the English could not escape them;
however, there were at least some of the wisest who greatly feared a fight with them in open battle.
...The French had arranged their battalions between two small thickets, one lying close to Agincourt, and the other to
Tramecourt. The place was narrow, and very advantageous for the English, and, on the contrary, very ruinous for the
French, for the said French had been all night on horseback, and it rained, and the pages, grooms, and others, in leading
about the horses, had broken up the ground, which was so soft that the horses could with difficulty step out of the soil.
And also the said French were so loaded with armour that they could not support themselves or move forward. In the
first place they were armed with long coats of steel, reaching to the knees or lower, and very heavy, over the leg
harness, and besides plate armour also most of them had hooded helmets; wherefore this weight of armour, with the
softness of the wet ground, as has been said, kept them as if immovable, so that they could raise their dubs only with
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great difficulty, and with all these mischiefs there was this, that most of them were troubled with hunger and want of
sleep.
...Now let us return to the English. After the parley between the two armies was finished and the delegates had returned,
each to their own people, the King of England, who had appointed a knight called Sir Thomas Erpingham to place his
archers in front in two wings, trusted entirely to him, and Sir Thomas, to do his part, exhorted every one to do well in
the name of the King, begging them to fight vigorously against the French in order to secure and save their own lives.
And thus the knight, who rode with two others only in front of the battalion, seeing that the hour was come, for all
things were well arranged, threw up a baton which he held in his hand, saying 'Nestrocq' ['Now strike'] which was the
signal for attack; then dismounted and joined the King, who was also on foot in the midst of his men, with his banner
before him.
Then the English, seeing this signal, began suddenly to march, uttering a very loud cry, which greatly surprised the
French. And when the English saw that the French did not approach them, they marched dashingly towards them in
very fine order, and again raised a loud cry as they stopped to take breath.
Then the English archers, who, as I have said, were in the wings, saw that they were near enough, and began to send
their arrows on the French with great vigour.
Then the French seeing the English come towards them in this manner, placed themselves together in order, everyone
under his banner, their helmets on their heads. The Constable, the Marshal, the admirals, and the other princes earnestly
exhorted their men to fight the English well and bravely; and when it came to the approach the trumpets and clarions
resounded everywhere; but the French began to hold down their heads, especially those who had no bucklers, for the
impetuosity of the English arrows, which fell so heavily that no one durst uncover or look up.
Thus they went forward a little, then made a little retreat, but before they could come to close quarters, many of the
French were disabled and wounded by the arrows; and when they came quite up to the English, they were, as has been
said, so closely pressed one against another that none of them could lift their arms to strike their enemies, except some
that were in front...
[The French knights] struck into these English archers, who had their stakes fixed in front of them... their. horses
stumbled among the stakes, and they were speedily slain by the archers, which was a great pity. And most of the rest,
through fear, gave way and fell back into their vanguard, to whom they were a great hindrance; and they opened their
ranks in several places, and made them fall back and lose their footing in some land newly sown; for their horses had
been so wounded by the arrows that the men could no longer manage them.
[The French] men-at-arms without number began to fall; and their horses feeling the arrows coming upon them took to
flight before the enemy, and following their example many of the French turned and fled. Soon afterwards the English
archers, seeing the vanguard thus shaken, issued from behind their stockade, threw away their bows and quivers, then
took their swords, hatchets, mallets, axes, falcon-beaks and other weapons, and, pushing into the places where they saw
these breaches, struck down and killed these Frenchmen without mercy, and never ceased to kill till the said vanguard
which had fought little or not at all was completely overwhelmed, and these went on striking right and left till they
came upon the second battalion, which was behind the advance guard, and there the King personally threw himself into
the fight with his men-at-arms.
As the English continued to gain the upper hand, King Henry received news that the French were attacking at the rear
of his army and that French reinforcements were approaching. King Henry ordered that all French prisoners be put to
the sword - an order his knights were reluctant to follow as, if kept alive, these prisoners could bring a healthy ransom:
"When the King of England perceived them coming thus he caused it to be published that every one that had a prisoner
should immediately kill him, which those who had any were unwilling to do, for they expected to get great ransoms for
them. But when the King was informed of this he appointed a gentleman with two hundred archers whom he
commanded to go through the host and kill all the prisoners, whoever they might be. This esquire, without delay or
objection, fulfilled the command of his sovereign lord, which was a most pitiable thing, for in cold blood all the nobility
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of France was beheaded and inhumanly cut to pieces, and all through this accursed company, a sorry set compared
with the noble captive chivalry, who when they saw that the English were ready to receive them, all immediately turned
and fled, each to save his own life. Many of the cavalry escaped; but of those on foot there were many among the
dead."
References:
Wavrin, Jehan de, Chronicles, 1399-1422, trans. Sir W. Hardy and E. Hardy (1887); Keegan, John, The Illustrated
Face of Battle: a study of Agincourt, Waterloo and the Somme (1989).
How To Cite This Article:
"The Battle of Agincourt, 1415" EyeWitness to History, www.eyewitnesstohistory.com (2006).
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Unit II: The Renaissance and the Age of Reformation
Chapters 10-11
"In Italy for thirty years under the Borgias they had warfare, terror, murder and bloodshed but they produced
Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci and the Renaissance. In Switzerland, they had brotherly love; they had five hundred
years of democracy and peace and what did that produce? The cuckoo clock.”- Orson Wells
After reading chapter 10 you should understand:
Renaissance politics, culture, and art in Italy.
The northern Renaissance that followed that in Italy.
Italian politics, wars, and foreign intervention in Italy by France and Spain.
Powerful new monarchies of Spain, France, and England.
Spanish and Portuguese "discoveries" and conquest.
After reading chapter 11 you should understand:
The social and religious origins of the Reformation.
Martin Luther’s role in the German Reformation.
The course of the Reformation in Switzerland, France, and England.
The Catholic Counter-Reformation’s achievements.
The social impact of the Reformation in western and central Europe.
55
Potential FRQ Questions
Chapter 10
To what extent and in what ways may the Renaissance be regarded as a turning point in the Western intellectual and
cultural tradition?
Describe and analyze the ways that the development of printing altered both the culture and politics of Europe during
the period 1450-1600.
Explain the ways that Renaissance humanism transformed ideas about the individual's role in society.
To what extent is the term "Renaissance" a valid concept for a distinct period in early modern European History?
To what extent and in what ways did women participate in the Renaissance?
Describe and analyze the ways that the development of printing both the culture and religion of Europe during the
period 1450-1600.
Chapter 11
"Luther was both a revolutionary and a conservative." Evaluate this statement with respect to Luther's responses to the
political and social questions of his day.
What were the responses of the Catholic authorities of the 16th century to the challenges posed by the Lutheran
Reformation?
Compare and contrast the attitudes of Martin Luther and John Calvin toward political authority and social order.
"The Protestant Reformation was primarily an economic event." By describing and determining the relative importance
of the economic, political, and religious causes of the Protestant Reformation, defend or refute this statement.
Describe and analyze the ways in which 16th century Roman Catholics defended their faith against the Protestant
Reformation.
Compare and contrast the Lutheran Reformation and the Catholic Reformation of the 16th century regarding the reform
of both religious doctrines and religious practices.
"The Reformation was a rejection of the secular spirit of the Italian Renaissance." Defend or refute this statement using
specific examples from 16th-century Europe.
Discuss the political and social consequences of the Protestant Reformation in the first half of the 16th century.
To what extent did political authorities influence the course of the Protestant Reformation in the sixteenth century? “
Major Unit Assignments
Renaissance FRQ
Machiavelli’s Italy- Virtual Discussion
New_Monarchies chart
Reformation Chart
Reforming Sermons
PERSIA Review Chart
Functions of Festivals Discussion
TIAA with Art Analysis- Renaissance Art
Chapter 10-11 Worksheet
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Reforming Sermons
30 points for project; 3 points each for evaluations. The podcast rubric will be used for evaluating the
“Sermons” I will evaluate your project, but you will also be evaluated by three other students as well.





In groups of three or four.
Create a script of three pages double-spaced in advance of class. Script will be distributed to class
members for evaluation.
Use the Reformation Chart as a reference for specific topic information
o Must incorporate specific ideas of the Reformation figure and primary source information.
 Ex. Martin Luther on indulgences, the peasants, etc.
Sources should be cited in script. , not merely at the end in closing credits.
 You may use the Reader and Textbook as sources
 The Primary Source Archive also has material you can use.
Sermon may be performed live or submitted as video (Remember Youtube is blocked at school, so
don’t rely on that to turn it in.).
Ideas are to be expressed as a "sermon." Not just a speech and definitely not a newscast.
Should incorporate music of time period if possible, or appropriate music. .
Should imitate style of televangelists.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Martin Luther
Philip Melanchthon
John Calvin
Henry VIII



5. Ulrich Zwingli
6. John Knox
7. Ignatius of Loyola
One note: The point of this activity is to learn about the ideas and influence of these individuals. It is not the intent to
change your own personal beliefs.
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Chapter 10 Worksheet- The Renaissance
Terms to Identify
Act of Supremacy
Agricola, Rudolf
Alberti, Leon Battista
alcabala
Alexander VI
Aligheiri, Dante
Athaualpa
Black Legend
Bosworth, Battle of
Bruni, Leonardo
Castiglione, Baldassare
Charles VIII
chiaroscuro
Chrysoloras, Michael
Ciompi Revolt
Cisneros, Jimenez de
civic humanism
Columbus, Christopher
Concordat of Bologna
condottieri
conquistadores
correfidores
Cortes
Cortes, Hernan
Council of Ten
Court of Star Chamber
creoles
Cuahtemoc
Cuzco
debt peonage
Dias, Bartholomew
Donation of Constantine
encomienda
Erasmus, Desiderius
Florentine Academy
gabelle
Ghibelline
Giotto
Golden Bull
grandi
Guelf
Gutenberg, Johann
hacienda
Henry the Navigator
Hermandad
humanism
humanitas
Hutten, Ulrich von
Isabella of Castile
Julius II
Las Casas, Bartolome
League of Venice
linear perspective
Machiavelli, Niccolo
Magellan, Ferdinand
mannerism
Medici, Cosimo de
Michelangelo
Mirandola, Pico della
Moctezuma II
More, Thomas
peninsulares
Petrarch, Francesco
Pisan, Christine de
Pizarro, Francisco
Platonism
podesta
Polo, Marco
pupolo grosso
pupolo minuto
quinto
Raphael
Reichstag
Renaissance
repartimiento
Reuchlin, Johann
Savonarola, Girolamo
Spanish Inquisition
Tenochtitlan
Torquemada, Tomas de
Treaty of Lodi
Valla, Lorenzo
Vespucci, Amerigo
Vinci, Leonardo da
War of the Roses
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Chapter Questions
Why did the Renaissance begin in Italy?
How would you define "Renaissance Humanism"? In what ways was the Renaissance a break with the Middle Ages
and in what ways did it owe its existence to medieval civilization?
Discuss the impact of the Renaissance on education and on manners. How was the idea of "courtier" and "gentleman"
developed during this age?
In what ways was Renaissance art different from Medieval art? What new techniques and concepts allowed
Renaissance artists to make such an impact?
Why did slavery exist during the Renaissance when emphasis was being placed on the worth of humans and their
unique qualities? How could Humanism and slavery exist at the same time?
How was the Renaissance different outside of Italy?
Textbook DQ’s
The Renaissance Garden (Secondary)
What kinds of gardens existed in the Middle Ages and early Renaissance?
How did religion give meaning to gardens?
Christine de Pisan Instructs Women On How to Handle Their Husbands
How does Christine de Pisan’s image of husband and wife compare with other medieval views?
Would the church question her advice?
As a noblewoman commenting on the married life of artisans, does her high social standing influence her advice?
Would she give similar advice to women of her own social class?
Pico Della Mirandola States the Renaissance Image of Man
How great, really, is the choice outlined here?
Are the basic options limited?
Do they differ from what the church though life’s possibilities were?
Is the concept of freedom in this passage a modern one?
Michelangelo and Pope Julius II
Did Michelangelo hold his own with the pope?
What does this interchange suggest about the relationship of patrons and artists in the Renaissance?
Were great artists like Michelangelo so revered that they could do virtually as they pleased?
59
A Defense of American Natives
Is Las Casas romanticizing the American natives?
Does he truly respect their native culture and beliefs?
Montaigne on “Cannibals” in Foreign Lands
Is Montaigne romanticizing the New World natives?
Is he being too hard on Europeans?
Had the Aztecs or Incas had the ability to discover and occupy Europe, would they have enslaved and exploited
Europeans?
“I was at this restaurant. The sign said "Breakfast Anytime." So I ordered French Toast in the Renaissance.” –
Steven Wright
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Chapter 11 Worksheet- The Reformation
Terms to Identify
Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation
Anabaptists
arranged marriage
Augsburg Confession
Book of Common Prayer
Brothers of the Common Life
Calvin, John
canton
Capuchins
Catherine of Aragon
Cervantes Saavedra, Miguel de
coitus interriptus
Convocation
Council of Trent
Diet of Augsburg
Diet of Speyer
Diet of Veteras
Diet of Worms
Eck, John
Frederick III the Wise
Fugger
Grebel, Conrad
Habsburg-Valois Wars
Ignatius of Loyola
Imitation of Christ
Leo X
Luther, Martin
Marburg Colloquy
Melanchthon, Philip
Nintey five Theses
Peace of Augsburg
Peace of Passau
Peasants Revolt of 1524-1535
Reformation
Schmakdkaldic League
Schwenckfeld, Caspar
Shakespeare, William
Simons, Menno
Six Articles of 1539
Spiritualists
Swiss Civl Wars
Tetzel, John
Theatines
Tyndale, William
vernacular
wet nurse
Zwingli, Ulrich
Chapter Questions
What were Luther’s major complaints against the Catholic Church?
What was the fundamental issue faced by Luther in the Peasants Revolt?
Why did the Reformation begin in Germany? What political factors contributed to the success of the Reformation there
as opposed to France or Italy?
How was Calvin’s Protestant movement different than Luther’s?
What were the responses of the Catholic authorities of the 16th century to the challenges posed by the Lutheran
Reformation?
How was the Act of Supremacy both a political and religious statement against the Catholic church?
How did political authorities influence the course of the Protestant Reformation in the sixteenth century?
61
Textbook DQ’s
German Peasants Protest Rising Feudal Exactions
Are the peasants demands reasonable, given the circumstances of the 16th century?
Are the peasants more interested in material than in spiritual freedom?
Which demands are the most revolutionary?
Zwingli Lists the Errors of the Roman Church
How do Zwingli’s basic religious views compare with those of Martin Luther?
Ignatius of Loyola’s “Rules for Thinking with the Church”
Would Protestants find any of Ignatius’s “rules” acceptable?
Might any of them be controversial among Catholic laity as well as among Protestant laity?
A Child is Born: Welcoming the Newborn in Late Medieval Europe (Secondary)
Why do you think infant mortality was so high in late medieval Europe?
Would doctors today approve of these suggestions for the care of newborns?
62
APPARTS Essay Reading
Excerpts from Machiavelli’s The Prince, 1513
Niccolò Machiavelli was born in Florence on May 3, 1469. Machiavelli intended The Prince to serve as a guide to
creating and holding on to a principality, in ways that often benefited the people, though perhaps indirectly.
Machiavelli remembered how well off the French were because they were one principality united under one ruler, and
he wanted the same for Italy for he was patriotic and prized his freedom. Machiavelli also intended the book to bring
him back into favor with the Medici family, so he might regain his government posts and begin to enact some of his
ideas. The Prince is dedicated to Lorenzo de' Medici, who was called "il Maginifico".
Chapter XV: Concerning Things for which Men, and especially Princes, are Praised or Blamed
It remains now to see what ought to be the rules of conduct for a prince towards subject and friends. And as I know that
many have written on this point, I expect I shall be considered presumptuous in mentioning it again, especially as in
discussing it I shall depart from the methods of other people. But, it being my intention to write a thing which shall be
useful to him who apprehends it, it appears to me more appropriate to follow up the real truth of the matter than the
imagination of it; for many have pictured republics and principalities which in fact have never been known or seen,
because how one lives is so far distant from how one ought to live, that he who neglects what is done for what ought to
be done, sooner effects his ruin than his preservation; for a man who wishes to act entirely up to his professions of
virtue soon meets with what destroys him among so much that is evil.
Hence it is necessary for a prince wishing to hold his own to know how to do wrong, and to make use of it or not
according to necessity. Therefore, putting on one side imaginary things concerning a prince, and discussing those which
are real, I say that all men when they are spoken of, and chiefly princes for being more highly placed, are remarkable
for some of those qualities which bring them either blame or praise; and thus it is that one is reputed liberal, another
miserly … one is reputed generous, one rapacious; one cruel, one compassionate; one faithless, another faithful; one
effeminate and cowardly, another bold and brave; one affable, another haughty; one lascivious, another chaste; one
sincere, another cunning; one hard, another easy; one grave, another frivolous; one religious, another unbelieving, and
the like. And I know that every one will confess that it would be most praiseworthy in a prince to exhibit all the above
qualities that are considered good; but because they can neither be entirely possessed nor observed, for human
conditions do not permit it, it is necessary for him to be sufficiently prudent that he may know how to avoid the
reproach of those vices which would lose him his state; and also to keep himself, if it be possible, from those which
would not lose him it; but this not being possible, he may with less hesitation abandon himself to them. And again, he
need not make himself uneasy at incurring a reproach for those vices without which the state can only be saved with
difficulty, for if everything is considered carefully, it will be found that something which looks like virtue, if followed,
would be his ruin; whilst something else, which looks like vice, yet followed brings him security and prosperity.
Chapter XVI: Concerning Liberality and Meanness
Commencing then with the first of the above-named characteristics, I say that it would be well to be reputed liberal.
Nevertheless, liberality exercised in a way that does not bring you the reputation for it, injures you; for if one exercises
it honestly and as it should be exercised, it may not become known, and you will not avoid the reproach of its opposite.
Therefore, any one wishing to maintain among men the name of liberal is obliged to avoid no attribute of magnificence;
so that a prince thus inclined will consume in such acts all his property, and will be compelled in the end, if he wish to
maintain the name of liberal, to unduly weigh down his people, and tax them, and do everything he can to get money.
This will soon make him odious to his subjects, and becoming poor he will be little valued by any one; thus, with his
liberality, having offended many and rewarded few, he is affected by the very first trouble and imperiled by whatever
may be the first danger; recognizing this himself, and wishing to draw back from it, he runs at once into the reproach of
being miserly.
Therefore, a prince, not being able to exercise this virtue of liberality in such a way that it is recognized, except to his
cost, if he is wise he ought not to fear the reputation of being mean, for in time he will come to be more considered than
if liberal, seeing that with his economy his revenues are enough, that he can defend himself against all attacks, and is
able to engage in enterprises without burdening his people; thus it comes to pass that he exercises liberality towards all
from whom he does not take, who are numberless, and meanness towards those to whom he does not give, who are few.
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We have not seen great things done in our time except by those who have been considered mean; the rest have failed.
… And if any one should reply: Many have been princes, and have done great things with armies, who have been
considered very liberal, I reply: Either a prince spends that which is his own or his subjects’ or else that of others. In the
first case he ought to be sparing, in the second he ought not to neglect any opportunity for liberality. And to the prince
who goes forth with his army, supporting it by pillage, sack, and extortion, handling that which belongs to others, this
liberality is necessary, otherwise he would not be followed by soldiers. And of that which is neither yours nor your
subjects’ you can be a ready giver, as were Cyrus, Caesar, and Alexander; because it does not take away your
reputation if you squander that of others, but adds to it; it is only squandering your own that injures you.
And there is nothing wastes so rapidly as liberality, for even whilst you exercise it you lose the power to do so, and so
become either poor or despised, or else, in avoiding poverty, rapacious and hated. And a prince should guard himself,
above all things, against being despised and hated; and liberality leads you to both. Therefore it is wiser to have a
reputation for meanness which brings reproach without hatred, than to be compelled through seeking a reputation for
liberality to incur a name for rapacity which begets reproach with hatred.
Chapter XVII: Concerning Cruelty and Clemency, and whether it is Better to be Loved than Feared
Coming now to the other qualities mentioned above, I say that every prince ought to desire to be considered clement
and not cruel. Nevertheless he ought to take care not to misuse this clemency. Cesare Borgia was considered cruel;
notwithstanding, his cruelty reconciled the Romagna, unified it, and restored it to peace and loyalty. … Therefore a
prince, so long as he keeps his subjects united and loyal, ought not to mind the reproach of cruelty; because with a few
examples he will be more merciful than those who, through too much mercy, allow disorders to arise, from which
follow murders or robberies; for these are wont to injure the whole people, whilst those executions which originate with
a prince offend the individual only. …
Nevertheless he ought to be slow to believe and to act, nor should he himself show fear, but proceed in a temperate
manner with prudence and humanity, so that too much confidence may not make him incautious and too much distrust
render him intolerable. Upon this a question arises: whether it be better to be loved than feared or feared than loved? It
may be answered that one should wish to be both, but, because it is difficult to unite them in one person, it is much
safer to be feared than loved, when, of the two, either must be dispensed with. Because this is to be asserted in general
of men, that they are ungrateful, fickle, false, cowardly, covetous, and as long as you succeed they are yours entirely;
they will offer you their blood, property, life, and children, as is said above, when the need is far distant; but when it
approaches they turn against you. And that prince who, relying entirely on their promises, has neglected other
precautions, is ruined; because friendships that are obtained by payments, and not by greatness or nobility of mind, may
indeed be earned, but they are not secured, and in time of need cannot be relied upon; and men have less scruple in
offending one who is beloved than one who is feared, for love is preserved by the link of obligation which, owing to the
baseness of men, is broken at every opportunity for their advantage; but fear preserves you by a dread of punishment
which never fails.
Nevertheless a prince ought to inspire fear in such a way that, if he does not win love, he avoids hatred; because he can
endure very well being feared whilst he is not hated, which will always be as long as he abstains from the property of
his citizens and subjects and from their women. But when it is necessary for him to proceed against the life of someone,
he must do it on proper justification and for manifest cause, but above all things he must keep his hands off the property
of others, because men more quickly forget the death of their father than the loss of their patrimony. Besides, pretexts
for taking away the property are never wanting; for he who has once begun to live by robbery will always find pretexts
for seizing what belongs to others; but reasons for taking life, on the contrary, are more difficult to find and sooner
lapse. But when a prince is with his army, and has under control a multitude of soldiers, then it is quite necessary for
him to disregard the reputation of cruelty, for without it he would never hold his army united or disposed to its duties.
Among the wonderful deeds of Hannibal this one is enumerated: that having led an enormous army, composed of many
various races of men, to fight in foreign lands, no dissensions arose either among them or against the prince, whether in
his bad or in his good fortune. This arose from nothing else than his inhuman cruelty, which, with his boundless valour,
made him revered and terrible in the sight of his soldiers, but without that cruelty, his other virtues were not sufficient
to produce this effect. And short-sighted writers admire his deeds from one point of view and from another condemn
the principal cause of them. That it is true his other virtues would not have been sufficient for him may be proved by the
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case of Scipio, that most excellent man, not only of his own times but within the memory of man, against whom,
nevertheless, his army rebelled in Spain; this arose from nothing but his too great forbearance, which gave his soldiers
more license than is consistent with military discipline. For this he was upbraided in the Senate by Fabius Maximus,
and called the corrupter of the Roman soldiery. The Locrians were laid waste by a legate of Scipio, yet they were not
avenged by him, nor was the insolence of the legate punished, owing entirely to his easy nature. Insomuch that someone
in the Senate, wishing to excuse him, said there were many men who knew much better how not to err than to correct
the errors of others. This disposition, if he had been continued in the command, would have destroyed in time the
fame and glory of Scipio; but, he being under the control of the Senate, this injurious characteristic not only concealed
itself, but contributed to his glory. Returning to the question of being feared or loved, I come to the conclusion that,
men loving according to their own will and fearing according to that of the prince, a wise prince should establish
himself on that which is in his own control and not in that of others; he must endeavor only to avoid hatred, as is noted.
Chapter XVIII: Concerning the Way in which Princes should Keep Faith
Every one admits how praiseworthy it is in a prince to keep faith, and to live with integrity and not with craft.
Nevertheless our experience has been that those princes who have done great things have held good faith of little
account, and have known how to circumvent the intellect of men by craft, and in the end have overcome those who
have relied on their word. You must know there are two ways of contesting, the one by the law, the other by force; the
first method is proper to men, the second to beasts; but because the first is frequently not sufficient, it is necessary to
have recourse to the second. Therefore it is necessary for a prince to understand how to avail himself of the beast and
the man. This has been figuratively taught to princes by ancient writers, who describe how Achilles and many other
princes of old were given to the Centaur Chiron to nurse, who brought them up in his discipline; which means solely
that, as they had for a teacher one who was half beast and half man, so it is necessary for a prince to know how to make
use of both natures, and that one without the other is not durable. A prince, therefore, being compelled knowingly to
adopt the beast, ought to choose the fox and the lion; because the lion cannot defend himself against snares and the fox
cannot defend himself against wolves. Therefore, it is necessary to be a fox to discover the snares and a lion to terrify
the wolves. Those who rely simply on the lion do not understand what they are about. Therefore a wise lord cannot, nor
ought he to, keep faith when such observance may be turned against him, and when the reasons that caused him to
pledge it exist no longer. If men were entirely good this precept would not hold, but because they are bad, and will not
keep faith with you, you too are not bound to observe it with them. Nor will there ever be wanting to a prince legitimate
reasons to excuse this non-observance. Of this endless modern examples could be given, showing how many treaties
and engagements have been made void and of no effect through the faithlessness of princes; and he who has known best
how to employ the fox has succeeded best.
But it is necessary to know well how to disguise this characteristic, and to be a great pretender and dissembler; and men
are so simple, and so subject to present necessities, that he who seeks to deceive will always find someone who will
allow himself to be deceived. One recent example I cannot pass over in silence. Alexander the Sixth did nothing else
but deceive men, nor ever thought of doing otherwise, and he always found victims; for there never was a man who had
greater power in asserting, or who with greater oaths would affirm a thing, yet would observe it less; nevertheless his
deceits always succeeded according to his wishes, because he well understood this side of mankind.
Therefore it is unnecessary for a prince to have all the good qualities I have enumerated, but it is very necessary to
appear to have them. And I shall dare to say this also, that to have them and always to observe them is injurious, and
that to appear to have them is useful; to appear merciful, faithful, humane, religious, upright, and to be so, but with a
mind so framed that should you require not to be so, you may be able and know how to change to the opposite.
And you have to understand this, that a prince, especially a new one, cannot observe all those things for which men are
esteemed, being often forced, in order to maintain the state, to act contrary to fidelity, friendship, humanity, and
religion. Therefore it is necessary for him to have a mind ready to turn itself accordingly as the winds and variations of
fortune force it, yet, as I have said above, not to diverge from the good if he can avoid doing so, but, if compelled, then
to know how to set about it.
For this reason a prince ought to take care that he never lets anything slip from his lips that is not replete with the
above-named five qualities, that he may appear to him who sees and hears him altogether merciful, faithful, humane,
upright, and religious. There is nothing more necessary to appear to have than this last quality, inasmuch as men judge
generally more by the eye than by the hand, because it belongs to everybody to see you, to few to come in touch with
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you. Every one sees what you appear to be, few really know what you are, and those few dare not oppose themselves
to the opinion of the many, who have the majesty of the state to defend them; and in the actions of all men, and
especially of princes, which it is not prudent to challenge, one judges by the result.
For that reason, let a prince have the credit of conquering and holding his state, the means will always be considered
honest, and he will be praised by everybody; because the vulgar are always taken by what a thing seems to be and by
what comes of it; and in the world there are only the vulgar, for the few find a place there only when the many have no
ground to rest on.
Chapter XIX: That One should Avoid being Despised and Hated
Now, concerning the characteristics of which mention is made above, I have spoken of the more important ones, the
others I wish to discuss briefly under this generality, that the prince must consider, as has been in part said before, how
to avoid those things which will make him hated or contemptible; and as often as he shall have succeeded he will have
fulfilled his part, and he need not fear any danger in other reproaches. It makes him hated above all things, as I have
said, to be rapacious, and to be a violator of the property and women of his subjects, from both of which he must
abstain. And when neither their property nor their honor is touched, the majority of men live content, and he has only to
contend with the ambition of a few, whom he can curb with ease in many ways. It makes him contemptible to be
considered fickle, frivolous, effeminate, mean-spirited, irresolute, from all of which a prince should guard himself as
from a rock; and he should endeavor to show in his actions greatness, courage, gravity, and fortitude; and in his private
dealings with his subjects let him show that his judgments are irrevocable, and maintain himself in such reputation that
no one can hope either to deceive him or to get round him.
That prince is highly esteemed who conveys this impression of himself, and he who is highly esteemed is not easily
conspired against; for, provided it is well known that he is an excellent man and revered by his people, he can only be
attacked with difficulty. For this reason a prince ought to have two fears, one from within, on account of his subjects,
the other from without, on account of external powers. From the latter he is defended by being well armed and having
good allies, and if he is well armed he will have good friends, and affairs will always remain quiet within when they are
quiet without, unless they should have been already disturbed by conspiracy; and even should affairs outside be
disturbed, if he has carried out his preparations and has lived as I have said, as long as he does not despair, he will resist
every attack, as I said Nabis the Spartan did.
But concerning his subjects, when affairs outside are disturbed he has only to fear that they will conspire secretly, from
which a prince can easily secure himself by avoiding being hated and despised, and by keeping the people satisfied with
him, which it is most necessary for him to accomplish, as I said above at length. And one of the most efficacious
remedies that a prince can have against conspiracies is not to be hated and despised by the people, for he who conspires
against a prince always expects to please them by his removal; but when the conspirator can only look forward to
offending them, he will not have the courage to take such a course, for the difficulties that confront a conspirator are
infinite. And as experience shows, many have been the conspiracies, but few have been successful; because he who
conspires cannot act alone, nor can he take a companion except from those whom he believes to be malcontents, and as
soon as you have opened your mind to a malcontent you have given him the material with which to content himself, for
by denouncing you he can look for every advantage; so that, seeing the gain from this course to be assured, and seeing
the other to be doubtful and full of dangers, he must be a very rare friend, or a thoroughly obstinate enemy of the
prince, to keep faith with you.
And, to reduce the matter into a small compass, I say that, on the side of the conspirator, there is nothing but fear,
jealousy, prospect of punishment to terrify him; but on the side of the prince there is the majesty of the principality, the
laws, the protection of friends and the state to defend him; so that, adding to all these things the popular goodwill, it is
impossible that any one should be so rash as to conspire. For whereas in general the conspirator has to fear before the
execution of his plot, in this case he has also to fear the sequel to the crime; because on account of it he has the people
for an enemy, and thus cannot hope for any escape.
[FROM CHAPTER 7:]
When the duke [Cesare Borgia] occupied the Romagna he found it under the rule of weak masters, who rather
plundered their subjects than ruled them, and gave them more cause for disunion than for union, so that the country was
full of robbery, quarrels, and every kind of violence; and so, wishing to bring back peace and obedience to authority, he
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considered it necessary to give it a good governor. Thereupon he promoted Messer Ramiro d'Orco, a swift and cruel
man, to whom he gave the fullest power. This man in a short time restored peace and unity with the greatest success.
Afterwards the duke considered that it was not advisable to confer such excessive authority, for he had no doubt but
that he would become odious, so he set up a court of judgment in the country, under a most excellent president, wherein
all cities had their advocates. And because he knew that the past severity had caused some hatred against himself, so, to
clear himself in the minds of the people, and gain them entirely to himself, he desired to show that, if any cruelty had
been practised, it had not originated with him, but in the natural sternness of the minister. Under this pretence he took
Ramiro, and one morning caused him to be executed and left on the piazza at Cesena with the block and a bloody knife
at his side. The barbarity of this spectacle caused the people to be at once satisfied and dismayed.
Chapter XXV: What Fortune can Effect in Human Affairs and How to Withstand Her
It is not unknown to me how many men have had, and still have, the opinion that the affairs of the world are in such
wise governed by fortune and by God that men with their wisdom cannot direct them and that no one can even help
them; and because of this they would have us believe that it is not necessary to labour much in affairs, but to let chance
govern them. This opinion has been more credited in our times because of the great changes in affairs which have been
seen, and may still be seen, every day, beyond all human conjecture. Sometimes pondering over this, I am in some
degree inclined to their opinion. Nevertheless, not to extinguish our free will, I hold it to be true that Fortune is the
arbiter of one-half of our actions, but that she still leaves us to direct the other half, or perhaps a little less. I compare
her to one of those raging rivers, which when in flood overflows the plains, sweeping away trees and buildings, bearing
away the soil from place to place; everything flies before it, all yield to its violence, without being able in any way to
withstand it; and yet, though its nature be such, it does not follow therefore that men, when the weather becomes fair,
shall not make provision, both with defences and barriers, in such a manner that, rising again, the waters may pass away
by canal, and their force be neither so unrestrained nor so dangerous. So it happens with fortune, who shows her power
where valour has not prepared to resist her, and thither she turns her forces where she knows that barriers and defences
have not been raised to constrain her.
And if you will consider Italy, which is the seat of these changes, and which has given to them their impulse, you will
see it to be an open country without barriers and without any defence. For if it had been defended by proper valour, as
are Germany, Spain, and France, either this invasion would not have made the great changes it has made or it would not
have come at all. And this I consider enough to say concerning resistance to fortune in general.
But confining myself more to the particular, I say that a prince may be seen happy to-day and ruined to-morrow without
having shown any change of disposition or character. This, I believe, arises firstly from causes that have already been
discussed at length, namely, that the prince who relies entirely on fortune is lost when it changes. I believe also that he
will be successful who directs his actions according to the spirit of the times, and that he whose actions do not accord
with the times will not be successful. Because men are seen, in affairs that lead to the end which every man has before
him, namely, glory and riches, to get there by various methods; one with caution, another with haste; one by force,
another by skill; one by patience, another by its opposite; and each one succeeds in reaching the goal by a different
method. One can also see of two cautious men the one attain his end, the other fail; and similarly, two men by different
observances are equally successful, the one being cautious, the other impetuous; all this arises from nothing else than
whether or not they conform in their methods to the spirit of the times. This follows from what I have said, that two
men working differently bring about the same effect, and of two working similarly, one attains his object and the other
does not.
Changes in estate also issue from this, for if, to one who governs himself with caution and patience, times and affairs
converge in such a way that his administration is successful, his fortune is made; but if times and affairs change, he is
ruined if he does not change his course of action. But a man is not often found sufficiently circumspect to know how to
accommodate himself to the change, both because he cannot deviate from what nature inclines him to do, and also
because, having always prospered by acting in one way, he cannot be persuaded that it is well to leave it; and, therefore,
the cautious man, when it is time to turn adventurous, does not know how to do it, hence he is ruined; but had he
changed his conduct with the times fortune would not have changed. …
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I conclude, therefore that, fortune being changeful and mankind steadfast in their ways, so long as the two are in
agreement men are successful, but unsuccessful when they fall out. For my part I consider that it is better to be
adventurous than cautious, because fortune is a woman, and if you wish to keep her under it is necessary to beat and illuse her; and it is seen that she allows herself to be mastered by the adventurous rather than by those who go to work
more coldly. She is, therefore, always, woman-like, a lover of young men, because they are less cautious, more violent,
and with more audacity command her.
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APPARTS Essay Reading: The 95 Theses
Martin Luther, Disputation of Doctor Martin Luther on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences (1517) More commonly
known as the 95 theses (and thus in form similar to the 900 theses of Pico della Mirandola) these scholarly points of
disputation lay out Luther’s objections to indulgences. He drafted them in the autumn of 1517, and sent them in a letter
to Archbishop Albrecht of Mainz, who was sending indulgence peddlers into the area around Wittenberg to collect
money to finance his election to other church offices and to pay for the building of St. Peter’s basilica in Rome. The
story spread later that Luther also nailed them to the church door in Wittenberg. Whether this happened or not is
impossible to say; what is known for certain is that they were translated quickly from the Latin in which Luther had
written them into German, published, and sold widely. From: Works of Martin Luther, ed. and trans. Adolph Spaeth,
L.D. Reed, Henry Eyster Jacobs, et al. (Philadelphia: A. J. Holman Company, 1915), Vol.1, pp. 29-38
Out of love for the truth and the desire to bring it to light, the following propositions will be discussed at Wittenberg,
under the presidency of the Reverend Father Martin Luther, Master of Arts and of Sacred Theology, and Lecturer in
Ordinary on the same at that place. Wherefore he requests that those who are unable to be present and debate orally
with us, may do so by letter.
In the Name our Lord Jesus Christ. Amen.
1. Our Lord and Master Jesus Christ, when He said Poenitentiam agite, willed that the whole life of believers should be
repentance.
2. This word cannot be understood to mean sacramental penance, i.e., confession and satisfaction, which is
administered by the priests.
3. Yet it means not inward repentance only; nay, there is no inward repentance which does not outwardly work divers
mortifications of the flesh.
4. The penalty [of sin], therefore, continues so long as hatred of self continues; for this is the true inward repentance,
and continues until our entrance into the kingdom of heaven.
5. The pope does not intend to remit, and cannot remit any penalties other than those which he has imposed either by
his own authority or by that of the Canons.
6. The pope cannot remit any guilt, except by declaring that it has been remitted by God and by assenting to God's
remission; though, to be sure, he may grant remission in cases reserved to his judgment. If his right to grant remission
in such cases were despised, the guilt would remain entirely unforgiven.
7. God remits guilt to no one whom He does not, at the same time, humble in all things and bring into subjection to His
vicar, the priest.
8. The penitential canons are imposed only on the living, and, according to them, nothing should be imposed on the
dying.
9. Therefore the Holy Spirit in the pope is kind to us, because in his decrees he always makes exception of the article of
death and of necessity.
10. Ignorant and wicked are the doings of those priests who, in the case of the dying, reserve canonical penances for
purgatory.
11. This changing of the canonical penalty to the penalty of purgatory is quite evidently one of the tares that were sown
while the bishops slept.
12. In former times the canonical penalties were imposed not after, but before absolution, as tests of true contrition.
13. The dying are freed by death from all penalties; they are already dead to canonical rules, and have a right to be
released from them.
14. The imperfect health [of soul], that is to say, the imperfect love, of the dying brings with it, of necessity, great fear;
and the smaller the love, the greater is the fear.
15. This fear and horror is sufficient of itself alone (to say nothing of other things) to constitute the penalty of
purgatory, since it is very near to the horror of despair.
16. Hell, purgatory, and heaven seem to differ as do despair, almost-despair, and the assurance of safety.
17. With souls in purgatory it seems necessary that horror should grow less and love increase.
18. It seems unproved, either by reason or Scripture, that they are outside the state of merit, that is to say, of increasing
love.
19. Again, it seems unproved that they, or at least that all of them, are certain or assured of their own blessedness,
though we may be quite certain of it.
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20. Therefore by "full remission of all penalties" the pope means not actually "of all," but only of those imposed by
himself.
21. Therefore those preachers of indulgences are in error, who say that by the pope's indulgences a man is freed from
every penalty, and saved;
22. Whereas he remits to souls in purgatory no penalty which, according to the canons, they would have had to pay in
this life.
23. If it is at all possible to grant to any one the remission of all penalties whatsoever, it is certain that this remission can
be granted only to the most perfect, that is, to the very fewest.
24. It must needs be, therefore, that the greater part of the people are deceived by that indiscriminate and high sounding
promise of release from penalty.
25. The power which the pope has, in a general way, over purgatory, is just like the power which any bishop or curate
has, in a special way, within his own diocese or parish.
26. The pope does well when he grants remission to souls [in purgatory], not by the power of the keys (which he does
not possess), but by way of intercession.
27. They preach man who say that so soon as the penny jingles into the money-box, the soul flies out [of purgatory].
28. It is certain that when the penny jingles into the money-box, gain and avarice can be increased, but the result of the
intercession of the Church is in the power of God alone.
29. Who knows whether all the souls in purgatory wish to be bought out of it, as in the legend of Sts. Severinus and
Paschal.
30. No one is sure that his own contrition is sincere; much less that he has attained full remission.
31. Rare as is the man that is truly penitent, so rare is also the man who truly buys indulgences, i.e., such men are most
rare.
32. They will be condemned eternally, together with their teachers, who believe themselves sure of their salvation
because they have letters of pardon.
33. Men must be on their guard against those who say that the pope's pardons are that inestimable gift of God by which
man is reconciled to Him;
34. For these "graces of pardon" concern only the penalties of sacramental satisfaction, and these are appointed by man.
35. They preach no Christian doctrine who teach that contrition is not necessary in those who intend to buy souls out of
purgatory or to buy confessionalia.
36. Every truly repentant Christian has a right to full remission of penalty and guilt, even without letters of pardon.
37. Every true Christian, whether living or dead, has part in all the blessings of Christ and the Church; and this is
granted him by God, even without letters of pardon.
38. Nevertheless, the remission and participation [in the blessings of the Church] which are granted by the pope are in
no way to be despised, for they are, as I have said, the declaration of divine remission.
39. It is most difficult, even for the very keenest theologians, at one and the same time to commend to the people the
abundance of pardons and [the need of] true contrition.
40. True contrition seeks and loves penalties, but liberal pardons only relax penalties and cause them to be hated, or at
least, furnish an occasion [for hating them].
41. Apostolic pardons are to be preached with caution, lest the people may falsely think them preferable to other good
works of love.
42. Christians are to be taught that the pope does not intend the buying of pardons to be compared in any way to works
of mercy.
43. Christians are to be taught that he who gives to the poor or lends to the needy does a better work than buying
pardons;
44. Because love grows by works of love, and man becomes better; but by pardons man does not grow better, only
more free from penalty.
45. Christians are to be taught that he who sees a man in need, and passes him by, and gives [his money] for pardons,
purchases not the indulgences of the pope, but the indignation of God.
46. Christians are to be taught that unless they have more than they need, they are bound to keep back what is necessary
for their own families, and by no means to squander it on pardons.
47. Christians are to be taught that the buying of pardons is a matter of free will, and not of commandment.
48. Christians are to be taught that the pope, in granting pardons, needs, and therefore desires, their devout prayer for
him more than the money they bring.
49. Christians are to be taught that the pope's pardons are useful, if they do not put their trust in them; but altogether
harmful, if through them they lose their fear of God.
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50. Christians are to be taught that if the pope knew the exactions of the pardon-preachers, he would rather that St.
Peter's church should go to ashes, than that it should be built up with the skin, flesh and bones of his sheep.
51. Christians are to be taught that it would be the pope's wish, as it is his duty, to give of his own money to very many
of those from whom certain hawkers of pardons cajole money, even though the church of St. Peter might have to be
sold.
52. The assurance of salvation by letters of pardon is vain, even though the commissary, nay, even though the pope
himself, were to stake his soul upon it.
53. They are enemies of Christ and of the pope, who bid the Word of God be altogether silent in some Churches, in
order that pardons may be preached in others.
54. Injury is done the Word of God when, in the same sermon, an equal or a longer time is spent on pardons than on this
Word.
55. It must be the intention of the pope that if pardons, which are a very small thing, are celebrated with one bell, with
single processions and ceremonies, then the Gospel, which is the very greatest thing, should be preached with a hundred
bells, a hundred processions, a hundred ceremonies.
56. The "treasures of the Church," out of which the pope. grants indulgences, are not sufficiently named or known
among the people of Christ.
57. That they are not temporal treasures is certainly evident, for many of the vendors do not pour out such treasures so
easily, but only gather them.
58. Nor are they the merits of Christ and the Saints, for even without the pope, these always work grace for the inner
man, and the cross, death, and hell for the outward man.
59. St. Lawrence said that the treasures of the Church were the Church's poor, but he spoke according to the usage of
the word in his own time.
60. Without rashness we say that the keys of the Church, given by Christ's merit, are that treasure;
61. For it is clear that for the remission of penalties and of reserved cases, the power of the pope is of itself sufficient.
62. The true treasure of the Church is the Most Holy Gospel of the glory and the grace of God.
63. But this treasure is naturally most odious, for it makes the first to be last.
64. On the other hand, the treasure of indulgences is naturally most acceptable, for it makes the last to be first.
65. Therefore the treasures of the Gospel are nets with which they formerly were wont to fish for men of riches.
66. The treasures of the indulgences are nets with which they now fish for the riches of men.
67. The indulgences which the preachers cry as the "greatest graces" are known to be truly such, in so far as they
promote gain.
68. Yet they are in truth the very smallest graces compared with the grace of God and the piety of the Cross.
69. Bishops and curates are bound to admit the commissaries of apostolic pardons, with all reverence.
70. But still more are they bound to strain all their eyes and attend with all their ears, lest these men preach their own
dreams instead of the commission of the pope.
71. He who speaks against the truth of apostolic pardons, let him be anathema and accursed!
72. But he who guards against the lust and license of the pardon-preachers, let him be blessed!
73. The pope justly thunders against those who, by any art, contrive the injury of the traffic in pardons.
74. But much more does he intend to thunder against those who use the pretext of pardons to contrive the injury of holy
love and truth.
75. To think the papal pardons so great that they could absolve a man even if he had committed an impossible sin and
violated the Mother of God -- this is madness.
76. We say, on the contrary, that the papal pardons are not able to remove the very least of venial sins, so far as its guilt
is concerned.
77. It is said that even St. Peter, if he were now Pope, could not bestow greater graces; this is blasphemy against St.
Peter and against the pope.
78. We say, on the contrary, that even the present pope, and any pope at all, has greater graces at his disposal; to wit,
the Gospel, powers, gifts of healing, etc., as it is written in I. Corinthians xii.
79. To say that the cross, emblazoned with the papal arms, which is set up [by the preachers of indulgences], is of equal
worth with the Cross of Christ, is blasphemy.
80. The bishops, curates and theologians who allow such talk to be spread among the people, will have an account to
render.
81. This unbridled preaching of pardons makes it no easy matter, even for learned men, to rescue the reverence due to
the pope from slander, or even from the shrewd questionings of the laity.
71
82. To wit: -- "Why does not the pope empty purgatory, for the sake of holy love and of the dire need of the souls
that are there, if he redeems an infinite number of souls for the sake of miserable money with which to build a Church?
The former reasons would be most just; the latter is most trivial."
83. Again: -- "Why are mortuary and anniversary masses for the dead continued, and why does he not return or permit
the withdrawal of the endowments founded on their behalf, since it is wrong to pray for the redeemed?"
84. Again: -- "What is this new piety of God and the pope, that for money they allow a man who is impious and their
enemy to buy out of purgatory the pious soul of a friend of God, and do not rather, because of that pious and beloved
soul's own need, free it for pure
love's sake?"
85. Again: -- "Why are the penitential canons long since in actual fact and through disuse abrogated and dead, now
satisfied by the granting of indulgences, as though they were still alive and in force?"
86. Again: -- "Why does not the pope, whose wealth is to-day greater than the riches of the richest, build just this one
church of St. Peter with his own money, rather than with the money of poor believers?"
87. Again: -- "What is it that the pope remits, and what participation does he grant to those who, by perfect contrition,
have a right to full remission and participation?"
88. Again: -- "What greater blessing could come to the Church than if the pope were to do a hundred times a day what
he now does once, and bestow on every believer these remissions and participations?"
89. "Since the pope, by his pardons, seeks the salvation of souls rather than money, why does he suspend the
indulgences and pardons granted heretofore, since these have equal efficacy?"
90. To repress these arguments and scruples of the laity by force alone, and not to resolve them by giving reasons, is to
expose the Church and the pope to the ridicule of their enemies, and to make Christians unhappy.
91. If, therefore, pardons were preached according to the spirit and mind of the pope, all these doubts would be readily
resolved; nay, they would not exist.
92. Away, then, with all those prophets who say to the people of Christ, "Peace, peace," and there is no peace!
93. Blessed be all those prophets who say to the people of Christ, "Cross, cross," and there is no cross!
94. Christians are to be exhorted that they be diligent in following Christ, their Head, through penalties, deaths, and
hell;
95. And thus be confident of entering into heaven rather through many tribulations, than through the assurance of
peace.
72
Reading for Discussion
"Functions of festivals in Early Modern Europe."
'What were the functions of popular festivals, etc. in Early Modern Europe? And why did the authorities, civil and
ecclesiastical seek to control or suppress them?' In Early Modern Europe festivals were the setting for heroes and their
stories, to be celebrated by the populace. They posed a change from their everyday life. In those days people lived in
remembrance of one festival and in expectance of the next. Different kinds of festivals were celebrated in different ways.
There were festivals that marked an individual occasion and weren't part of the festival calendar, like family festivals such as
weddings and christenings. Some took place at the same time every year and were for everyone, like community festivals like
the different saints' days. Pilgrimages took place all year round. Annuals festivals like Christmas and Midsummer always
took place on the same day every year.
In those days the average village in Western Europe celebrated at least 17 festivals annually, not counting family occasions
and saints' days. Some festivals, such as Carnival, lasted several days or sometimes even several weeks. In the Netherlands
Carnival started every year at the 11th of November (St. Martin) and culminated in a big festival of 'Dranck, pleijsier ende
vrouwen' (Drink, fun and women) at the end of the Carnival period, proceeding the period of Lent.
Festivals were meant to take the minds of the people off their everyday life , off the hard times and their work. Everyday life
in Early Modern Europe was filled with rituals, both religious and secular. Songs and stories played an important role in their
lives, although they sometimes adjusted the details of the legends and stories to fit the way they thought a certain festival
should take place.
Popular culture was mixed with ecclesiastical culture in many ways. The story of St. John the Baptist is a good example of
this. The ancient ritual of bathing and lighting fires during Midsummer's Eve was a remnant of a ritual from the pre-Christian
period. Fire and water, symbols of purification, could be seen as the tools of St. John the Baptist, and therefore a combination
of the two elements of popular and ecclesiastical culture was obvious. It looks as if the Medieval Church took over the
festival and made it theirs. The same thing happened to the Midwinter Festival, which became linked with the birth of Christ,
on 25 December. There are many more examples to be found, such as the connection between St. Martin and geese caused by
the fact that the St. Martins Day (11 November) coincided with the period during which the people used to kill their geese in
the period preceding the Christian period.
Carnival plays a special role in popular culture in Early Modern Europe. It is a great example of a festival of images and
texts. It was a popular festival, taking on different forms in different regions of Europe. Aside from regional variations, these
differences were also caused by factors such as the climate, the political situation and the economical situation in an area. On
a whole Carnival started in late December or early January and reached its peak upon approaching Lent. The actual feast,
taking place at the end of the festive period, could take days and would usually involve large quantities of food and drinks.
The festival took place in the open air in the center of a town or city. Within a region, the way Carnival was celebrated varied
from town to town.
The festival was a play, with the streets as a stage and the people as actors and spectators. They often depicted everyday life
scenes and made fun of them. Informal events took place throughout the Carnival period. There was massive eating and
drinking, as a way of 'stocking up' for Lent. People sang and danced in the streets, using the special songs of Carnival, and
people wore masks and fancy-dress. There was verbal aggression, insults were exchanged and satirical verses were sung.
More formally structures events were concentrated in the last days of the Carnival period. These events took places in the
central squares and were often organized by clubs or fraternities.
The main theme during Carnival was usually 'The World Upside Down'. Situations got turned around. It was an enactment of
the world turned upside down. Men dressed up as women, women dressed up as men, the rich traded places with the poor,
etc. There was physical reversal: people standing on their heads, horses going backwards and fishes flying. There was
reversal of relationships between man and beast: the horse shoeing the master or the fish eating the fisherman. The other
reversal was that of relationships between men: servants giving orders to their masters or men feeding children while their
wives worked the fields. Many events centered on the figure of 'Carnival', often depicted as a fat man, cheerful and
surrounded by food. The figure of 'Lent', for contrast, often took the form of a thin, old woman, dressed in black and hung
with fish. These depictions varied in form and name in the different regions in Europe. A recurring element was the
performance of a play, usually a farce. Mock battles were also a favorite pass-time during the Carnival period.
Carnival usually ended with the defeat of 'Carnival' by 'Lent'. This could happen in the form of the mock trial and execution
of 'Carnival', (Bologna, Italy, 16th century), the beheading of a pig (Venice, Italy), or the burial of a sardine (Madrid, Spain).
73
So what was the meaning of Carnival in Early Modern Europe? Was it merely an excuse for the populace to go crazy or
did Carnival have a deeper meaning hidden behind the façade of food, violence and sex?
Carnival was a holiday, a game. It was a time of ecstasy and liberation. The form was determined by three major themes:
food, sex and violence. It was the time of indulgence, of abundance. It was also a time of intense sexual activity - tables of
the seasonal movement of conceptions in 18th century France show a peak around February. Carnival was also a festival of
aggression, destruction and desecration. It was the ideal time to insult or pester people who had wronged someone, often in
the form of a mock battle of a football match. A time for paying off old grudges. Serious violence was not avoided and in
most areas the rates of serious crimes and killings went up during Carnival. It was also a time of opposition, in more than one
way. It opposed the ecclesiastical ritual of Lent. Lent was a period of fasting and abstinence of all things enjoyed by the
people, not just food and drink but also sex and recreation. The elements that were taken out of life during Lent were
emphasized during Carnival. All that was portrayed by the figures of 'Carnival' and 'Lent' (fat versus thin).
Carnival was polysemous, meaning different things to different people in different areas. In different regions, different heroes
were celebrated. Sometimes elements were taken over from other regions. Carnival did not have the same importance all over
Europe. In the north of Europe (Britain, Scandinavia) it was less important than in the rest of Europe. This was probably
partly due to the climate, which discouraged an elaborate street festival at that time of the year. In these regions, people
preferred to elaborate the festivities during the Midsummer festival (St. John's Eve). Two reasons for this are the pagan
survivals that were stronger in these regions, partly because they were isolated from the rest of Europe due to geographical
obstacles, causing a lesser ecclesiastical influence, and the climatic situation as mentioned above.
Carnival was a festival in extremis, but elements of Carnival can be found in every festival that was celebrated in Early
Modern Europe. During the harvest season, all over Europe festivals and rituals were held. The harvest was celebrated, again
, with elaborate drinking and eating, although in a more moderate way than the Carnival celebrations.
All these festival had one thing in common: they offered the people an escape from their everyday life and a way to express
themselves. It offered the people a way to vent their resentments and some form of entertainment. Festivals were an escape
from their struggle to earn a living. They were something to look forward to and were a celebration of the community and a
display of its ability to put on a good show. It is said that the mocking of outsiders (the neighboring village or Jews) and
animals might be seen as a dramatic expression of community solidarity. Some rituals might be seen as a form of social
control, in a sense that it was a means for a community to express their discontent with certain members of the community
(charivari). The ritual of public punishment can be seen in this light, as it was used to deter people from committing crimes.
Professor Max Gluckman used the African popular culture to explain the social function of the ritual of reversal of roles as it
happened during rituals as Carnival. Similar rituals still occur in certain regions in Africa. Gluckman explains this ritual as an
emphasis of certain rules and taboos through lifting them for a certain period of time. The apparent protests against the social
order were intended to preserve and even to strengthen the established order. As a counter example Gluckman states that:
"...in regions where the social order is seriously questioned, 'rites of protest' do not occur." Riots and rebellions frequently
took place during major festivals. Rebels and rioters employed rituals and symbols to legitimise their actions. Inhibitions
against expressing hostility towards the authorities or individuals were weakened by the excitement of the festival and the
consumption of large quantities of alcohol. If those factors were combined with discontent over a bad harvest, tax increases
or other calamities, this situation could get out of control. It could prove a good opportunity for people excluded from power
to try and enforce certain changes.
It is hardly surprising that members of the upper classes often suggested that particular festivals ought to be abolished. They
felt threatened by the populace who during festivals tried to revolt against the ruling classes and change the economical
situation they were in.
The reform of popular festivals was instigated by the will of some of the 'educated' to change the attitudes and values of the
rest of the population (" to improve them"). This reformation took on different forms in different regions and it took place at
different moments in time. There were also differences in the practices that were being reformed. Catholics and Protestants
opposed to different elements of popular festivals and they did so for different reasons. Even within the Protestant movement,
the views towards reformation of festivals and popular rituals varied. Missionaries on both sides worked in Europe to install
their religious values in the local people. Reformers on both sides objected in particular to certain elements in popular
religion. Festivals were part of popular religion or were at least disguised as an element of popular religion. The festival of
Martinmas (11 November) was a good example of this.
What were the objections of the authorities against these elements of popular culture in general and popular religion in
particular? There were two essential religious objections. Firstly, the majority of festivals were seen as remnants of ancient
74
paganism. Secondly, the festivals offered the people an occasion to over-indulge in immoral or offensive behavior, at
many occasions attacking the establishment (both ecclesiastical and civil).
The first objection meant that reformers disliked many of the popular customs because they contained traces of ancient
customs dating from pre-Christian times. Protestant reformers went very far in their objections, even denouncing a number of
Catholic rituals as being pre-Christian survivals, considering the saints as successors of pagan gods and heroes, taking over
their curative and protective functions. Magic was also considered a pagan remnant: the Protestants accused the Catholics of
practicing a pagan ritual by claiming that certain holy places held magical powers and could cure people.
The reformers denounced the rituals they didn't find fitting as being irreverent and blasphemous. Carnival and the charivaris
were considered "the work of the devil", because it made a mockery of certain godly elements the Church held sacred. The
reformers thought people who didn't honor God in their way to be heathen, doomed to spend their afterlife in eternal
damnation. Flamboyance was to be chased out of all religious aspects of culture, and, where possible, out of all other aspects
of life, according to the Protestant doctrine. In some areas, gesturing during church services was banned, as was laughter. All
these things were seen as irreverent, making a mockery of religion.
All these changes were introduced in order to create a sharper separation between the 'sacred' and the 'profane'. The
ecclesiastical authorities were out to destroy the traditional familiarity with the sacred because "familiarity breeds
irreverence."
The objection against popular recreations stemmed from the idea that they were 'vanities', displeasing God because they were
a waste of time and money and distracted people from going to church. This objection was shared by both the ecclesiastical
and civil authorities. The latter mainly objected because it distracted the populace from their work, which in turn affected the
revenues of the leading upper classes, or from other activities that were benefiting the rich, reasons that would vary per
region.
Catholic and Protestant reformers were not equally hostile to popular culture, nor were they hostile for quite the same
reasons. Protestant reformers were more radical, denouncing festivals as relics of popery and looking to abolish feast-days as
well as the feast that came with it, because they considered the saints that were celebrated during these festivals as remnants
of a pre-Christian era. Many of these Protestant reformers were equally radical in their attacks on holy images, which they
considered 'idols'. During the end of the 16th and the first half of the 17th century Dutch churches were pillaged by
Protestants trying to destroy all religious relics and images (de Beeldenstorm). Catholic reformers were more modified in
their actions; they tried to reach a certain modification of popular religious culture, even trying to adapt certain elements to
the Catholic way of worshipping and incorporating popular elements into their religion. They insisted that some times were
holier than others, and they did object to the extend to which the holy days were celebrated with food and drink. Some argued
that it was impossible to obey the rites of Lent with proper reverence and devotion if they had indulged in Carnival just
before. Catholic reformers also installed rules in order to regulate certain popular festivals and rituals, such as a prohibition
on dressing up as a member of the clergy during Carnival or a prohibition on dancing or performing plays in churches or
churchyards. Contrary to the Protestant reformers however, the Catholic reformers did not set out to abolish festivals and
rituals completely.
Civil authorities had their own reasons to object to popular festivals in Early Modern Europe. Apart from taking the people
away from work or other obligations, the authorities feared that during the time of a festival, the abundance of alcohol could
stir up the feelings of discontent the people had been hiding all throughout the year. Misery and alcohol could create a
dangerous mix that would give people the courage they needed to rebel against authorities. This was a good reason for the
authorities to try and stop, or at least control, popular festivals.
Bibliography
Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe; P. Burke
The Reasons of Misrule: Youth Groups and Charivaris in 16th century France; N.Z.Davis, Past and Present 1971
Order and rebellion in Tribal Africa; M. Gluckman
The waning of the Middle Ages; J. Huizinga
Levend Verleden; Prof. Dr. H.P.H. Jansen
Blood, tears and Xavier-water: Jesuit missionaries and popular religion in the 18th century in the Upper Palatinate; T.
Johnson Popular religion in Germany and Central Europe 1400-1800
75
Unit III - Age of Religious Wars and European State Consolidation
Chapters 12-13
Our tutors never stop bawling into our ears, as though they were pouring water into a funnel; and our task is only to
repeat what has been told us. I should like the tutor to correct this practice, and right from the start, according to the
capacity of the mind he has in hand, to begin putting it through its paces, making it tastes things, choose them, and
discern them by itself; sometimes clearing the way for him, sometimes letting him clear his own way. I don't want him
to think and talk alone, I want him to listen to his pupil speaking in his turn. Socrates, and later Arcesilaus, first had
their disciples speak, and then they spoke to them. The authority of those who teach is often an obstacle to those who
want to learn [Cicero].
Montaigne, Of the education of children (1579)
After reading chapter 12 you should understand:




The French wars of religion between Catholics and Calvinists.
Spanish struggle against Dutch independence in the Netherlands.
The struggle between Catholic Spain and Protestant England.
The course of the Thirty Years’ War and the devastation of central Europe.
After reading chapter 13 you should understand:









The origins and decline of the Netherlands' Golden Age.
Factors behind the different political paths of France and England.
The origins and consequences of the English Civil War.
The development of Parliamentary supremacy in England, particularly after the Glorious Revolution.
The rise of absolute monarchy in France, particularly under Louis XIV.
The wars of Louis XIV and the development of a European diplomatic system.
The sixteenth to eighteenth century developments and influence of the three monarchies of central and eastern
Europe.
Russia Enters the European Political Arena under Peter the Great.
The factors behind the demise of the Ottoman Empire.
76
Potential FRQ Questions
The Age of Religious Wars
Discuss the relationship between politics and religion by examining the wars of religion. Choose TWO specific
examples from the following: Dutch Revolt, French Wars of Religion, English Civil War, Thirty Years War
Evaluate the relative importance of the religious rivalries and dynastic ambitions that shaped the course of the Thirty
Years War.
Use the Huguenot conflict in France and the Dutch revolt to illustrate the ways in which the "Religious Wars" were
much more political than they were religious.
In what ways did the "new monarchs" of Europe continue to use religion as a tool for nation building during the age of
Religious Wars?
In 1519 Charles of Habsburg became Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. Discuss and analyze the political, social, and
religious problems he faced over the course of his imperial reign (1519-1556).
Absolutism and Constitutionalism
Machiavelli suggested that a ruler should behave both "like a lion" and "like a fox." Analyze the policies of TWO of
the following European rulers, indicating the degree to which they successfully followed Machiavelli's suggestions:
Elizabeth I of England, Henry IV of France, Catherine the Great of Russia, Frederick II of Prussia.
European monarchs of the late 15th and early 16th centuries were often referred to as "New Monarchs". What was
"new" about them? Do their actions warrant this label?
In the 17th century, how did England and the Dutch Republic compete successfully with France and Spain for control
of overseas territory?
In the 17th century, what political conditions accounted for the increased power of both the parliament in England and
the monarch in France?
Describe and analyze the changes in the role of Parliament in English politics between the succession of James I and the
Glorious Revolution.
Analyze the military, political and social factors that account for the rise of Prussia between 1640 and 1786.
Between 1450 and 1800, many women gained power, some as reigning queens, others as regents. Identify two such
powerful women and discuss how issues of gender, such as marriage and reproduction, influenced their ability to obtain
and exercise power.
Compare and contrast the goals and major policies of Peter the Great of Russia (ruled 1682-1725) with those of
Frederick the Great of Prussia (ruled 1740-1786).
Major Unit Assignments
Parliament vs. Stuart Kings Debate and Paper - In Reader
TIAA Assignment- Chapter 12-13 Worksheet
Rise of Absolute Government Chart
Wars_of_Louis_XIV_chart
77
PARLIAMENT vs. THE STEWART KINGS
1603-1700
Debate Overview:
This debate is based on the English period from 1603-1700. During this time, the English rulers and Parliament
were in constant turmoil over who should have the governing power in their country, the Monarchy or Parliament.
Ultimately, a revolution occurred that eventually leads to the signing of an English Bill of Rights and a Declaration
of Rights for the English people.
Debate Objectives:

Our main objective for the class, is that each one of you understand, in detail, what occurred during this
period in English history

A second objective is for the rulers that are addressing the members of the English Parliament to convince
the different groups represented that their way, the ruler's way, is what is right for England and her citizens.

The third objective is for the different members of the English Parliament to consider who they would support
on the issues presented to them
Research and Preparation Time:

library time: ____________________, ______________
 For Block Schedules- a Day = 45 minutes

class.
Debate Days:

Debate Day #1 - Issue #1, #2, #3, #4 (20 minutes each)

Debate Day #2 – Issue #5, #6 (20 minutes each)
Your Overall Grade Will Be Based on the Following:
Parliament members/religious groups
o Participation - 50 pts
o Paper - 50 pts
Rulers
o Presentations - 50 pts
o Paper - 50 pts
Roles to Choose From For the Debate:
Rulers:
James I – 1 person
Charles I – 1 person
Cromwell – 1 person
Charles II – 1 person
James II – 1 person
William & Mary- 1 person
Parliament members:
House of Commons – 2 persons
House of Lords- 3 persons
Roundheads- 2 persons
Cavaliers- 2 persons
Religious groups:
Catholics- 1 person
Anglicans- 2 persons
Puritans- 4 persons
If you wish to choose a specific historical personage to personalize your role, you can,
just get it approved first.
Individual Written Assignment:
email this to the class and to me via Classjump.com or School Loop
between "ruler" & "parliament"…email this to the class and to me via Classjump.com or School Loop
-3 pages, typed, MLA Style citations, with a minimum of 2 sources used
78
Rulers' Responsibilities:
o
o
o
o
o
Parliament & Religious groups:
o
back where you started…of course, paying
attention…others will become members of groups
within the Parliament
o
3 relevant questions to ask
for each issue...be sure to be historically accurate
with your support or lack of support for the ruler in
each issue
-10
minutes
o
o
days
o
to be historically accurate...could be some type of
clothing, wig, etc...
BE CREATIVE !!
THE ISSUES BEING DEBATED
ISSUE #1- JAMES I (r 1603-1625) - James I makes the following statement:
"The state of monarchy is the supremest thing upon earth; for kings are not only God's lieutenants on earth, and sit
upon God's throne, but even by God himself they are called gods. "
Debate Question:
Do you support James I's right to rule with "divine" authority?
ISSUE #2 - CHARLES I (r 1625-1649) & the English Civil War
Debate Question:
Should Charles I live or die ???
ISSUE #3 - OLIVER CROMWELL (r 1653-1658) - "Lord Protector" of England
Debate Question:
Do you support the idea of a military dictatorship under Cromwell?
*historical note...Commonwealth from 1649-1653
ISSUE #4 - CHARLES II (r 1660-1685) - the "Merry Monarch"
Debate Question: Do you support Charles II's tolerant policies?
ISSUE #5 - JAMES II (r 1685-1689)...Fear of Catholic heir...Glorious Revolution begins
Debate Question: Do you support the removal of James II from the English throne?
ISSUE #6 - WILLIAM & MARY (r 1689-1694)
Debate Questions:
Do you support the presentation of the throne to them?
Do you support the signing of the English Bill of Rights & Declaration of Rights?
Would you place any special restrictions on them?
Groups for Issue #1 - James I
James I - _______________________
House of Commons - (2 members)
House of Lords - (3 members)
Catholics - (1 member)
Anglicans - (2 members)
Puritans - (4 members)
*All leaders are sitting out for now
Groups for Issue #2 - Charles I
Charles I - ______________________
House of Commons becomes the Roundheads - (2 members)
79
House of Lords becomes the Cavaliers - (3 members)
Catholics stay Catholic - (1 member)
Anglicans stay Anglican - (2 members)
Puritans break up into a Puritan faction and Arminian faction - (4 members)
*all leaders are sitting out for now
Groups for Issue #3 - Oliver Cromwell
Oliver Cromwell - ________________________
House of Commons/Roundheads become the Independents - (2 members)
House of Lords/Cavaliers become the Diggers - (3 members)
Catholics stay Catholic - (James I joins your group) - (2 members)
Anglicans stay Anglican - (Charles I joins your group) - (3 members)
Puritans & Arminians become the Presbyterians, Levellers, and Ranters - (4 members)
*James I has joined Catholics
*Charles I has joined Anglicans
Groups for Issue #4 - Charles II
Charles II - _____________________________
House of Commons/Roundheads/Independents become Whigs - (2 members)
House of Lords/Cavaliers/Diggers also become Whigs - (3 members)
*now the Whigs have 5 members
Catholics stay Catholic - (2 members)
Anglicans stay Anglican - (3 members)
Puritans/Arminians/Presbyterians/Levellers/Ranters become Tories - (5 members…Cromwell joins you)
Groups for Issue #5 - James II
James II - ______________________________
Whigs stay Whigs - (5 members)
Catholics stay Catholic - (2 members)
Anglicans stay Anglican and Charles II joins your group - (4 members)
Tories stay Tories - (5 members)
Groups for Issue #6 - William & Mary
William - _____________________ & Mary _____________________
Whigs stay Whigs - (5 members)
Catholics stay Catholic - (2 members)
Anglicans stay Anglican - (4 members)
Tories stay Tories (gain James II…now you have 6 members)
80
Chapter 12 Worksheet- Age of Religious Wars
Terms to Identify
baroque
Cardinal Granvelle
Christian IV
Coligny, Gaspard de
Comprimise of 1564
Congregationalists
Counter-Reformation
Defenstration of Prague
Duke of Alba
Dutch East India Company
Edict of Fontainebleau
Edict of Nantes
Edict of Resitution
Elizabeth I
Ferdinand II
Gustavus Adolphis II
Heguenots
Henry of Navarre
Knox, John
Medicis, Catherine de
Pacification of Ghent
Peace of Beaulieu
Peace of Prague
Peace of Saint Germain en Laye
Perpetual Edict
Philip II
politiques
Presbyterians
Puritains
Saint Bartholemew's Day Massacre
Sea Beggars
Spanish Armada
stadholder
Stuart, Mary
The Hague
The Thirty Years War
Thirty-Nine Articles
Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis
Treaty of Westphalia
Tudor, Mary
Union of Arras
Union of Utrecht
Wallenstein, Albrecht of
William of Nassau
Chapter Questions
What caused the infamous St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre?
How did Spain achieve a position of dominance in the 16th century? What were its strengths and weaknesses as a
nation?
What were Philip II's goals? Which was he unable to achieve, and why?
What was Elizabeth I's settlement, and how difficult was it to impose on all of England?
What were the causes, both long-term and immediate, of the 30 Years' War?
81
Textbook DQ’s
Theodore Beza Defends the Right to Resist Tyranny
According to Beza, when are subjects allowed to resist rulers who fail in their obligations?
Henry IV Recognizes Huguenot Religious Freedom
Are Huguenots given equal religious standing with Catholics?
Are there limitations on their freedoms?
Going to the Theater (Secondary)
What were the basic elements and purpose of the medieval stage, and what was carried over from it to the
Elizabethan theater?
An Unknown Contemporary Describes Queen Elizabeth
What qualities of Elizabeth impressed this observer?
Why did the queen take such care with her appearance?
82
Chapter 13 Worksheet- European State Consolidation
Terms to Identify
Act of Settlement
Arminians
Bossuet, Jacques-Benigne
Cavaliers
Charles I
Clarendon Code
Cromwell, Oliver
Declaration of Indulegence
dhimmis
divine right
English Bill of Rights
English Civil War
Frederick III the Wise
Frederick William
Glorious Revolution
Grand Alliance
Great Northern War
Habsburg
impostition
Ivan IV
James I
Janissaries
Jansenism
junker
Laud, William
League of Augsburg
Louis XVI
Magyars
Maintenon, Madame de
millets
Mississipi Company
Nine Years War
Old Believers
Ottoman Empire
parlements
parliamentary monarchy
patriarch
Peter the Great
Petition of Right
political absolutism
Popish Plot
Pragmatic Sanction
raisond'tat
Romanov, Michael
Roundheads
Saint Petersburg
sejm
Shari'a
Short Parliament
Sobieski, John III
streltsy
Table of Ranks
the Fronde
Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle
Treaty of Carlowitz
Treaty of Dover
Treaty of Tastatt
Ulama
Versailles
Walpole, Robert
War of Spanish Succession
Wentworth, Thomas
Chapter Questions
Why did the English king and Parliament come into conflict in the 1640s?
What was the Glorious Revolution, and why did it take place?
What kind of settlement emerged from the Glorious Revolution? How did England in 1700 differ from England in
1600?
How did Henry IV and Louis XIII pave the way for French absolutism?
In what ways did Louis XIV consolidate his power?
What was Louis XIV's religious policy?
What were Louis XIV's foreign policy aims?
83
Textbook DQ’s
King James Defends Popular Recreation Against the Puritans
What motives of state might have led James I to issue this declaration?
How does he attempt to make it favorable to the Church of England?
Why might so many clergy have refused to read this statement to their congregation?
Early Controversy Over Tobacco and Smoking (Secondary)
Which groups in Europe in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries opposed the habit of smoking tobacco?
Why did the English government under King James I modify it’s opposition to tobacco?
John Milton Defends Freedom to Print Books
Why does Milton think that it may be more dangerous and harmful to attack a book than to attack a person?
Was life cheaper and intelligence rarer in his time?
Does he have particular kinds of books in mind?
What can a book do for society that people cannot?
Louis XIV Revokes the Edict of Nantes
What specific actions does this declaration order against Protestants?
Does it offer any incentives for Protestants to convert Catholicism?
How does this declaration compare with the English Test Act?
Louis XIV’s Sister-in-law Grieves for Her Homeland
How do these letters reflect the plight of a woman who had been required to enter a dynastic marriage when war broke
out?
How does she report Louis XIV’s using her name to further his own political and financial ends in the Palatinate?
What kind of destruction was Charlotte Elisabeth aware of in her homeland?
The Great Elector Welcomes Protestant Refugees from France
In reading this document, do you believe religious or economic concerns more nearly led the elector of Brandenberg to
welcome the French Protestants?
What specific privileges did the elector extend to them?
To what extent were these privileges a welcoming measure, and to what extent were they inducements to emigrate to
Brandenberg?
In what kind of economic activity does the elector expect the French refugees to engage?
84
Peter the Great Tells His Son to Acquire Military Skills
How did Peter use his recent war with Sweden to argue for the necessity of his son acquiring military skills?
What concept of leadership does Peter attempt to communicate to his son?
Why did Peter see military prowess as the most important ability in a ruler?
“ROUNDHEAD,
n. A member of the Parliamentarian party in the English civil war --so called from his habit
of wearing his hair short, whereas his enemy, the Cavalier, wore his long. There were other points of
difference between them, but the fashion in hair was the fundamental cause of quarrel. The Cavaliers were
royalists because the king, an indolent fellow, found it more convenient to let his hair grow than to wash his
neck. This the Roundheads, who were mostly barbers and soap-boilers, deemed an injury to trade, and the
royal neck was therefore the object of their particular indignation. Descendants of the belligerents now wear
their hair all alike, but the fires of animosity enkindled in that ancient strife smoulder to this day beneath the
snows of British civility.”
Ambrose Bierce quotes
85
APPARTS ESSAY Reading- THE EDICT OF NANTES
This edict was signed in Nantes in Brittany on April 13, 1598, by Henry IV of France. It granted a large measure of
religious liberty to his Protestant subjects, the Huguenots. The edict permitted the Protestants to hold public worship in
many parts of the kingdom, though not in Paris. It granted them full civil rights and established a special court, the
Chambre de l’Édit, composed of both Protestants and Catholics, to deal with disputes arising from the edict. Protestant
pastors were to be paid by the state and released from certain obligations; finally, the Protestants could keep the places
they were still holding in August 1597 as strongholds for eight years, the expenses of garrisoning them paid by the
king.
Excerpts:
Henry, By the Grace of God, King of France, and Navarre, To all Present, and to Come, greeteth. Among the infinite
Mercies that God hath pleased to bestow upon us, that most Signal and Remarkable is, his having given us Power and
Strength not to yield to the dreadful Troubles, Confusions, and Disorders, which were found at our coming to this
Kingdom, divided into so many Parties and Factions, that the most Legitimate was almost the least, enabling us with
Constancy in such manner to oppose the Storm, as in the end to surmount it, reducing this Estate to Peace and Rest; For
which, to Him alone be given the Honour and Glory, and us the Grace to acknowledge our obligation, in having our
Labours made use of for the accomplishing so good a work, in which it hath been visible to all, that we have not only
done what was our Duty, and in our Power, but something more than at another time, would (peradventure) have been
agreeable to the Dignity we now hold; as in not having more Care, than to have many times so freely exposed our own
Life. And in this great concurrence of weighty and perillous Affairs, not being able to compose all at one and the same
time, We have chosen in this order, First to undertake those who were not to be suppressed but by force, and rather to
remit and suspend others for some time, who might be dealt with by reason, and Justice: For the general difference
among our good Subjects, and the particular evils of the soundest parts of the State, we judged might be easily cured,
after the Principal cause (the continuation of the Civil Wars) was taken away, in which we have, by the blessing of God,
well and happily succeeded, all Hostility and Wars through the Kingdom being now ceased, and we hope he will also
prosper us in our other affairs, which remain to be composed, and that by this means we shall arrive at the
establishment of a good Peace, with tranquility and rest, (which hath ever been the end of all our vows and intentions)
as all the reward we desire or expect for 80 much pains and trouble, as we have taken in the whole course of our Life.
Amongst our said affairs (towards which it behooves us to have patience) one of the principal hath been, the many
complaints we received from divers of our Provinces and Catholick Cities, for that the exercise of the Catholick
Religion was not universally re-established, as is provided by Edicts or Statutes heretofore made for the Pacification of
the Troubles arising from Religion; as also the Supplications and Remonstrances which have been made to us by our
Subjects of the reformed Religion, as well upon the execution of what hath been granted by the said former Laws, as
that they desire to have some addition for the exercise of their Religion, the liberty of their Consciences and the security
of their Persons and Fortunes. . . . For this cause, acknowledging this affair to be of the greatest importance, and worthy
of the best consideration, after having considered the papers of complaints of our Catholick subjects, and having also
permitted to our Subjects of the Reformed Religion to assemble themselves by Deputies, for framing their complaints,
and making a collection of all their Remonstrances; and having thereupon conferred divers times with them, viewing
the precedent Laws, we have upon the whole judged it necessary to give to all our said Subjects one general Law, Clear,
Pure, and Absolute, by which they shall be regulated in all differences which have heretofore risen among them, or may
hereafter rise, wherewith the one and other may be contented, being framed according as the time requires: and having
had no other regard in this deliberation than solely the Zeal we have to the service of God, praying that he would
henceforward render to all our subjects a durable and Established peace. Upon which we implore and expect from his
divine bounty the same protection and favour, as he hath alwayes visibly bestowed upon this Kingdom from our Birth,
during the many years we have attained unto, and give our said Subjects the grace to understand, that in observation of
this our Ordinance consisteth (after that which is their duty toward God and us) the principal foundation of their Union,
Concord, Tranquility, Rest, and the Re-establishment of all this Estate in its first splendor, opulency and strength. . . .
6. And not to leave any occasion of trouble and difference among our Subjects, we have permitted and do permit to
those of the Reformed Religion, to live and dwell in all the Cities and places of this our Kingdom and Countreys under
our obedience, without being inquired after, vexed, molested, or compelled to do any thing in Religion, contrary to their
Conscience, nor by reason of the same be searched after in houses or places where they live, they comporting
themselves in other things as is contained in this our present Edict or Statute.
86
7. We also permit to all Lords, Gentlemen and other Persons, as well inhabitants as others, making profession of the
Reformed Religion, having in our Kingdom and Countreys under our obedience, high Justice as chief Lord (as in
Normandy) be it in propriety or usage, in whole, moiety, or third part, to have in such of their houses of the said high
Justice or Fiefs, as abovesaid (which they shall be obliged to Nominate for their principall residence to our Bayliffs and
chief Justice each in their jurisdiction) the exercise of the said Religion as long as they are Resident there, and in their
absence, their wives or families, or part of the same. And though the right of Justice or whole Fief be controverted,
nevertheless the exercise of the said Religion shall be allowed there, provided that the abovesaid be in actual possession
of the said high Justice, though our Attorney Generall be a Party. We per mitting them also to have the said exercise in
their other houses of high Justice or Fiefs abovesaid, so long as they shall be present, and not otherwise: and all, as well
for them, their families and subjects, as others that shall go thither.
8. In the Houses that are Fiefs, where those of the said Religion have not high Justice, there the said Exercise of the
Reformed Religion shall not be permitted, save only to their own Families, yet nevertheless, if other persons, to the
number of thirty, besides their Families, shall be there upon the occasion of Christenings, Visits of their Friends, or
otherwise, our meaning is, that in such case they shall not be molested: provided also, that the said Houses be not within
Cities, Burroughs, or Villages belonging to any Catholick Lord (save to Us) having high Justice, in which the said
Catholick Lords have their Houses. For in such cases, those of the said Religion shall not hold the said Exercise in the
said Cities, Burroughs, or Villages, except by permission of the said Lords high Justices.
9. We permit also to those of the said Religion to hold, and continue the Exercise of the same in all the Cities and
Places under our obedience, where it hath by them been Established and made publick by many and divers times, in the
Year 1586, and in 1597, until the end of the Month of August, notwithstanding all Decrees and Judgments whatsoever
to the contrary. . . .
16. Following the second Article of the Conference of Nerat, we grant to those of the said Religion power to build
Places for the Exercise of the same, in Cities and Places where it is granted them. . . .
27. To the end to reunited so much the better the minds and good will of our Subjects, as is our intention, and to take
away all complaints for the future; We declare all those who make or shall make profession of the said Reformed
Religion, to be capable of holding and exercising all Estates, Dignities, Offices, and publick charges whatsoever, Royal,
Signioral, or of Cities of our Kingdom, Countreys, Lands, and Lordships under our obedience, notwithstanding all
Oaths to the contrary, and to be indifferently admitted and received into the same, and our Court of Parliament and
other Judges shall content themselves with informing and inquiring after the lives, manners, Religion and honest
Conversation of those that were or shall be preferred to such offices, as well of the one Religion as the other, without
taking other Oath of them than for the good and faithful service of the King in the exercise of their Office. . . .
from Roland Mousnier. The Assassination of Henry IV (New York, 1973), 316-347
87
APPARTS Essay Reading- Bishop Burnet's Impressions of Peter the Great in 1698
[excerpted from Readings in Modern European History, James Harvey Robinson and Charles Beard, eds.
(Boston:Ginn and Company, 1908), pp. 57-58]
I mentioned in the relation of the former vear[1698] the Tsar's coming out of his own country - on which I will now
enlarge. He came this winter over to England and stayed some months among us. I waited often on him, and was
ordered both by the king and the archbishop and bishops to attend upon him and to offer him such informations of our
religion and constitution as he was willing to receive. I had good interpreters, so I had much free discourse with him.
He is a man of a very hot temper, soon inflamed and very brutal in his passion. He raises his natural heat by drinking
much brandy, which be rectifies himself with great application. He is subject to convulsive motions all over his body,
and his head seems to be affected with these. He wants not capacity, and has a larger measure of knowledge than might
be expected from his education, which was very indifferent. A want of judgment, with an instability of temper, appear
in him too often and too evidently. He is mechanically turned, and seems designed by nature rather to be a ship
carpenter than a great prince. This was his chief study and exercise while he stayed here. He wrought much with his
own hands and made all about him work at the models of ships. He told me he designed a great fleet at Azuph [i.e.
Azov] and with it to attack the Turkish empire. But he did not seem capable of conducting so great a design, though his
conduct in his wars since this has discovered a greater genius in him than appeared at this time.
He was desirous to understand our doctrine, but he did not seem disposed to mend matters in Moscovy. He was, indeed,
resolved to encourage learning and to polish his people by sending some of them to travel in other countries and to
draw strangers to come and live among them. He seemed apprehensive still [i.e. ever] of his sister's [i.e. the Princess
Sophia's] intrigues. There was a mixture both of passion and severity in his temper. He is resolute, but understands little
of war, and seemed not at all inquisitive that way.
After I had seen him often, and had conversed much with him, I could not but adore the depth of the providence of God
that had raised up such a furious man to so absolute an authority over so great-- a part of the world. David, considering
the great things God had made for the use of man, broke out into the meditation, " What is man, that thou art so mindful
of him? " But here there is an occasion for reversing these words, since man seems a very contemptible thing in the
sight of God, while such a person as the Tsar has such multitudes put, as it were, under his feet, exposed to his restless
jealousy and savage temper.
He went from hence to the court of Vienna, where he purposed to have stayed some time, but he was called home
sooner than he had intended upon a discovery, or a suspicion, of intrigues managed by his sister. The strangers, to
whom he trusted most, were so true to him that those designs were crushed before he came back. But on this occasion
he let loose his fury on all whom he suspected. Some hundreds of them were hanged all around Moscow, and it was
said that he cut off many heads with his own hand ; and so far was he from relenting or showing any sort of tenderness
that he seemed delighted with it. How long he is to be the scourge of that nation God only knows.
88
Unit IV New Directions in Thought and Culture and the Old Regime
Chapters 14 and 15
"Philosophy," he wrote, "is written in the great book which never lies before our eyes - I mean the universe - but we
cannot understand it if we do not first learn the language and grasp the symbols, in which it is written. The book is
written in the mathematical language, and the symbols are triangles, circles, and other geometric figures, without whose
help it is impossible to comprehend a single word of it; without which one wanders in vain through a dark labyrinth." Galileo
After reading chapter 14 you should understand:







The astronomical theories of Copernicus, Brahe, Kepler, Galileo, and Newton.
The emergence of new scientific institutions.
The role of women in early science.
The relationship between science and religion.
New directions in philosophy and political science.
Witch-hunts in the early modern era.
The distinguishing characteristics of Baroque art.
After reading chapter 15 you should understand:







The power and privilege of the aristocracy and how they were maintained.
The struggle of rural peasants to survive.
Family structure and family economy.
Population growth and the expansion of cities.
The impact of the Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions.
The revolution in consumption.
Ghettos and the status of European Jews.
89
Potential FRQ’ Questions
Describe the impact of the Scientific Revolution on European thought and culture.
Analyze the ways in which specific intellectual and scientific developments of the 17th and 18th centuries contributed
to the emergence of the religious outlook known as "Deism."
Discuss the combination of social, cultural, political, and economic factors that allowed Great Britain to be the first
nation to industrialize.
How did the agricultural revolution serve as a starting point for the industrial revolution and the changes it made on
society?
Describe the change in the lifestyle and working conditions of the average peasant forced out by the enclosure
movement.
Major Unit Assignments
Sci-Philo Fair
Scientific Revolution DBQ
Science vs. Religion Discussion
Europe in the Ancien Regime Map
TIAA Assignment with Art Analysis- Baroque Art
Chapter 14 Worksheet
Chapter 15 Worksheet
90
Scientific Philosophy Fair
As a scientist during the scientific revolution, you are excited about the first scientific and philosophical conference that
is bringing together all the brilliant minds of the era. You will create a poster presentation to explain to your colleagues
your work. The “conference” will last two “days”, half the class will be presenting while the other will be attending the
conference. For a block schedule- a “day” is “45 minutes” It is highly possible that the same “scientist” will attend both
days of the conference, but will be portrayed by a different student. The list of the presenting scientists will be available
a few weeks prior to the conference.
Requirements
Use the internet or books to find information about the life
and inventions of your scientist. (10)
Create a poster presentation that clearly shows your
colleagues (and visiting scholars)
a. What you invented/discovered/examined (5)
b. How you conducted your research (5)
c. Why your research/examination was important for the
world (10)
Mount the poster on a stand alone tri-fold board (available at
Staples and other office supply stores) Can also be
constructed from a cardboard box (10)
In character, give a short (2-3 minute) presentation to the
other scientists and philosophers at the fair, explaining your
work and its influence (if you work in a partnership, both
must speak) (10)
Listen attentively to the Keynote Speaker (if applicable) and
all presentations (10)
Listen to the other presenters and fill out the information sheet
(15)
Dress appropriately (as a scientist would have) for a
presentation (nice dress, lab coat, period costume, etc.) (10)
Total
For the A
Include the sources (at least 3) on
your poster (5)
Include pictures, diagrams,
samples of your scientific
work/theories on the poster (10)
Possible Earned
15
Information on the board is typed
and neat (10)
20
Create a small handout that can
remind visitors of your
invention/theories (be creative—
edible is always fun) (5)
15
30
10
Sheet filled out with detail (5)
20
10
120
91
Chapter 14 Worksheet - The Scientific Revolution
Terms to Identify
Bacon, Francis
Brahe, Tycho
Cavendish, Margaret
Chatelet, Emilie
Christinia
Copernicus, Nicholas
Decartes, Rene
Enlightenment
epicycle
Galilei, Galileo
Harvey, William
heliocentric
Hobbes, Thomas
Kepler, Johannes
Locke, John
maleficium
mechanism
Newton, Isaac
Pascal. Blaise
Ptolematic system
revolution
Royal Society of London
Rubens, Peter
sabbats
scientific induction
Scientific Revolution
Urban VIII
Chapter Questions
What was the impact of the scientific revolution on women?
Galileo, Brahe, Kepler and Newton: Which made the most important contribution to the Scientific Revolution, and
why?
What were the chief factors accounting for the condemnation of Galileo?
How did Pascal seek to reconcile faith and reason?
What role did the Church play in the witch-hunts?
Why were the majority of "witches" women?
Why did the witch-hunts end in the 17th century?
Textbook DQ’s
Copernicus Ascribes Movement to the Earth
How does Copernicus justify his argument to the Pope?
How important was historical precedent and tradition to the pope?
Might Copernicus have thought that the pope would be especially susceptible to such an argument, even though
what Copernicus proposed (the movement of the earth) contradicted the Bible?
Decartes explores the Promise of Science
How does Decartes compare the usefulness of science with previous speculative philosophy?
How does he portray science as an instrument whereby human beings may master nature?
What, if any, limits does he place on the extension of scientific knowledge?
Why does he place so much emphasis on the promise of science to improve human health?
92
Margaret Cavendish Questions the Fascination with Scientific Instruments
Why might Margaret Cavendish think that the experiments which were reported about new optical instruments
dealt with superficial wonders?
Why does she contrast experimental philosophy with the beneficial arts?
Do you find a feminist perspective in her comparison of men of the Royal Society with boys playing with bubbles?
Galileo discusses the Relationship of Science with the Bible
Is Galileo argument based on science or theology?
Did the church believe that nature was as much a revelation of God as the Bible was?
As Galileo describes them, which is the surer revelation of God, nature or the Bible?
Why might the pop reject Galileo’s argument?
Why More Women than Men are Witches
Why would two Dominican monks say such things about women?
What are the biblical passages that they believe justify them?
Do their descriptions have any basis in the actual behavior of women in that age?
What is the rivalry between married and unmarried people that they refer to?
Midwives (Secondary)
What types of women became midwives in early modern Europe?
How did the authorities regulate the practice of midwifery?
Why did male professionals gradually replace midwives in delivering babies?
“Nature and Nature's laws lay hid in night. God said, 'Let Newton be!' and all was light.” - Alexander Pope
93
England
Tudor
Henry VII
1487-1509
Spain
Habsburg
Ferdinand of
Aragon Isabella
of Castille
1469-1516
Who Ruled Where When?
(Major Regimes, Roughly 1490-1790)
France
HRE/Austria
Valois
Habsburg
Charles VIII
1483-1498
Louis XII
1498-1515
Henry VIII
1509-1547
Charles I
1516-1556
Edward VI
1547-1553
Mary I
1553-1558
Francis I
1515-1547
Frederick III
1452-1493
Maximilian I
1493-1519
Charles V
1519-1556
Russia
Prussia
Ivan III (Great)
1462-1505
(Electorate of
Brandenburg
subject to
HRE to 1701)
Disputed
Succession
1505-1533
Ivan IV
(Terrible) 15331584
Henry II
1547-1559
Philip II
1556-1598
Francis II
1559-1560
Ferdinand I
1556-1564
Charles IX
1560-1574
Elizabeth I
1558-1603
Henry III
1574-1589
Maximilian II
1564-1576
Bourbon
Henry IV
1589-1610
Rudolf II
1576-1612
Stuart
James I
1603-1625
Charles I
1625-1649
Philip III
1598-1621
Philip IV
1621-1665
Louis XIII
1610-1643
Mathais
1612-1619
Ferdinand II
1619-1637
Time of Troubles
1584-1613
Romanov
Michael
Romanov
1613-1645
Hohenzollern
Frederick William
“The Great
Elector” 16401688
94
England
Stuart
“Commonwealth”
Interregnum
1649-1660
Charles II
1660-1685
James II
1685-1688
William III/Mary II
1688-1702
Anne
1702-1714
Hanover
Spain
Habsburg
France
Bourbon
Austria
Habsburg
Russia
Romanov
Louis XIV
1643-1715
Ferdinand III
1637-1657
Alexis
1645-1676
Leopold I
1658-1705
Feodor III
1676-1682
Charles II
1665-1700
War of Spanish
Succession
1701-1714
Bourbon
Philip V
1700-1746
George I
1714-1727
Louis XV
1715-1774
Prussia
Hohenzollern
Frederick William
Great Elector
1640-1688
Peter I/Ivan V
1682-1696
Frederick I
1688-1713
Joseph I
1705-1711
Charles VI
1711-1740
Peter I (Great)
1682-1725
Catherine I
1725-1727
Frederick William
I1713-1740
War of Austrian
Succession
1740-1748
Peter II
1727-1730
George II
1727-1760
Anna
1730-1740
Maria Theresa
Empress of
Austria
1740-1780
Ferdinand VI
1746-1759
Ivan VI
1740-1741
Frederick II
(Great) 1740-1786
Elizabeth
1741-1762
George III
1760-1820
Charles III
1759-1788
Charles IV
1788-1819
Louis XVI
1774-1792
Executed during
Revolution, 1793
Joseph II
HRE: 17651790
Austria: 17801790
Peter III
1762
Catherine II
(great) 17621796
Frederick William
II
1786-1797
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Chapter 15 Worksheet- The Old Regime
Agricultural Revolution
Ancien Regime
aristrocratic resurgance
Arkwright, Richard
Bakewell, Robert
banalites
barshchina
coke
Consumer Revolution
Cort, Henry
corve
domestic
enclosures
family economy
ghetto
Gordon Riots
Hargreaves, James
hobereaux
Industrial Revolution
Kay, John
Newcomen, Thomas
Paris Foundling Hospital
peerage
Pugachev's Rebellion
robot
seigneur
servant
szlachta
Townsend, Charles
Tull, Jethro
urbanization
Vermuyden, Cornelius
vingtieme
Watt, James
Wedgewood, Josiah
Chapter Questions
How did family structures in Western Europe differ from those in Eastern Europe?
What caused the Agricultural Revolution?
What caused the 18th-century population explosion in Europe?
What caused the Industrial Revolution?
Textbook DQ’s
Rules are established for The Berlin Poorhouse
What distinguishes the poor who deserved sympathy from those who did not?
How would such a distinction affect social policy?
Why might beggars have been regarded as dangers to public order?
What attitudes toward work do these regulations display?
Turgot Describes French Landholdings
Why does Turgot favor those farmers who can make investments in the land they rent from a proprietor?
What are the structures of the metayer system?
Why did it lead to poor investments and lower harvests?
What is Turgot’s attitude toward work and entrepreneurship?
Priscilla Wakefield Demands More Occupations For Women
What arguments were used at the end of the eighteenth century to limit the kinds of employment that women might
enter?
96
Why did women receive less pay than men for similar or the same work?
What occupations traditionally filled by men does Wakefield believe women might also pursue?
Water, Washing, and Bathing (Secondary)
Why did bathing become less frequent after the late Middle Ages? How did the use of linen clothing contribute to this
change?
Belorussian Jews Petition Catherine the Great
How do the petitioners attempt to appeal to long-standing custom to defend their interests?
How does the petition suggest that Jewish law and practice, distinct from the rest of the society, governed by Jewish
social life?
In the context of this petition, which non-Jewish authorities may actually or potentially influence Jewish life?
"We don't have to protect the environment -- the Second Coming is at hand." - James Watt
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APPARTS Essay Reading
Excerpts from the Malleus Maleficarum, 1486 by Heinrich Kramer and James Sprenger
The method of beginning an examination by torture is as follows: First, the jailers prepare the implements of torture,
then they strip the prisoner (if it be a woman, she has already been stripped by other women, upright and of good
report) [1]. This stripping is lest some means of witchcraft may have been sewed into the clothing--such as often, taught
by the Devil, they prepare from the bodies of un-baptized infants, [murdered] that they may forfeit salvation. And when
the implements of torture have been prepared, the judge, both in person and through other good men zealous in the
faith, tries to persuade the prisoner to confess the truth freely; but, if he will not confess, he bids attendants make the
prisoner fast to the strappado or some other implement of torture. The attendants obey forthwith, yet with feigned
agitation. Then, at the prayer of some of those present, the prisoner is loosed again and is taken aside and once more
persuaded to confess, being led to believe that he will in that case not be put to death.
Here it may be asked whether the judge, in the case of a prisoner much defamed, convicted both by witnesses and by
proofs, nothing being lacking but his own confession, can properly lead him to hope that his life will be spared--when,
even if he confess his crime, he will be punished with death.
It must be answered that opinions vary. Some hold that even a witch of very ill repute, against whom the evidence
justifies violent suspicion, and who, as a ringleader of the witches, is accounted very dangerous, may be assured her
life, and condemned instead to perpetual imprisonment on bread and water, in case she will give sure and convincing
testimony against other witches; yet this penalty of perpetual imprisonment must not be announced to her, but only that
her life will be spared, and that she will be punished in some other fashion, perhaps by exile. And doubtless such
notorious witches, especially those who prepare witch-potions or who by magical methods cure those bewitched, would
be peculiarly suited to be thus preserved, in order to aid the bewitched or to accuse other witches, were it not that their
accusations cannot be trusted, since the Devil is a liar, unless confirmed by proofs and witnesses. [Page 12] Others
hold, as to this point, that for a time the promise made to the witch sentenced to imprisonment is to be kept, but that
after a time she should be burned.
A third view is, that the judge may safely promise witches to spare their lives, if only he will later excuse himself from
pronouncing the sentence and will let another do this in his place. . . .
But if, neither by threats nor by promises such as these, the witch can be induced to speak the truth, then the jailers must
carry out the sentence, and torture the prisoner according to the accepted methods[,] with more or less of severity as the
delinquent's crime may demand. And, while he is being tortured, he must be questioned on the articles of accusation,
and this frequently and persistently, beginning with the lighter charges-for he will more readily confess the lighter than
the heavier. And, while this is being done, the notary must write down everything in his record of the trial--how the
prisoner is tortured, on what points he is questioned, and how he answers.
And note that, if he confesses under the torture, he must afterward be conducted to another place, that he may confirm it
and certify that it was not due alone to the force of the torture.
But, if the prisoner will not confess the truth satisfactorily, other sorts of tortures must be placed before him, with the
statement that, unless he will confess the truth, he must endure these also. But, if not even thus he can be brought into
terror and to the truth, then the next day or the next but one is to be set for a continuation of the tortures--not a
repetition, [2] for they must not be repeated unless new evidences be produced.
The judge must then address to the prisoners the following sentence: We, the judge, etc., do assign to you,------, such
and such a day for the continuation of the tortures, that from your own mouth the truth may be heard, and that the whole
may be recorded by the notary. And during the interval, before the day assigned, the judge, in person or through
approved men, must in the manner above described try to persuade the prisoner to confess, promising her (if there is
aught to be gained by this promise) that her life shall be spared. The judge shall see to it, moreover, that throughout this
interval guards are constantly with the prisoner, so that she may not be left alone; because she will be visited by the
Devil and tempted into suicide.
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Footnotes
[1] Sometimes, in place of the prisoner's clothing, a garment furnished by the court was now supplied, to be worn
during the torture.
[2] This was, of course, a legal fiction, to avoid the merciful restriction put by law upon the repetition of torture.
[3] This change in the gender of pronoun is a faithful following of the original.
SOURCE: George L. Burr, ed., The Witch Persecutions in translations and reprints from the o0riginal sources of
European History, 6 vols. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania History Department, 1898-1912) vol. 3, no. 4, pp.
10-13. Found on the “Hanover Historical Texts Project.” <http://history.hanover.edu/texts/mm.html>
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Unit V The Transatlantic Economy and the Enlightenment
Chapters 16 and 17
The monarchy is so extraordinarily useful. When Britain wins a battle she shouts,
"God save the Queen"; when she loses, she votes down the prime minister.”- Winston Churchill
After reading chapter 16 you should understand:





Europe’s concept of mercantilism and empire-building.
The nature and decline of Spain’s vast colonial empire in the Americas.
The structure of slavery in the Americas, and the role of slave labor in the Atlantic economy's plantation
system.
The wars in Europe and the colonies, particularly the Seven Years’ War.
The conflict between Britain and its colonies, and its outcome in the War of American Independence.
After reading chapter 17 you should understand
o The intellectual and social background of the Enlightenment.
o The philosophes and their political and intellectual proposals for reform.
o The beliefs of the Deists.
o The roles of women in the Enlightenment.
o Enlightened Absolutism and its effects in central and eastern Europe.
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Potential FRQ questions
Mercantilism
Analyze the influence of the theory of mercantilism on the foreign and domestic policies of European nations between
1650 and 1775.
Describe and analyze the economic, cultural, and social changes that led to and sustained Europe's rapid population
growth in the period from approximately 1650 to 1800.
Analyze the changes in the European economy from about 1450 to 1700 brought about by the voyages of discovery and
by colonization. Give specific examples.
In 1490 there was no such country as Spain, yet within a century it had become the most powerful nation in Europe and
within another had sunk to the status of a third-rate power. Describe and analyze the major social, economic, and
political reasons for Spain's rise and fall.
The Enlightenment
Compare the economic, political, and social conditions in Great Britain and in France during the eighteenth century,
showing why they favored the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain more so than in France.
Compare and contrast the cultural values of the Enlightenment with those of the 16th century Northern Renaissance.
In what ways did Enlightenment thinkers build on or make use of the ideas of Newton and Locke?
Compare and contrast the views of Machiavelli and Rousseau on human nature and the relationship between
government and the governed.
Compare and contrast the views of Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau on the nature of man and the best possible form of
government.
Evaluate the effectiveness of the various "enlightened absolutist" regimes of the late 1700s.
Analyze the ways in which specific intellectual and scientific developments of the 17th and 18th centuries contributed
to the emergence of the religious outlook known as "Deism."
Both Jean-Baptiste Colbert (1619-1683) and Adam Smith (1723-1790) sought to increase the wealth of their respective
countries. How did their recommendations differ?
Describe and analyze the influence of the Enlightenment on both elite culture and popular culture in the 18th century.
Major Unit Assignments
Enlightened Facebook
Slavery Chart
18th Century Wars Chart
Europe in 1783 Map
Salons POV
Philiosophes and Politics Discussion
Colombian Exchange Virtual Discussion
Philosophers chart
Enlightened despots chart
TIAA Assignment with Art Analysis -Rococo Art
Chapter 16 and 17 Worksheet
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Enlightenment Facebook


Project - 30 points ; to be evaluated by colleagues.
Evaluation sheet - 3 points for each sheet, at least one sheet for each round of browsing .

Develop the equivalent of a Facebook page for a major figure of the Enlightenment.
o Your page must contain profile information, "photos," applications, games, wall-to-wall
postings, invitations, invitations to join groups...you get the idea.
o The "page" is actually a larger than life "paper" version of Facebook.
o Your colleagues should be able to take "notes" on it.
o You should submit a formatted bibliography WITH your project.
o You will have 1/2 the period over two days to work on your projects in class. The rest must be
completed outside class.

The Facebook page will be presented in rounds: each group will "do something" - invite someone to
join a group, post new pictures, become a friend.
Other groups will respond by ignoring a friend request, accepting an invitation, etc.


Actions must be accompanied by a paper equivalent – in other words, you will have to justify in
writing, why you accepted or denied a friend request, why you chose certain people over others, as
well as accepting/declining invitations.
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Questions
Circle a response.
Group ready to go?
Yes
No
Enlightenment Figure:
Group Members:
Circle a number (1 –
weak, 6 – very strong)
The Facebook “page” contains
accurate and thorough profile
1 2
information about the Enlightenment
figure. It was possible to take notes
from the information presented on
the page.
Facebook “page” has relevant
analogous applications, games, wall1 2
to-wall postings, invitations.
The members participated in all
browsing rounds. They sent out
1 2
invitations for “friendship,” for an
application, and wrote on another
figure’s wall. Their requests are
plausible given the historical context
of the other Enlightenment figures.
The members responded to other
figures’ requests in a plausible
1 2
member: acceptance or rejection of a
invitation to friendship, participation
in the application received, and a
response to a wall-to-wall message.
Facebook “page” is larger than life
(at least two construction paper
1 2
sheets large). It contains pictures
(photos) of the Enlightenment figure,
relevant artwork, or text from that
particular figure.
I learned the following from this presentation:
3
4
5 6
3
4
5 6
3
4
5 6
3
4
5 6
3
4
5 6
Comments (You must have at
least three DETAILED
comments below).
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Chapter 16 Worksheet- Transatlantic Economy, Trade Wars and Colonial Rebellion
Terms to Identify
Montcalm, Joseph de
Pitt, William the Younger
Pitt, William, the Elder
seasoning
Seven Years War
Stamp Act
Stamp Act Congress
Sugar Act
Tea Act
Townshend, Charles
Treaty of Paris of 1763
Treaty of Paris of 1783
Treaty of Utrecht
War of Jenkin's Ear
War of the Austrian Succession
Wilkes, John
Wolfe, James
Yorkshire Association Movement
audiencias
Bill of Rights
Casa de Contratacion
Charles III
Clive, Robert
Common Sense
Commonwealth men
Compagnie des Indies
Convention of Westminister
corregidores
Declaratory Act
Diplomatic Revolution
factories
First Continental Congress
flota
intendant
Intolerable Acts
mercantilism
Chapter Questions
What were the goals of mercantilist nations?
In what areas of the world did the major European powers concentrate their colonial aspirations?
Why did slavery flourish in Spanish controlled colonies in the New World?
Textbook DQ’s
Visitors Describe the Portobello Fair
What products were sold at the fair?
How does this passage illustrate the inefficiency of monopoly trade in the Spanish Empire and the many chances for
smuggling?
Buccaneers Prowl the High Seas
How did the restrictive commercial policy of the Spanish Empire encourage piracy and privateering?
Was there a code of honor among the pirates?
What kinds of people may have suffered most from piracy?
To what extent did pirates have any respect for individual freedom?
How romantic was the real world of pirates?
Sugar Enters the Western Diet
How did the colonization of the Americas affect the European demand for sugar?
Why did sugar consumption increase so rapidly in Europe during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries?
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A Slave Trader Describes the Atlantic Passage
Who are the various people described in this document who in one way or another were involved in our profited from
the slave trade?
What dangers did the Africans face on the voyage?
What contemporary attitudes could have led this captain to treat and think of his human cargo simply as goods to be
transported?
What are the grounds of his self-pity for the difficulties he met?
Major Cartwright Calls for the Reform of Parliament
What does Cartwright mean by “corruption”?
How does he believe Britain has been deprived of its liberties?
Why does he prefer an annual election of Parliament to elections every seven years?
How does he illustrate the wrongful state of representation under the present system?
The Columbian Exchange
What was the impact of European diseases on the Americas?
Why was the impact so profound?
Why could so many European crops grow so well in the Americas?
What was the cultural impact of animals taken from Europe to the Americas?
How did food from the Americas change the diet of Europe and then later, as Europeans immigrated, the diet of the
entire world?
"Whenever I hear anyone arguing for slavery, I feel a strong impulse to see it tried on him personally." - Abraham
Lincoln
105
Encyclopedia
Beccaria, Cesare
Catherine II the Great
d'Akembert, Jean le Rond
David. Jacques Louis
deism
Diderot, Denis
enlightened absolutism
fetes galantes
First Partition of Poland
Frederick II the Great
hotels
Joseph II
Kant, Immanuel
laissez-faire
Chapter 17 Worksheet- The Enlightenment
Terms to Identify
Mendelsohn, Moses
Montesquieu, Baron de
Neoclassical
philiosophes
physiocrats
Popadour, Marquise de
print culture
Rococo
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques
Smith, Adam
Spinoza, Baruch
tabula rasa
Voltaire
Wollstonecraft, Mary
Chapter Questions
In your own words, what were the major beliefs of the philosophes?
Why did the philosophes consider organized religion to be their greatest enemy?
In what ways does Adam Smith overturn previous mercantilist economic theory?
Of the three rulers, Frederick the Great, Catherine the Great, and Joseph II, which was the most absolute, and why?
Of the three rulers, Frederick the Great, Catherine the Great, and Joseph II, which was the most enlightened, and why?
What led to the Partition of Poland, and who gained the most from it?
Textbook DQ’s
Coffeehouses and Enlightenment (Secondary)
How did coffeehouses help spread the ideas of the Enlightenment?
How was the consumption of coffee related to the transatlantic slave trade?
Immanuel Kant Defines Enlightenment
What authorities should the liberated intellect have the courage to question?
Why does Kant believe intellectual liberation requires effort and rejection of laziness and cowardice?
Why does Kant link enlightenment with freedom?
Denis Diderot Condemns European Empires
What is the basis for Diderot’s view that European have behaved tyrannically?
How does he portray the behavior of Europeans in foreign areas?
What specific social results does he associate with European greed?
106
Rousseau Argues For Separate Spheres For Men and Women
How does Rousseau move from the physical differences between men and women to an argument for distinct social
roles and social spheres?
What would be the proper kinds of social activities for women in Rousseau’s vision?
What kind of education would he think appropriate for women?
Mary Wollstonecraft Criticizes Rousseau’s View of Women
What criticisms does Wollstone direct against Rousseau’s views?
Why does Wollstonecraft emphasize a new kind of education for women?
Maria Theresa and Joseph II of Austria Debate Toleration
How does Joseph define toleration and why does Maria Theresa believe it is the same as religious indifference?
Why does Maria Theresa fear that toleration will bring about political as well as religious turmoil?
Why does Maria Theresa think that Joseph’s belief in toleration has come from Joseph’s acquaintance with wicked
books?
To do is to be. - Descartes
To be is to do. - Voltaire
Do be do be do. - Frank Sinatra
107
APPARTS Essay Reading- George III's Letter on the Loss of America
The precise date of this letter by King George III is unknown, but it is believed that he wrote it in the 1780s
America is lost! Must we fall beneath the blow? Or have we resources that may repair the mischief? What are those
resources? Should they be sought in distant Regions held by precarious Tenure, or shall we seek them at home in the
exertions of a new policy?
The situation of the Kingdom is novel, the policy that is to govern it must be novel likewise, or neither adapted to the
real evils of the present moment, or the dreaded ones of the future.
For a Century past the Colonial Scheme has been the system that has guided the Administration of the British
Government. It was thoroughly known that from every Country there always exists an active emigration of unsettled,
discontented, or unfortunate People, who failing in their endeavours to live at home, hope to succeed better where there
is more employment suitable to their poverty. The establishment of Colonies in America might probably increase the
number of this class, but did not create it; in times anterior to that great speculation, Poland contained near 10,000
Scotch Pedlars; within the last thirty years not above 100, occasioned by America offering a more advantageous asylum
for them.
A people spread over an immense tract of fertile land, industrious because free, and rich because industrious, presently
became a market for the Manufactures and Commerce of the Mother Country. An importance was soon generated,
which from its origin to the late conflict was mischievous to Britain, because it created an expense of blood and treasure
worth more at this instant, if it could be at our command, than all we ever received from America. The wars of 1744, of
1756, and 1775, were all entered into from the encouragements given to the speculations of settling the wilds of North
America.
It is to be hoped that by degrees it will be admitted that the Northern Colonies, that is those North of Tobacco, were in
reality our very successful rivals in two Articles, the carrying freight trade, and the Newfoundland fishery. While the
Sugar Colonies added above three millions a year to the wealth of Britain, the Rice Colonies near a million, and the
Tobacco ones almost as much; those more to the north, so far from adding anything to our wealth as Colonies, were
trading, fishing, farming Countries, that rivaled us in many branches of our industry, and had actually deprived us of no
inconsiderable share of the wealth we reaped by means of the others. This comparative view of our former territories in
America is not stated with any idea of lessening the consequence of a future friendship and connection with them; on
the contrary it is to be hoped we shall reap more advantages from their trade as friends than ever we could derive from
them as Colonies; for there is reason to suppose we actually gained more by them while in actual rebellion, and the
common open connection cut off, than when they were in obedience to the Crown; the Newfoundland fishery taken into
the Account, there is little doubt of it.
The East and West Indies are conceived to be the great commercial supports of the Empire; as to the Newfoundland
fishery time must tell us what share we shall reserve of it. But there is one observation which is applicable to all three;
they depend on very distant territorial possessions, which we have little or no hopes of retaining from their internal
strength, we can keep them only by means of a superior Navy. If our marine force sinks, or if in consequence of wars,
debts, and taxes, we should in future find ourselves so debilitated as to be involved in a new War, without the means of
carrying it on with vigour, in these cases, all distant possessions must fall, let them be as valuable as their warmest
panegyrists contend.
It evidently appears from this slight review of our most important dependencies, that on them we are not to exert that
new policy which alone can be the preservation of the British power and consequence. The more important they are
already, the less are they fit instruments in that work. No man can be hardy enough to deny that they are insecure; to
add therefore to their value by exertions of policy which shall have the effect of directing any stream of capital,
industry, or population into those channels, would be to add to a disproportion already an evil. The more we are
convinced of the vast importance of those territories, the more we must feel the insecurity of our power; our view
therefore ought not to be to increase but preserve them.
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APPARTS Essay Reading
Jean Jacques Rousseau: The Social Contract, 1763
Jean-Jacques Rousseau stresses, like John Locke the idea of a social contract as the basis of society. Locke's version
emphasized a contact between the governors and the governed: Rousseau's was in a way much more profound - the
social contract was between all members of society, and essentially replaced "natural" rights as the basis for human
claims.
Origin and Terms of the Social Contract
Man was born free, but everywhere he is in chains. This man believes that he is the master of others, and still he is more
of a slave than they are. How did that transformation take place? I don't know. How may the restraints on man become
legitimate? I do believe I can answer that question....
At a point in the state of nature when the obstacles to human preservation have become greater than each individual
with his own strength can cope with . . ., an adequate combination of forces must be the result of men coming together.
Still, each man's power and freedom are his main means of self-preservation. How is he to put them under the control of
others without damaging himself . . . ?
This question might be rephrased: "How is a method of associating to be found which will defend and protect-using the
power of all-the person and property of each member and still enable each member of the group to obey only himself
and to remain as free as before?" This is the fundamental problem; the social contract offers a solution to it.
The very scope of the action dictates the terms of this contract and renders the least modification of them inadmissible,
something making them null and void. Thus, although perhaps they have never been stated in so man) words, they are
the same everywhere and tacitly conceded and recognized everywhere. And so it follows that each individual
immediately recovers hi primitive rights and natural liberties whenever any violation of the social contract occurs and
thereby loses the contractual freedom for which he renounced them.
The social contract's terms, when they are well understood, can be reduced to a single stipulation: the individual
member alienates himself totally to the whole community together with all his rights. This is first because conditions
will be the same for everyone when each individual gives himself totally, and secondly, because no one will be tempted
to make that condition of shared equality worse for other men....
Once this multitude is united this way into a body, an offense against one of its members is an offense against the body
politic. It would be even less possible to injure the body without its members feeling it. Duty and interest thus equally
require the two contracting parties to aid each other mutually. The individual people should be motivated from their
double roles as individuals and members of the body, to combine all the advantages which mutual aid offers them....
Individual Wills and the General Will
In reality, each individual may have one particular will as a man that is different from-or contrary to-the general will
which he has as a citizen. His own particular interest may suggest other things to him than the common interest does.
His separate, naturally independent existence may make him imagine that what he owes to the common cause is an
incidental contribution - a contribution which will cost him more to give than their failure to receive it would harm the
others. He may also regard the moral person of the State as an imaginary being since it is not a man, and wish to enjoy
the rights of a citizen without performing the duties of a subject. This unjust attitude could cause the ruin of the body
politic if it became widespread enough.
So that the social pact will not become meaningless words, it tacitly includes this commitment, which alone gives
power to the others: Whoever refuses to obey the general will shall be forced to obey it by the whole body politic,
which means nothing else but that he will be forced to be free. This condition is indeed the one which by dedicating
109
each citizen to the fatherland gives him a guarantee against being personally dependent on other individuals. It is
the condition which all political machinery depends on and which alone makes political undertakings legitimate.
Without it, political actions become absurd, tyrannical, and subject to the most outrageous abuses.
Whatever benefits he had in the state of nature but lost in the civil state, a man gains more than enough new ones to
make up for them. His capabilities are put to good use and developed; his ideas are enriched, his sentiments made more
noble, and his soul elevated to the extent that-if the abuses in this new condition did not often degrade him to a
condition lower than the one he left behind-he would have to keep blessing this happy moment which snatched him
away from his previous state and which made an intelligent being and a man out of a stupid and very limited animal....
Property Rights
In dealing with its members, the State controls all their goods under the social contract, which serves as the basis for all
rights within the State, but it controls them only through the right of first holder which individuals convey to the
State....
A strange aspect of this act of alienating property rights to the state is that when the community takes on the goods of
its members, it does not take these goods away from them. The community does nothing but assure its members of
legitimate possession of goods, changing mere claims of possession into real rights and customary use into property....
Through an act of transfer having advantages for the public but far more for themselves they have, so to speak, really
acquired everything they gave up....
Indivisible, Inalienable Sovereignty
The first and most important conclusion from the principles we have established thus far is that the general will alone
may direct the forces of the State to achieve the goal for which it was founded, the common good.... Sovereignty is
indivisible ... and is inalienable.... A will is general or it is not: it is that of the whole body of the people or only of one
faction. In the first instance, putting the will into words and force is an act of sovereignty: the will becomes law. In the
second instance, it is only a particular will or an administrative action; at the very most it is a decree.
Our political theorists, however, unable to divide the source of sovereignty, divide sovereignty into the ways it is
applied. They divide it into force and will; into legislative power and executive power; into the power to tax, the
judicial power, and the power to wage war; into internal administration and the power to negotiate with foreign
countries. Now we see them running these powers together. Now they will proceed to separate them. They make the
sovereign a being of fantasy, composed of separate pieces, which would be like putting a man together from several
bodies, one having eyes, another arms, another feet-nothing more. Japanese magicians are said to cut up a child before
the eyes of spectators, then throw the pieces into the air one after the other, and then cause the child to drop down
reassembled and alive again. That is the sort of magic trick our political theorists perform. After having dismembered
the social body with a trick worthy of a traveling show, they reassemble the pieces without anybody knowing how....
If we follow up in the same way on the other divisions mentioned, we find that we are deceived every time we believe
we see sovereignty divided. We find that the jurisdictions we have thought to be exercised as parts of sovereignty in
reality are subordinate to the [one] sovereign power. They presuppose supreme wills, which they merely carry out in
their jurisdictions . . . .
Need for Citizen Participation, Not Representation
It follows from the above that the general will is always in the right and inclines toward the public good, but it does not
follow that the deliberations of the people always have the same rectitude. People always desire what is good, but they
do not always see what is good. You can never corrupt the people, but you can often fool them, and that is the only time
that the people appear to will something bad....
If, assuming that the people were sufficiently informed as they made decisions and that the citizens did not
communicate with each other, the general will would always be resolved from a great number of small differences, and
110
the deliberation would always be good. But when blocs are formed, associations of parts at the expense of the
whole, the will of each of these associations will be general as far as its members are concerned but particular as far as
the State is concerned. Then we may say that there are no longer so many voters as there are men present but as many
as there are associations. The differences will become less numerous and will yield less general results. Finally, when
one of these associations becomes so strong that it dominates the others, you no longer have the sum of minor
differences as a result but rather one single [unresolved] difference, with the result that there no longer is a general will,
and the view that prevails is nothing but one particular view....
But we must also consider the private persons who make up the public, apart from the public personified, who each
have a life and liberty independent of it. It is very necessary for us to distinguish between the respective rights of the
citizens and the sovereign and between the duties which men must fulfill in their role as subjects from the natural rights
they should enjoy in their role as men.
It is agreed that everything which each individual gives up of his power, his goods, and his liberty under the social
contract is only that part of all those things which is of use to the community, but it is also necessary to agree that the
sovereign alone is the judge of what that useful part is.
All the obligations which a citizen owes to the State he must fulfill as soon as the sovereign asks for them, but the
sovereign in turn cannot impose any obligation on subjects which is not of use to the community. If fact, the sovereign
cannot even wish to do so, for nothing can take place without a cause according to the laws of reason, any more than
according to the laws of nature [and the sovereign community will have no cause to require anything beyond what is of
communal use]....
Government . . is wrongly confused with the sovereign, whose agent it is. What then is government? It is an
intermediary body established between the subjects and the sovereign to keep them in touch with each other. It is
charged with executing the laws and maintaining both civil and political liberty.... The only will dominating
government ... should be the general will or the law. The government's power is only the public power vested in it. As
soon as [government] attempts to let any act come from itself completely independently, it starts to lose its intermediary
role. If the time should ever come when the [government] has a particular will of its own stronger than that of the
sovereign and makes use of the public power which is in its hands to carry out its own particular will-when there are
thus two sovereigns, one in law and one in fact-at that moment the social union will disappear and the body politic will
be dissolved.
Once the public interest has ceased to be the principal concern of citizens, once they prefer to serve State with money
rather than with their persons, the State will be approaching ruin. Is it necessary to march into combat? They will pay
some troops and stay at home. Is it necessary to go to meetings? They will name some deputies and stay at home.
Laziness and money finally leave them with soldiers to enslave their fatherland and representatives to sell it....
Sovereignty cannot be represented.... Essentially, it consists of the general will, and a will is not represented: either we
have it itself, or it is something else; there is no other possibility. The deputies of the people thus are not and cannot be
its representatives. They are only the people's agents and are not able to come to final decisions at all. Any law that the
people have not ratified in person is void, it is not a law at all.
Sovereignty and Civil Religion
Now then, it is of importance to the State that each citizen should have a religion requiring his devotion to duty;
however, the dogmas of that religion are of no interest to the State except as they relate to morality and to the duties
which each believer is required to perform for others. For the rest of it, each person may have whatever opinions he
pleases....
It follows that it is up to the sovereign to establish the articles of a purely civil faith, not exactly as dogmas of religion
but as sentiments of social commitment without which it would be impossible to be either a good citizen or a faithful
subject.... While the State has no power to oblige anyone to believe these articles, it may banish anyone who does not
believe them. This banishment is not for impiety but for lack of social commitment, that is, for being incapable of
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sincerely loving the laws and justice or of sacrificing his life to duty in time of need. As for the person who
conducts himself as if he does not believe them after having publicly stated his belief in these same dogmas, he
deserves the death penalty. He has lied in the presence of the laws.
The dogmas of civil religion should be simple, few in number, and stated in precise words without interpretations or
commentaries. These are the required dogmas: the existence of a powerful, intelligent Divinity, who does good, has
foreknowledge of all, and provides for all; the life to come; the happy rewards of the just; the punishment of the
wicked; and the sanctity ol` the social contract and the laws. As for prohibited articles of faith, I limit myself to one:
intolerance. Intolerance characterizes the religious persuasions we have excluded.
From JeanJacques Rousseau, Contrat social ou Principes du droit politique (Paris: Garnier Frères 1800), pp. 240332,
passim. Translated by Henry A. Myers.
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Readings for Discussion
Timeline- The World of 1607
Looking Back on America’s 400th Anniversary
By Dana Huntley
This morning’s television newscast brought into our homes live video reports from London and around the world. Four
hundred years ago in 1607, however, people in England did not know that half the world existed. It would be more than
a century before Captain Cook explored the South Pacific. It would be 200 years before Lewis and Clark would cross
the American continent. There were no toaster ovens, newspapers or cell phones, no GPS or jumbo jets, no electricity
or refrigeration, let alone television or instant global communications. Word traveled no faster than a horse or a sail.
Among the many events surrounding America’s 400th anniversary this year is the opening of dramatic new exhibition
galleries at Jamestown Settlement—a signature event in the Jamestown 2007 celebrations. The freshly constructed halls
contain 30,000 square feet of exhibit space dedicated to “The World of 1607.” A new introductory film, 1607: A Nation
Takes Root, provides an overview of the first two decades of the Virginia colony and the cultures that converged there:
the indigenous Powhatan Indians and the first documented Africans from Angola, as well as the early English settlers.
Jamestown’s waterfront discovery area highlights 17th-century water travel, commerce and cultural exchange, with
interactive exhibits on navigation and cargo. Exhibits also explore overseas trade and colonization, and advances in
cartography and ship design. The story of the Virginia Company is told in a re-created English manor house. (British
Heritage readers who visit can decide for themselves how much the re-creation resembles the original Otley Hall [see
British Heritage November 2006].) A short film, The Crossing, describes the historic 1607 voyage to Virginia. More
than 500 artifacts from the 17th century enhance the exhibits, videos, dioramas and reconstructions in the new
Jamestown Settlement galleries.
Artifacts and re-creations can only go so far, however, in conveying a sense of time and place over the distance of 400
years and 4,000 miles. What was the world really like in 1607?
About this time of year four centuries ago, 104 young men and boys aboard Susan Constant, Godspeed and Discovery
were making their way toward the tidewater of Chesapeake Bay. The Virginia Company of London had won its charter,
and the tiny flotilla had set sail from London in December 1606. Its purpose was to establish the first English settlement
in the New World. The fleet admiral was Christopher Newport, sailing on Constant. The motive force behind the
Virginia Company, however, was Vice Admiral Captain Bartholomew Gosnold aboard Godspeed. His story, of course,
we have told (British Heritage November 2006).
The London they left behind was in some turmoil. King James I had come down from Edinburgh a few years before,
after the death of Queen Elizabeth. He was still putting his personal imprint on the monarchy, filling his court with
Scottish favorites, spending lavishly and giving out honors and titles with unprecedented generosity—and unnerving
the English political establishment.
Before he came down from Edinburgh, where he was King James VI of Scotland, James had written The True Law of
Free Monarchies, in which he defended the divine right of kings as an insoluble part of apostolic succession. His belief
in his own divine right brought him into real conflict with an English Parliament that had long ago limited the power of
its monarchy, especially when it came to taxes. James’ belief in his royal prerogatives not only created policy conflict,
it also gave him an attitude.
Out in the shires, and back in the East Anglican villages of Essex and Suffolk, where most of the young Virginia
Company adventurers called home, life remained largely unchanged from monarch to monarch, year to year, generation
to generation. It would be another half-dozen generations at least, before the first effects of the Industrial Revolution
would begin to draw people off the land to the towns and emergent factories and mills, bringing such things as
manufactured cloth, dishes and tools.
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In 1607 most of England’s population was rural, living in manorial villages and on the farmsteads of large estates,
spread out across the countryside. There were few towns as large as 1,000 people. Apart from the capital, Bristol and
Norwich were the only “big” towns. Wealth lay in the land; living lay in farming it. The agrarian economy, way of life
and quality of life in the early 17th century remained largely unchanged from what it had been two centuries earlier. It
would be 200 years more before the introduction of elementary machines like the seed drill would begin to transform
the way the land was farmed.
The one element of life that had changed dramatically over the last two generations was religion.
Through the reigns of Henry VIII and his children, the country’s formal ecclesiastical allegiance had switched four
times. Religious passions were still strong, and nearly everyone from the court to the croft believed their personal
convictions held eternal consequences. In the Suffolk town of Bury St. Edmunds, where Captain Gosnold went to
church with his family, the churchyard contained the remains of men who had died in flames at the stake within living
memory for their Protestant convictions under Catholic Queen Mary. An early 20th-century monument honors their
memory in the close of St. Edmundsbury Cathedral.
In the East of England in particular, a desire to distance the local church from Catholic worship and doctrine was
strong; it was a hotbed of Puritanism, fueled at Cambridge University. In 1603 the new English king had been presented
with the Millenary Petition, signed by 1,000 Puritan clerics and lay leaders, requesting more reforms for the Anglican
Church. At the Hampton Court Conference of 1604, James rejected most of their demands. Hundreds refused to
comply, and more than 100 clergymen lost their living within the Anglican Church. Dissenting congregations grew—
the folks who became Congregationalists and Baptists.
Scottish Presbyterians wanted a Presbyterian form of church government; the Anglican conservatives wanted to impose
bishops on the Kirk of Scotland. Catholics and dissenters sought freedom of conscience and of worship. What King
James I wanted was control. Under James’ rules, all were coerced into worshiping in the Church of England.
Up in Lincolnshire, local congregations of dissenters in the villages of Scrooby, Babworth and Austerfield determined
together to leave their homes and homeland to find freedom to worship as they chose. We know them as the Pilgrims. It
is their 400th anniversary too. After elaborate preparations had been made, in the autumn of 1607 they quietly slipped
away from their villages and made their way to the coast just above the small port of Boston, where a Dutch ship was
waiting. Even fleeing, however, violated James’ law. When their plans were betrayed, the groups’ leaders, William
Bradford, John Robinson, William Brewster and others, were imprisoned in the Guildhall in Boston (where the
courtroom and their jail cells can still be seen), and the families were forced to return home. The next spring they made
their escape successfully and re-formed their community at Leiden in the Netherlands. In 1620, of course, some in the
company would sail Mayflower across the Atlantic.
Back on board Godspeed, it was not religious freedom that motivated the sailors and settlers, but commerce. The
Virginia Company was a stock company aiming to make money. Theirs was an economic migration, seeking a better
life in a New World. They sailed without medicine; there were no antibiotics, no anesthetic and no analgesic stronger
than alcohol. It would be nine years before William Harvey announced his discovery of the circulation of the blood, and
200 years before the germ theory of disease was widely accepted. They sailed without communications; there was no
telephone, radio, radar or satellite navigation. Captain Gosnold could determine latitude with a sextant, but it would be
a century and a half before navigators could measure longitude. There were no manufactured goods aboard; every shoe
and shirt, nail, barrel and tool was the product of an artisan.
Through the 1600s, tens of thousands of English settlers would follow the Jamestown adventurers and the Pilgrim
congregation in the dangerous crossing to the New World—in just the same way and for the same reasons. They came
for land and a better life, and they came for freedom from the religious conflicts that would embroil England in a long
and bitter civil war. With few and rudimentary possessions, and little knowledge of their destination, they set out for a
journey of months under sail on the cold Atlantic waters.
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The Columbian Exchange: Plants, Animals, and Disease between the Old and New Worlds
Alfred W. Crosby, Professor Emeritus, University of Texas at Austin National Humanities Center
For tens of millions of years the dominant pattern of biological evolution on this planet has been one of geographical
divergence dictated by the simple fact of the separateness of the continents. Even where climates have been similar, as
in the Amazon and Congo basins, organisms have tended to get more different rather than more alike because they had
little or no contact with each other. The Amazon has jaguars, the Congo leopards.
However, very, very recently—that is to say, in the last few thousand years—there has been a countervailing force, us,
or, if you want to be scientific about it, Homo sapiens. We are world-travelers, trekkers of deserts and crossers of
oceans. We have gone to and lived or at least spent some time everywhere, taking with us, intentionally, our crops and
domesticated animals and, unintentionally, our weeds, varmints, disease organisms, and such free-loaders as house
sparrows. Humans have in the very last tick of time reversed the ancient trend of geographical biodiversification.
Many of the most spectacular and the most influential examples of this are in the category of the exchange of organisms
between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. It began when the first humans entered the New World a few millennia
ago. These were the Amerindians (or, if you prefer, proto-Amerindians), and they brought with them a number of other
Old World species and subspecies, for instance, themselves, an Old World species, and possibly the domesticated dog,
and the tuberculosis bacillus. But these were few in number. The humans in question were hunter-gatherers who had
domesticated very few organisms, and who in all probability came to America from Siberia, where the climate kept the
number of humans low and the variety of organisms associated with them to a minimum.
There were other avant garde humans in the Americas, certainly the Vikings about 1,000 CE, possibly Japanese
fishermen, etc., but the tsunami of biological exchange did not begin until 1492. In that year the Europeans initiated
contacts across the Atlantic (and, soon after, across the Pacific) which have never ceased. Their motives were
economic, nationalistic, and religious, not biological. Their intentions were to make money, expand empires, and
convert heathen, not to spread Old World DNA; but if we take the long view we will see that the most important aspect
of their imperialistic advances has been the latter.
They off-handedly and often unintentionally effected enormous augmentations and deletions in the biota of the
continents, so enormous it is difficult to imagine what these biotas were like prior to Columbus, et al. A large tome
would not provide enough space to list the plant, animal, and micro-organism exchanges, and a thousand volumes
would be insufficient to assess their effect. In the space of this essay, we can only manage to convey an impression of
the magnitude of these biological revolutions.
Let us begin with a thumbnail sketch of the biogeography of the globe when Columbus set sail. Everyone in the
Americas was a Amerindian. Everyone in Eurasia and Africa was a person who shared no common ancestor with
Amerindians for at the very least 10,000 years. (I omit the subpolar peoples, such as the Inuit, from this analysis
because they never stopped passing back and forth across the Bering Strait). The plants and animals of the tropical
continents of Africa and South America differed sharply from each other and from those in any other parts of the world.
I recommend that you consider the contrast between the flexibly nosed tapir of South America and the more
extravagantly nosed elephant of Africa. The plants and animals of the more northerly continents, Eurasia and North
America, differed not so sharply, but clearly differed. European bison and American buffalo (which should also be
called bison) were very much alike, but Europe had nothing like the rattlesnake nor North America anything like the
humped camel.
The contrast between the two sets of organisms, Old World and New World, those closely associated with humanity—
crop plants, domesticated animals, germs, and weeds—was very sharp. The difference between the two lists of crops
was, with the possible exception of cotton, absolute. (I am omitting dozens of not quite so important crops in these
lists.) The difference between the two lists of domesticated animals is even more amazing. They differ not only in
content but in length.
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The achievements of Amerindian farmers were as impressive as those of Old World farmers, especially if you take
into account the fact that the Amerindians' lands were smaller in area and they had fewer species of plants to work with
than the Old World farmers, but the achievements of Amerindian livestockmen were clearly inferior to their Old World
opposite numbers. Perhaps the Americas simply had fewer species of large mammals that could be tamed. There were,
for instance, no wild horses or cattle in the Americas to tame. What about North American buffalo? They resisted and
still resist domestication. The Amerindians did domesticate the llama, the humpless camel of the Andes, but it cannot
carry more than about two hundred pounds at most, cannot be ridden, and is anything but an amiable beast of burden.
More astonishing than the difference between the length of the lists of Old World's and New World's domesticated
animals is the difference between the lengths of the lists of infectious diseases native to the two. The New World had
only a few, possibly because humans had been present there and had lived in dense populations, cities, for a short time
compared to the Old. Possibly of greater importance is the relative lack of domesticated herd animals in America, one
of our richest sources of disease micro-organisms. (For instance, we share influenza with pigs and other barnyard
animals).
There were infections in the New World before 1492 that were not present in the Old (Chargas' disease, for instance).
There were those it shared with the Old World, certainly one or more of the treponematoses (a category including
syphilis) and possibly tuberculosis; but the list is short, very short. When we list the infections brought to the New
World from the Old, however, we find most of humanity's worst afflictions, among them smallpox, malaria, yellow
fever, measles, cholera, typhoid, and bubonic plague.
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Unit VI -The French Revolution/ Age of Napoleon
Chapters 18 and 19
The consequences of things are not always proportionate to the apparent magnitude of those events that have produced
them. Thus the American Revolution, from which little was expected, produced much; but the French Revolution, from
which much was expected, produced little.” - Charles Caleb Colton
After reading chapter 18 you should understand:






France’s financial crisis, which caused Louis XVI to call the Estates General.
The creation of a National Assembly, and the storming of the Bastille.
The reconstruction of political and religious institutions within the context of a constitutional monarchy.
The second revolution of 1792, the execution of the king and radical reforms.
The war between France and the rest of Europe.
The Reign of Terror under Robespierre, the Thermidorian Reaction, and the establishment of the Directory.
After reading chapter 19, you should be able to:






Discuss Napoleon's rise to power and explain how he was able to become Emperor.
Identify Napoleon's administrative reforms and understand how they differed from Old Regime policies.
Trace France's military conquests, the establishment of the French Empire, and European resistance to France.
Explain Napoleon's reasons for invading Russia and understand how the failed invasion marked the beginning
of his downfall.
Discuss the Congress of Vienna and its significance.
Differentiate between Romanticism and the Enlightenment and explain why Romanticism thrived during the
Napoleonic Age.
117
Potential FRQ Questions
French Revolution
Discuss the impact of enlightenment ideals on the French Revolution.
Discuss the role of women in the French Revolution. How do their actions and treatment reflect the historical context.
Identify the major social groups in France on the eve of the 1789 Revolution. Assess the extent to which their
aspirations were achieved in the period from the meeting of the Estates General (May 1789) to the declaration of the
Republic (September 1792).
Identify and describe the key causes of French Revolution, going back to the reign of Louis XIV.
“Political leaders committed to radical or extremist goals often exert authoritarian control in the name of higher
values." Support or refute this statement with reference to the policies and actions of Robespierre during the French
Revolution.
“The essential cause of the French Rev. was the collision between a powerful, rising bourgeoisie and an entrenched
aristocracy defending its privileges." Assess the validity of the statement as an explanation of the events from 17881792.
Napoleon and Romanticism
Discuss some of the ways that Romantic musicians, writers, and artists responded to political and socioeconomic
conditions from the period 1800 to 1850. Document your response with specific examples from at least 2 of the 3
disciplines: visual arts, music, and literature.
Napoleon I is sometimes called the greatest enlightened despot. Evaluate this assessment in terms of Napoleon I's
policies and accomplishments. Be sure to include a definition of enlightened despotism in your answer
Major Unit Assignments
The Trial of Robespierre and Paper
Liberty, Equality and Fraternity Handout
Liberty Equality and Fraternity Virtual Discussion
Europe under Napoleon Map
TIAA Assignment with Art Analysis- Romantic Art
Chapter 18 and 19 Worksheet
118
The Trial of Robespierre
Each of you will participate in this creative re-enactment of an event that never happened in the French Revolution (but
should have): a trial of Maximilien Robespierre.
The question to be decided will be: Did Robespierre defend the principles of the French Revolution, or did he betray
them? Each of you will play the role of a historical character in this re-enactment.
In addition to taking part in the re-enactment, you will do some additional research on your character and prepare a
750-1000 word (3-4 pp double-spaced typed) paper on the person you are re-enacting and the reasons for his or her
actions. You will have to do some research in the library to obtain the necessary background on your "character." You
should attach a bibliography of sources consulted to your essay.


The purpose of this class project is to help us better understand the issues at stake in the French Revolution.
Robespierre was involved in key debates on many revolutionary issues; understanding what he and other major
revolutionary figures had to say about them will enrich our comprehension of these conflicts.
Most of the characters for the re-enactment are actual historical personages. Some are “composite characters” who will
stand in for major groups from the revolutionary period. If you are taking the part of an actual person, you will try to
make the arguments that your character might have voiced if an actual trial of Robespierre had been held. If you are
doing a “composite character,” you will have to combine research with some imagination to understand how such a
person might have viewed Robespierre. Because Robespierre himself is obviously such a key figure in this debate, we
will clone him: different students will represent his views on different issues.
How to proceed: Look over the list of characters for the trial. I will pass out a sign-up sheet, list at least 3 characters
you would be interested in playing. I will give out actual assignments, and you can then start researching your
character. The trial will take place over the course of two days. As there are four groups, each group will debate their
particular topic for about 20 minutes (40 minutes) The rest of the class will be used for additional content from lecture.
Group 1
Robespierre 1 will debate
with characters who
opposed his advocacy of
democracy and natural
rights in the National
Assembly
Joseph Mounier (moderate
conservative opponent of
universal suffrage)
Abbé Sieyès (early
revolutionary leader,
opponent of universal
suffrage)
Edmund Burke (English
critic of the French
Revolution)
Condorcet (advocate of
women’s rights)
An ordinary citizen of Paris
and ‘passive citizen’
(supporter of Robespierre)
Group 2
Robespierre 2 as an
opponent of war and
expansion will have to
defend his policy on the
declaration of war
J.-P. Brissot (radical and
war advocate)
Lafayette (hero of the
American war,
commander of the French
National Guard)
Marie-Antoinette, Queen
of France
A member of the Feuillant
party in the Legislative
Assembly (opponent of
war)
Group 3
Robespierre 3 - will be
questioned about his positions
on the trial and execution of
Louis XVI and on the expulsion
of the Girondin deputies from
the National Convention
Louis XVI, king of France
Group 4
Robespierre 4 will have to justify his
conduct as the dominant figure in the
Committee of Public Safety
Georges Danton, longtime radical
leader (executed by Robespierre)
Madame Roland (moral leader
of Girondin group, opponent of
Robespierre)
Père Duchesne, a populist journalist
(executed by Robespierre)
Olympe de Gouges (author of
Declaration of the Rights of
Women)
Bertrand Barère, Committee of
Public Safety member (helped
overthrow Robespierre)
Jean-Paul Marat, radical
journalist (often more radical
than Robespierre)
Madame de Farge (sans-culotte
woman and knitting specialist)
Vergniaud (leading Girondin
spokesman in debate over the
king’s execution)
An ordinary soldier in the French
army
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Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity
Part A. Answer the following questions in preparation for a class Discussion on this topic.
1.
2.
Write your own definition of each of the following terms:
a. Liberty
b. Equality
c. Fraternity
Research the Count of Artois, Madame Roland, Robespierre, a member of the Directory, and Napoleon.
Answer the three questions below for each of these individuals.
a. What was his/her view of government?
b. How did each view social classes?
c. How did each view justice and law?
3.
Put the following items in the correct chronological order:
1. Declaration of the Rights of Man
2. Brunswick Manifesto
3. National conscription
4. Concordat of 1801
5. White Terror
6. Reign of Terror
7. Tennis Court Oath
8. Mirabeau's constitutional monarchy
9. Night of August 4
10. Tricolor
11. Metric System
12. Committee of Public Safety
13. Civil Constitution of the Clergy
14. Fall of the Bastille
15. Code Napoleon
16. Thermidorean Reaction
17. "Marseillaise"
18. Abolition of the monarchy
19. Napoleon crowned Emperor
20. Consulate
Part B. Define liberty, equality, and fraternity according to the views of each of the following: (a) Count of Artois,
(b) Madame Roland, (c) Robespierre, (d) a member of the Directory, (e) Napoleon.
Virtual Discussion Alternative Assignment
Part C. Answer each of the following questions based on the activity above.
1. In each of the above, which is most emphasized—liberty. equality, or fraternity?
2. Which person represents the period that was most constructive for the development of these human
rights?
3. With which of the above would your views on liberty, equality, and fraternity be most closely related?
Part D. Link the events in Part B with the appropriate person in Part A.
a.
Count of Artois:
b. Madame Roland:
c. Robespierre c. Member of the Directory d. Napoleon:
Part E: To conclude this lesson, develop a thesis statement on the ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity based on
the events of the French Revolution.
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Chapter 18 Worksheet- The French Revolution
Antoinette, Marie
Assembly of Notables
assignats
Burke, Edmund
Calonne, Alexandre de
Civil Constitution of the Clergy
Committee of Public Safety
commune
Constitution of 1791
Convention
Declaration of Pillnitz
Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen
Directory
don gratuit
emigres
enrages
First Estate
Girondists
Gouges, Olympe de
Great Fear
guillotine
Terms to Identify
Jacobins
Kosciuszko, Tadeusz
Lafayette, Marquis de
levee en masse
London Corresponding Society
Louis XVI
National Assembly
Necker, Jacques
Reign of Terror
Robespierre, Maxilmilen
Sans-culottes
Second Estate
Society of Revolutionary Republican Women
Storming of the Bastille
Tennis Court Oath
Thermidorian Reaction
Third Estate
Women's March on Versailles
Chapter Questions
What was the role of Louis XVI in the French Revolution?
Besides the monarchy, what other factors might be cited as causes of the French Revolution?
How was the Estates General transformed into the National Assembly?
How does the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen reflect the social and political values of the Enlightenment?
What were the chief reforms instituted by the Constitution of 1791?
How did the sans-culottes, the working classes of Paris, become a factor in politics during the French Revolution?
Why did France go to war with Austria in 1792?
What caused the Reign of Terror?
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Textbook DQ’s
The Third Estate of a French City Petitions the King
Which of the following petitions relate to political rights and which to economic equality?
The slogan most associated with the French Revolution was “Liberty, Equality, Fraternity,” Which of these petitions
represents each of these values?
The National Assembly Decrees Civic Equality in France
What institutions and privileges are included in “the feudal regime”?
How do these decrees recognize that the abolitions of some privileges and former tax arrangements will require new
kinds of taxes and government financing to support religious, educational and other institutions?
The Metric System (Secondary)
Why did the French revolutionary government introduce the metric system?
How did the metric system reflect the ideas of the Enlightenment ?
Why has most of the world accepted this system?
The Revolutionary Government Forbids Workers Organizations
Why are workers organizations declared to be contrary to the principles of liberty?
Why were guilds seen as one of the undesirable elements of the Old Regime?
What coercive powers are to be brought to bear against workers organizations?
After this legislation, how could workers confront the operation of the market economy?
French Women Petition to Bear Arms
How does this petition challenge the concept of citizenship in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen?
How do these petitioners relate their demand to bear arms to their role as women in French society?
How do these petitioners relate their demands to the use of all national resources against the enemies of the
revolution?
Burke Denounces the Extreme Measures of the French Revolution
To which of the major events in the French Revolution does Burke refer?
Why, by 1796, would Burke and others have emphasized the religious policies of the revolution?
Did Burke exaggerate the evils of the revolution?
Who was Burke trying to persuade?
122
The Paris Jacobin Club Alerts the Nations to Internal Enemies of the Revolution
How did the Jacobins use the war to call for action against their own domestic political enemies?
What real and imagined forces did they see threatening the revolution?
How did this circular constitute a smear campaign by one group of revolutionaries against other groups?
What actions did the Jacobins seek?
The Convention Establishes the Worship of the Supreme Being
How does the declaration reflect the ideas of the Enlightenment?
Why has it been seen as establishing a civil religion?
What personal and social values was this religion supposed to nurture?
Boy, those French: They have a different word for everything! – Steve Martin
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Chapter 19 Worksheet- The Age of Napoleon
Terms to Identify
Battle of Austerlitz
Battle of Trafalgar
Battle of Waterloo
Beauharnais, Josephine
Bonaparte, Napoleon
Bourbon
Byron, Lord
Carlyle, Thomas
categorical imperative
Coleridge, Samuel Taylor
Congress of Vienna
Constable, John
Constitution of the Year VIII
Consulate
Continental System
coup d'etat
Fichte, J. C.
Friedrich, Caspar David
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von
Grimm, Jakob and Wilhelm
Hegel, G.W.
Herder, Johann Gottfried
Hundred Days
Louise, Marie
Methodism
Metternich, Klemens von
Napoleonic Code
Nelson, Horatio
Neuschwanstein Castle
Peace of Amiens
Quadruple Alliance
Romantic
Romanticism
Rosetta Stone
Scheiermacher, Friedrich
Schlegel, Friedrich
Second Coalition
Stein, Baron von
Stewart, Robert
Sturm und Drang
sublime
Talleyrand-Perigord, Charles Maurice de
Treaty of Campo Formio
Treaty of Chaumont
Treaty of Tilsit
Turner, Joseph, Mallord
Wellesley, Arthur
Wesley, John
Wordsworth, William
Chapter Questions
How did Napoleon rise to power? What groups supported him?
What regions became part of Napoleon's empire? How did he rule his empire?
A motto of the French Revolution was "equality, liberty and fraternity." Did Napoleon's rule more nearly fulfill or
betray these ideals? What evidence can you give for each side of the argument?
Who were the principal personalities, and what were the most significant problems, of the Congress of Vienna?
What were the results of the Congress, and why were they significant?
How was the map of Europe altered by the Congress of Vienna?
Textbook DQ’s
Napoleon Makes Peace with the Papacy
Why was it to Napoleon’s political advantage to make this agreement with the papacy?
What privileges or advantages does the church achieve in this document?
Would the highest loyalty of a bishop who took the oath in Article 6 reside with the church or the French state?
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Sailors and Canned Food (Secondary)
What advantages did canning have over other methods of preserving food?
Why was the military interested in it?
How did canning become a part of everyday life?
Napoleon Advises His Brother to Rule Constitutionally
What benefits does Napoleon believe his conquest and subsequent rule by his brother will bring to their new subjects?
Why does he believe that these, rather than military victory will achieve new loyalty?
How does Napoleon suggest playing off the resentment of the upper classes to consolidate power?
What is the relationship between having a written constitution such as Napoleon is sending to his brother and the
power of public opinion that he mentions toward the close of the letter?
A German Writer Describes the War of Liberation
Why does Arndt claim each of these groups wanted war?
How does Arndt suggest the possibility of a united nation that did not actually exist?
Madame De Stael Describes the New Romantic Literature of Germany
How does Stael characterize the new Romantic school of poetry?
Why does she contrast it with the literature that had its roots in ancient Greece and Rome?
Why does she believe the new literature will continue to grow?
What is the relationship of the Middle Ages to the new poetry and other examples of the fine arts touched by Romantic
sensibilities?
Hegel Explains the Role of Great Men in History
How might the career of Napoleon have inspired this passage?
What are the antidemocratic implications of this passage?
In this passage, do great men make history or do historical developments make great men?
Why do you think Hegel does not associate this power of shaping history with women as well as men?
The French complain of everything, and always. – Napoleon Bonaparte
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APPARTS Essay Reading
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (26 August 1789)
The French people, as represented at the National Assembly, consider that the ignorance, disregard or contempt of
human rights are the sole causes of the nation's misfortunes and of the corruption of governments and have resolved to
state the natural, inalienable and sacred human rights in a solemn declaration, so that this declaration be a constant
reminder to the members of the body politic of their rights and their duties; so that as the actions of the legislative and
those of the executive power may be compared at any time with the aim of all political institutions, these actions shall
be more respectful of that aim; so that the claims of the citizens, based henceforth on simple and indisputable
principles, always be turned towards upholding the Constitution and the common good. Consequently, the National
Assembly acknowledges and declares in the presence of and under the auspices of the Supreme Being, the following
rights of man and citizen.
Article One - All people shall have equal rights upon birth and ever after. General utility is the only permissible basis
for social distinctions.
Article 2 - The aim of all political associations shall be to preserve man's natural and imprescriptible rights. These are
the right to freedom, property, safety and the right to resist oppression.
Article 3 - The principle of all sovereignty resides in the Nation. No body or individual may exercise any power other
than that expressly emanating from the Nation.
Article 4 - Freedom is the power to do anything which does not harm another: therefore, the only limits to the exercise
of each person's natural rights are those which ensure that the other members of the community enjoy those same rights.
Legislation only may set these limits.
Article 5 - Only actions harmful to the community may be made illegal. No-one may be prevented from doing that
which the law does not forbid, nor be forced to do that which the law does not command.
Article 6 - Legislation expresses the overall will. All citizens, either in person or through their representatives, are
entitled to contribute to its formation. Legislation must be the same for all, whether it serves to protect or to punish. As
all citizens are equal in the eye of the law, positions of high rank, public office and employment are open to all on an
equal basis according to ability and without any distinction other than that based on their merit or skill.
Article 7 - A person may be accused, arrested or detained only in the cases specified by law and in accordance with the
procedures which the law provides. Those who solicit, forward, carry out or have arbitrary orders carried out shall be
punished; however, any citizen summoned or apprehended pursuant to law must obey forthwith; by resisting, he admits
his guilt.
Article 8 - Only penalties which are strictly and clearly necessary may be established by law, and no-one may be
punished other than pursuant to a law established and enacted prior to the offence, and applied lawfully.
Article 9 - As all persons are presumed innocent until declared guilty, force used in making indispensable arrests
which exceeds that needed, shall be severely punished by law.
Article 10 - No-one may be troubled due to his opinions, whether or not they are on religious issues provided that the
expression of these opinions does not disturb the peace.
Article 11 - Free communication of ideas and opinions is one of the most precious human rights; all citizens may
therefore speak, write and print freely, though they may be required to answer for abusing this right in cases specified
by law.
Article 12 - The protection of the rights of man and the citizen requires a police force; consequently this force is
established in the interest of all, not in that of those to whom it has been entrusted.
Article 13 - The maintenance of the police force and administration expenses require public contributions. These
contributions are to be borne by the citizens equally according to their resources.
Article 14 - All citizens have the right, either in person or through their representatives, to ascertain the need for the
public contributions, to freely authorize these contributions, to monitor their use, and to determine the amount, basis,
collection and duration of contributions.
Article 15 - The community has the right to ask any public officer to account for his service. Article 16 - Any society
in which rights are not guaranteed, nor the scope of power determined, has no Constitution.
Article 17 - The right of ownership is an inviolable and sacred right; one may not be deprived of one's property, unless
where public need, duly ascertained by law, clearly requires it, and subject to the condition that fair and prior
compensation be made.
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APPARTS Essay Reading
Maximilien Robespierre:
Justification of the Use of Terror
Maximilien Robespierre (1758 1794) was the leader of the twelve man Committee of Public Safety elected by the
National Convention, and which effectively governed France at the height of the radical phase of the revolution. He
had once been a fairly straightforward liberal thinker - reputedly he slept with a copy of Rousseau's Social Contract at
his side. But his own purity of belief led him to impatience with others.
The committee was among the most creative executive bodies ever seen - and rapidly put into effect policies which
stabilized the French economy and began the formation of the very successful French army. It also directed it energies
against counter-revolutionary uprisings, especially in the south and west of France. In doing so it unleashed the reign
of terror. Here Robespierre, in his speech of February 5,1794, from which excerpts are given here, discussed this issue.
The figures behind this speech indicate that in the five months from September, 1793, to February 5, 1794, the
revolutionary tribunal in Paris convicted and executed 238 men and 31 women and acquitted 190 persons, and that on
February 5 there were 5,434 individuals in the prisons in Paris awaiting trial.
Robespierre was frustrated with the progress of the revolution. After issuing threats to the National Convention, he
himself was arrested in July 1794. He tried to shoot himself but missed, and spent his last few hours with his jaw
hanging off. He was guillotined, as a victim of the terror, on July 28, 1794.
But, to found and consolidate democracy, to achieve the peaceable reign of the constitutional laws, we must end the war
of liberty against tyranny and pass safely across the storms of the revolution: such is the aim of the revolutionary
system that you have enacted. Your conduct, then, ought also to be regulated by the stormy circumstances in which the
republic is placed; and the plan of your administration must result from the spirit of the revolutionary government
combined with the general principles of democracy.
Now, what is the fundamental principle of the democratic or popular government-that is, the essential spring which
makes it move? It is virtue; I am speaking of the public virtue which effected so many prodigies in Greece and Rome
and which ought to produce much more surprising ones in republican France; of that virtue which is nothing other than
the love of country and of its laws.
But as the essence of the republic or of democracy is equality, it follows that the love of country necessarily includes
the love of equality.
It is also true that this sublime sentiment assumes a preference for the public interest over every particular interest;
hence the love of country presupposes or produces all the virtues: for what are they other than that spiritual strength
which renders one capable of those sacrifices? And how could the slave of avarice or ambition, for example, sacrifice
his idol to his country?
Not only is virtue the soul of democracy; it can exist only in that government ....
.Republican virtue can be considered in relation to the people and in relation to the government; it is necessary in both.
When only the government lacks virtue, there remains a resource in the people's virtue; but when the people itself is
corrupted, liberty is already lost.
Fortunately virtue is natural to the people, notwithstanding aristocratic prejudices. A nation is truly corrupted when,
having by degrees lost its character and its liberty, it passes from democracy to aristocracy or to monarchy; that is the
decrepitude and death of the body politic....
But when, by prodigious efforts of courage and reason, a people breaks the chains of despotism to make them into
trophies of liberty; when by the force of its moral temperament it comes, as it were, out of the arms of the death, to
recapture all the vigor of youth; when by turns it is sensitive and proud, intrepid and docile, and can be stopped neither
by impregnable ramparts nor by the innumerable armies of the tyrants armed against it, but stops of itself upon
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confronting the law's image; then if it does not climb rapidly to the summit of its destinies, this can only be the fault
of those who govern it. . . .
From all this let us deduce a great truth: the characteristic of popular government is confidence in the people and
severity towards itself.
The whole development of our theory would end here if you had only to pilot the vessel of the Republic through calm
waters; but the tempest roars, and the revolution imposes on you another task.
This great purity of the French revolution's basis, the very sublimity of its objective, is precisely what causes both our
strength and our weakness. Our strength, because it gives to us truth's ascendancy over imposture, and the rights of the
public interest over private interests; our weakness, because it rallies all vicious men against us, all those who in their
hearts contemplated despoiling the people and all those who intend to let it be despoiled with impunity, both those who
have rejected freedom as a personal calamity and those who have embraced the revolution as a career and the Republic
as prey. Hence the defection of so many ambitious or greedy men who since the point of departure have abandoned us
along the way because they did not begin the journey with the same destination in view. The two opposing spirits that
have been represented in a struggle to rule nature might be said to be fighting in this great period of human history to
fix irrevocably the world's destinies, and France is the scene of this fearful combat. Without, all the tyrants encircle
you; within, all tyranny's friends conspire; they will conspire until hope is wrested from crime. We must smother the
internal and external enemies of the Republic or perish with it; now in this situation, the first maxim of your policy
ought to be to lead the people by reason and the people's enemies by terror.
If the spring of popular government in time of peace is virtue, the springs of popular government in revolution are at
once virtue and terror: virtue, without which terror is fatal; terror, without which virtue is powerless. Terror is nothing
other than justice, prompt, severe, inflexible; it is therefore an emanation of virtue; it is not so much a special principle
as it is a consequence of the general principle of democracy applied to our country's most urgent needs.
It has been said that terror is the principle of despotic government. Does your government therefore resemble
despotism? Yes, as the sword that gleams in the hands of the heroes of liberty resembles that with which the henchmen
of tyranny are armed. Let the despot govern by terror his brutalized subjects; he is right, as a despot. Subdue by terror
the enemies of liberty, and you will be right, as founders of the Republic. The government of the revolution is liberty's
despotism against tyranny. Is force made only to protect crime? And is the thunderbolt not destined to strike the heads
of the proud?
. . . Indulgence for the royalists, cry certain men, mercy for the villains! No! mercy for the innocent, mercy for the
weak, mercy for the unfortunate, mercy for humanity.
Society owes protection only to peaceable citizens; the only citizens in the Republic are the republicans. For it, the
royalists, the conspirators are only strangers or, rather, enemies. This terrible war waged by liberty against tyranny- is it
not indivisible? Are the enemies within not the allies of the enemies without? The assassins who tear our country apart,
the intriguers who buy the consciences that hold the people's mandate; the traitors who sell them; the mercenary
pamphleteers hired to dishonor the people's cause, to kill public virtue, to stir up the fire of civil discord, and to prepare
political counterrevolution by moral counterrevolution-are all those men less guilty or less dangerous than the tyrants
whom they serve?
Source: Robespierre: On the Moral and Political Principles of Domestic Policy
This text is part of the Internet Modern History Sourcebook. The Sourcebook is a collection of public domain and copypermitted texts for introductory level classes in modern European and World history.
128
Unit VII -The Conservative Order - Economic Advance and Social Unrest
Chapters 20 and 21
We should not sit back. We have to strengthen our efforts to explain Europe,
and that nationalism has always failed in European history, and has brought many wars.” - Friedbert Pflueger
After reading chapter 20 you should understand:
o
o
o
o
The challenge of nationalism and liberalism to the conservative order.
Domestic and international policies of the conservative governments comprising the Concert of Europe.
The Latin American independence movements.
The revolutions of 1830 in Europe and the passage of the Great Reform Bill of 1832 in Britain.
After reading chapter 21 you should understand:
o
o
o
o
o
o
Industrialization and its impact on labor and the family.
The changing role of women in industrial society.
Problems of crime and the response of police forces and prisons.
Classical economics and its theorists.
The development of socialism and radical reform.
The revolutions of 1848.
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Potential FRQ Questions
Chapter 20
Evaluate Metternich's attempts to maintain the old order in Europe. Be sure to discuss their short term and long term
success.
Compare and contrast conservatism, nationalism, and liberalism.
Evaluate the effectiveness of collective responses by workers to industrialization in Western Europe during the course
of the 19th Century.
How and in what ways did the writings of Karl Marx draw on the Enlightened concepts of progress, natural law, and
reason?
Chapter 21
What were the underlying causes of the failure the 1848 Revolution in France. Analyze what transpired to divide the
groups and describe the consequences for French politics.
Discuss three of the "revolutions" of 1848 and evaluate the ways in which they put an end to the old regimes.
Compare and contrast the roles of British working women in the pre-industrial economy (before 1750) with their roles
in the mid19th century.
Describe and analyze the reforms that social critics and politicians between 1815 and 1848 proposed to resolve the
conditions of the laboring classes and the problem of political stability.
Analyze and compare the effects of nationalism on Italian and Austro-Hungarian politics between 1815 and 1914.
Major Unit Assignments
Semester Research Paper
British Cloth Industry Virtual Discussion
Women in the Industrial Revolution Discussion - In class
Revolutions_of_1848 chart
TIAA Assignment Chapter 20-21 Worksheet
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Chapter 20 Worksheet- the Conservative Order
Terms to Identify
Battle of Ayacucho
Bolivar, Simon
Brussels
Burschenschaften
Carlsbad Decrees
Catholic Emancipation Act
Cato Street Conspiracy
Charles X
Charter
Concert of Europe
conservatism
Corn Law
Costilla, Miguel Hidalgo y
Decembrist Revolt
Don Pedro
Final Act
George, Kara
German Confederation
Great Reform Bill
Greek Revolution
Holy Alliance
Independence of Belgium
Irish Problem
Iturbide, Augustin de
Juao VI
July Monarchy
July Revolution
juntas
liberal
Liverpool, Lord
Louis XVIII
Martin, Jose de San
Nationalism
Nicholas I
Organic Statute
Peterloo
Phillipe, Louis
Protocol of Troppau
Rio de la Plata
rotten boroughs
Six Acts
Spanish Revolution
Toussaint, Francois-Dominique
Turnverein
Chapter Questions
How did nationalism influence the governments of England, Germany and the Austrian Empire ?
How did the Burschenschaften movement force German states to reform?
How did the revolutions of South America adopt the ideals of the Enlightenment?
How did the Great Reform Bill impact the lives of regular Englishmen?
Textbook DQ’s
Mazzini Defines Nationality
What qualities of a people does Mazzini associate with nationalism?
How and why does Mazzini relate nationalism to divine purposes?
How does this view of nationality relate to the goals of liberal freedoms?
How might these ideals of nationalism lead to international or domestic conflict?
131
Benjamin Constant Discusses Modern Liberty
According to Constant, what are the ways in which a modern citizen is free of government control and
interference?
How does he defend a representative government?
On the basis of this passage, do you believe that Constant was opposed to a democratic government?
Metternich Discusses Sources of Political Unrest
According to Metternich, what is the difference between people who conspire against things and those who
conspire against theories?
Why does he fear the role of universities as a source of revolutionary disturbances?
Why does he consider the press the greatest danger?
Gymnastics and German Nationalism (Secondary Source)
What factors turned Jahn to nationalism?
Why did he associate nationalism with physical strength?
How could the Turnverein movement spread easily in the Germanies?
Thomas Babington Macaulay Defends the Great Reform Bill
Who does Macaulay think should be represented in Parliament?
Why does he oppose universal suffrage?
Why does he regard the Reform Bill as “a measure of conservatism”?
Why would Metternich have seen little or nothing conservative about the measure?
“It
is not easy to see how the more extreme forms of nationalism can long survive when men have seen the
Earth in its true perspective as a single small globe against the stars.” - Arthur C. Clarke
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Chapter 21 Worksheet- Economic Advance and Social Unrest
Terms to Identify
Anarchism
Auburn system
Bentham, Jeremy
bobbies
Bonaparte, Louis Napoleon
Chartism
charwoman
confection
Devils Island
Engels, Friedrich
English Factory Act
Fourier, Charles
grossdeutsch
hulks
kleindeutsch
Kossuth, Louis
Malthus, Thomas
Marx, Karl
Marxism
Owen, Robert
Pan-Slavism
Philadelphia system
proletarianization
Revolutions of 1848
Ricardo, David
Saint-Simon, Claude Henri de
Six Points of the Charter
transportation
utlitiarianism
utopian socialism
Zollverein
Chapter Questions
What were the positive and negative effects of the Industrial Revolution for the working class?
How did the roles of women change in the new industrial era?
How did police change in the 19th century, and why were new systems of enforcement instituted?
What were the chief ideas of the early socialists?
How did the ideas of Karl Marx differ from those of earlier writers?
What factors, old and new, led to the widespread outbreak of revolutions in 1848?
What roles did liberals and nationalists play in the revolutions?
Textbook DQ’s
The Potato and the Great Hunger in Ireland (Secondary)
Why was the failure of the potato crop such a disaster for Ireland?
How did the famine effect the Irish population?
Women Industrial Workers Explain Their Economic Situation
What reasons do these women give to prove why they need to hold manufacturing jobs?
What changes in production methods have led women from the home to the factory?
133
How does the situation of these women relate to the possibility of their marrying?
A Frenchwoman Writes to Her Father About Marriage
How does Stephanie Jullien distinguish between these vocational and social opportunities available to woman
from those available to a man?
What are her expectations of marriage?
What does the letter also tell you about her relationship to her father?
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels Describe the Class Struggle
Whom do Marx and Engels portray as the previous enemies of the bourgeoisie?
How did bourgeois economic development and dominance lead to a society based on the “cash nexus”?
Why is the bourgeoisie responsible for the emergence of the proletariat?
Why is the victory of the proletariat inevitable?
The Pan Slavic Congress Calls for the Liberation of the Slavs
How did authors apply the individual freedoms associated with the French Revolution to the fate of individual
nations?
What areas of Europe would these demands have changed?
What potential differences among the Slavic peoples does the manifesto ignore or gloss over?
Marxism has not only failed to promote human freedom, it has failed to produce food” - John Dos Passos
134
APPARTS Essay Reading
The Peterloo Massacre
A little before noon on the 16th August, the first body of reformers began to arrive on the scene of action, which was a piece
of ground called St. Peters Field, adjoining a church of that name in the town of Manchester. These persons bore two
banners, surmounted with caps of liberty, and bearing the inscriptions, 'no corn laws', 'annual parliaments', 'universal
suffrage', 'vote by ballot'. Some of these flags, after being paraded round the field, were planted in the cart on which the
speakers stood; but others remained in different parts of the crowd.
Numerous large bodies of reformers continued to arrive from the towns in the neighbourhood of Manchester till about one o
clock, all preceded by flags and many of them in regular marching order, five deep. Two clubs of female reformers advanced,
one of them numbering more than 150 members and bearing a white silk banner. One body of reformers timed their steps to
the sound of a bugle with much of a disciplined air; another had assumed to itself the motto of the illustrious Wallace; 'God
armeth the patriot'. A band of special constables assumed a position on the field without resistance.
The congregated multitude now amounted to a number roundly computed at 80,000, and the arrival of the hero of the day
was impatiently expected. At length, Mr. Hunt made his appearance, and after a rapturous greeting, was incited to preside; he
signified his assent, and mounting a scaffolding, began to harangue his admirers. He had not proceeded far, when the
appearance of the yeomanry cavalry advancing towards the area in a brisk trot, excited a panic in the outskirts of the meeting.
They entered the enclosure, and after pausing a moment to recover their disordered ranks, and breathe their horses, they drew
their swords, and brandished them fiercely in the air.
The multitude, by the direction of their leaders, gave three cheers to show that they were undaunted by this intrusion, and the
orator had just resumed his speech to assure the people that this was only a trick to disturb the meeting, and to exhort them to
stand firm, when the cavalry dashed into the crowd, making for the cart on which the speakers were placed. The multitude
offered no resistance, they fell back on all sides. The commanding officer then approaching Mr. Hunt, and brandishing his
sword, told him that he was his prisoner.
Mr. Hunt, after enjoining the people to tranquility, said he would readily surrender to any civil officer on showing his
warrant, and Mr. Nadin, the principal police officer, received him in charge. Another person named Johnson, was likewise
apprehended, and a few of the mob, some others against whom there were warrants, escaped in the crowd. A cry now arose
among the military of, 'have at their flags' and they dashed down not only those in the cart, but the other dispersed in the
field; cutting to right and left to get at them. The people began running in all directions; and from this moment the yeomanry
lost all command of temper; numbers were trampled under the feet of men and horses; many, both men and women were cut
down by sabres; several, and a peace officer and a female in the number, slain on the spot. The whole number of persons
injured amounted to between three and four hundred. The populace threw a few stones and brick bats in their retreat, but in
less than ten minutes, the ground was entirely cleared of its former occupants, and filled by various bodies of military, both
horse and foot.
Samuel Bamford, Passages in the Life of a Radical (1893)
Having crossed Piccadilly [in Manchester], we went down Mosely street, then almost entirely inhabited by wealthy families.
We took the left side of St. Peter's Church; and at this angle, we wheeled quickly and steadily into Peter Street, and soon
approached a wide unbuilt space occupied by an immense multitude, which opened and received us with loud cheers. We
walked into that chasm of human beings, and took our station from the hustings across the causeway of Peter Street and so
remained, undistinguishable from without, but still forming an almost unbroken line, with our colours in the centre.
My wife I had not seen for some time; but when last I caught a glimpse of her, she was with some decent married females;
and thinking the party quite safe in their own discretion, I felt not much uneasiness on their account, and so had greater
liberty in attending to the business of the meeting.
'The soldiers are here,' I said, 'We must go back and see what this means.' 'Oh,' someone made reply, 'they are only come to
be ready if their should be any disturbance in the meeting.' 'Well, let us go back,' I said, and we forced our way towards the
colours.
135
On the cavalry drawing up, they were received with a shout of goodwill, as I understood it. They shouted again, waving
their sabres over their heads; and then, slackening rein and striking spur into their steeds, they dashed forward, and began
cutting the people. 'Stand fast,' I said, 'they are riding upon us, stand fast.' And there was a general cry in our quarter of 'Stand
fast.' The cavalry were in confusion: they evidently could not, with the weight of man and horse, penetrate that compact mass
of human beings; and their sabres were plied to hew a way through naked heldup hands, and defenceless heads, and then
chopped limbs, and woundgaping skulls were seen; and groans and cries were mingled with the din of that horrid confusion.
'Ah! ah! 'for shame! for shame' was shouted. Then, 'Break! break! they are killing in front and they cannot get away!' and
there was a general cry of 'break! break!' For a moment, the crowd held back as in a pause; then was a rush, heavy and
resistless as a headlong sea; and a sound like low thunder, with screams, prayers, and imprecations from the crowdmoiled and
sabre-doomed, who could not escape . . .
. . . On the breaking of the crowd, the yeomanry wheeled; and dashing wherever there was an opening, they followed,
pressing and wounding. Many females appeared as the crowd opened; and striplings or mere youths were also found. Their
cries were piteous and heart-rending, and would, one might have supposed, have disarmed any human resentment: but here,
their appeals were vain. Women, - white vested maids, and tender youths, were indiscriminately sabred or trampled; and we
have reason for believing, that few were the instances in which that forbearance was vouchsafed, which they so earnestly
implored.
In ten minutes from the commencement of the havoc, the field was an open and almost deserted space. The sun looked down
through a sultry and motionless air. The curtains and blinds of the windows within view were all closed. A gentleman or two
might occasionally be seen looking out from one of the new houses before mentioned, near the door of which, a group of
persons, (special constables) were collected, and apparently in conversation; others were assisting the wounded, or carrying
off the dead. The hustings remained, with a few broken and hewed flag staves erect, and a torn and gashed banner or two
dropping; whilst over the whole field, were strewn caps, bonnets, hats, shawls, and shoes, and other parts of male and female
dress; trampled, torn and bloody. The yeomanry had dismounted, - some were easing their horses girths, others adjusting
their accoutrements; and some were wiping their sabres. Several mounds of human beings still remained where they had
fallen, crushed down, and smothered. Some of these still groaning, - others with staring eyes, were gasping for breath, and
others would never breathe more. All was silent save those low sounds, and the occasional snorting and pawing of steeds.
Persons might sometimes be noticed peeping from attics and over the tall ridges of houses, but they quickly withdrew, as if
fearful of being observed, or unable to sustain the full gaze, of a scene so hideous and abhorrent.
... the account given by my dear wife, of her attendance at the meeting on Saint Peter's field, and of some incidents which
befell her, may not be devoid of interest to the reader, and certainly will not be out of place if introduced here. She says:
I was determined to go to the meeting, and should have followed, even if my husband had refused his consent to my going
with the procession. From what I, in common with others, had heard the week previous, 'that if the country people went with
their caps of liberty, and their banners, and music, the soldiers would be brought to them,' I was uneasy, and felt persuaded, in
my own mind, that something would be the matter, and I had best go with my husband, and be near him; and if I only saw
him I should be more content than in staying at home. I accordingly, he having consented after much persuasion, gave my
little girl something to please her, and promising more on my return, I left her with a careful neighbour woman, and joined
some other married females at the head of the procession. Every time I went aside to look at my husband, and that was often,
an ominous impression smote my heart. He looked very serious, I thought, and I felt a foreboding of something evil to befall
us that day.
I was dressed plainly as a countrywoman in my second best attire. My companions were also neatly dressed as the wives of
working men; I had seen Mr. Hunt before that time; they had not, and some of them were quite eager to obtain good places,
that they might see and hear one of whom so much had been reported.
In going down Mosely Street, I lost sight of my husband. Mrs Yates, who had hold of my arm, would keep hurrying forward
to get a good place, and when the crowd opened for the Middleton procession, Mrs. Yates and myself, and some others of the
women, went close to the hustings, quite glad that we had obtained such a situation for seeing an hearing all. My husband got
on the stage, but when afterwards I saw him leap down, and lost sight of him, I began to be unhappy. The crowd seemed to
have increased very much, for we became insufferably pressed. We were surrounded by men who were strangers; we were
almost suffocated, and to me the heat was quite sickening; but Mrs. Yates, being taller than myself, supported it better. I felt I
could not bear this long, and I became alarmed. I reflected that if there was any more pressure, I must faint, and then what
would become of me? I begged of the men to open a way and let me go out, but they would not move. Every moment I
became worse, and I told some other men, who stood in a row, that I was sick, and begged they would let me pass them, and
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they immediately made a way, and I went down a long passage betwixt two ranks of these men, many of them saying,
'make way, she's sick, she's sick, let her go out,' and I passed quite out of the crowd and, turning to my right, I got on some
high ground, on which stood a row of houses - this was Windmill Street.
I thought if I could get to stand at the door of one of those houses, I should have a good view of the meeting, and should
perhaps see my husband again; and I kept going further down the row, until I saw a door open, and I stepped within it, the
people of the house making no objections. By this time Mr. Hunt was on the hustings, addressing the people. In a minute or
two some soldiers came riding up. The good folks of the house, and some who seemed to be visitors, said, 'the soldiers were
only come to keep order; they would not meddle with the people;' but I was alarmed. The people shouted, and then the
soldiers shouted, waving their swords. Then they rode amongst the people, and there was a great outcry, and a moment after,
a man passed without hat, and wiping the blood of his head with his hand, and it ran down his arm in a great stream.
The meeting was all in a tumult; there were dreadful cries; the soldiers kept riding amongst the people, and striking with their
swords. I became faint, and turning from the door, I went unobserved down some steps into a cellared passage; and hoping to
escape from the horrid noise, and to be concealed, I crept into a vault, and sat down, faint and terrified, on some fire wood.
The cries of the multitude outside, still continued, and the people of the house, up stairs, kept bewailing most pitifully. They
could see all the dreadful work through the window, and their exclamations were so distressing, that I put my fingers in my
ears to prevent my hearing more; and on removing them, I understood that a young man had just been brought past, wounded.
The front door of the passage before mentioned, soon after opened, and a number of men entered, carrying the body of a
decent, middle aged woman, who had been killed. I thought they were going to put her beside me, and was about to scream,
but they took her forward, and deposited her in some premises at the back of the house.
Richard Carlile in Sherwin's Weekly Political Register, 18 August 1819
The meeting was one of the most calm and orderly that I have ever witnessed. No less than 300,000 people were assembled
[a wild exaggeration]. Mr Hunt started his speech when a cart was moved through the middle of the field to the great
annoyance and danger of the assembled people, who quietly endeavoured to make way for its procedure. The cart had no
sooner made its way through, when the Yeomanry Cavalry made their appearance from the same quarter as the cart had gone
out. They galloped furiously round the field, going over every person who could not get out of their way.
The Yeomanry Cavalry made their charge with a most infuriate frenzy; they cut down men, women and children,
indiscriminately, and appeared to have commenced a pre-meditated attack with the most insatiable thirst for blood and
destruction. They merit a medallion, on one side of which should be inscribed 'The Slaughter Men of Manchester', and a
reverse bearing a description of their slaughter of defenceless men, women and children, unprovoked and unnecessary.
As a proof of meditated murder of the part of the magistrates, every stone was gathered from the ground on the Friday and
Saturday previous to the meeting, by scavengers sent there by the express command of the magistrates, that the populace
might be rendered more defenceless.
Richard Carlile, The Republican, 17 August 1819
The massacre of the unoffending inhabitants of Manchester, on the 16th of August, by the Yeomanry Cavalry and Police at
the instigation of the Magistrates, should be the daily theme of the Press until the murderers are brought to justice. Captain
Nadin and his banditti of Police, are hourly engaged to plunder and ill-use the peaceable inhabitants; whilst every appeal
from those repeated assaults to the Magistrates for redress, is treated by them with derision and insult. Every man in
Manchester who avows his opinions on the necessity of reform, should never go unarmed - retaliation has become a duty, and
revenge an act of justice.
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APPARTS Essay Reading
Women Miners in the English Coal Pits
In England, exclusive of Wales, it is only in some of the colliery districts of Yorkshire and Lancashire that female
Children of tender age and young adult women are allowed to descend into the coal mines and regularly to perform the
same kinds of underground work, and to work for the same number of hours, as boys and men; but in the East of
Scotland their employment in the pits is general; and in South Wales it is not uncommon.
West Riding of Yorkshire: Southern Part - In many of the collieries in this district, as far as relates to the
underground employment, there is no distinction of sex, but the labour is distributed indifferently among both sexes….
In great numbers of the coal pits in this district the men work in a state of perfect nakedness, and are in this state
assisted in their labour by females of all ages, from girls of six years old to women of twenty-one, these females being
themselves quite naked down to the waist.
"Girls," says the Sub-Commissioner [J. C. Symons], -regularly perform all the various offices of trapping, hurrying
[Yorkshire terms for drawing the loaded coal corves], filling, riddling, tipping, and occasionally getting, just as they are
performed by boys. One of the most disgusting sights I have ever seen was that of young females, dressed like boys in
trousers, crawling on all fours, with belts round their waists and chains passing between their legs, at day pits at
Hunshelf Bank…. I visited the Hunshelf Colliery on the 18th of January: it is a day pit; that is, there is no shaft or
descent; the gate or entrance is at the side of a bank, and nearly horizontal. The gate was not more than a yard high, and
in some places not above 2 feet.
" When I arrived at the board or workings of the pit I found at one of the sideboards down a narrow passage a girl of
fourteen years of age in boy's clothes, picking down the coal with the regular pick used by the men. She was half sitting
half lying at her work, and said she found it tired her very much, and 'of course she didn't like it." The place where she
was at work was not 2 feet high….
"Whilst I was in the pit the Rev Mr Bruce, of Wadsley, and the Rev Mr Nelson, of Rotherham, who accompanied me,
and remained outside, saw another girl of ten years of age, also dressed in boy's clothes, who was employed in
hurrying, and these gentlemen saw her at work. She was a nice-looking little child, but of course as black as a tinker,
and with a little necklace round her throat.
"In two other pits in the Huddersfield Union I have seen the same sight. In one, … the chain, passing high up between
the legs of two of these girls, had worn large holes in their trousers; and any sight more disgustingly indecent or
revolting can scarcely be imagined than these girls at work-no brothel can beat it.
"On descending Messrs Hopwood's pit at Barnsley, I found assembled round a fire a group of men, boys, and girls,
some of whom were of the age of puberty; the girls as well as the boys stark naked down to the waist, their hair bound
up with a tight cap, and trousers supported by their hips. At Silkstone and at Flockton, they work in their shifts and
trousers. Their sex was recognizable only by their breasts, and some little difficulty occasionally arose in pointing out to
me which were girls and which were boys, and which caused a good deal of laughing and joking. In the Flockton and
Thornhill pits, the system is even more indecent: for though the girls are clothed, at least three-fourths of the men for
whom they "hurry" work stark naked, or with a flannel waistcoat only, and in this state they assist one another to fill the
corves 18 or 20 times a day: I have seen this done myself frequently.
"When it is remembered that these girls hurry chiefly for men who are not their parents; that they go from 15 to 20
times a day into a dark chamber (the bank face), which is often 50 yards apart from any one, to a man working naked,
or next to naked, it is not to be supposed but that where opportunity thus prevails sexual vices are of common
occurrence. Add to this the free intercourse, and the rendezvous at the shaft or bullstake, where the corves are brought,
and consider the language to which the young ear is habituated, the absence of religious instruction, and the early age at
which contamination begins, and you will have before you, in the coal-pits where females are employed, the picture of
a nursery for juvenile vice which you will go far and we above ground to equal."
Two Women Miners
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Betty Harris, age 37: I was married at 23, and went into a colliery when I was married. I used to weave when
about 12 years old; can neither read nor write. I work for Andrew Knowles, of Little Bolton (Lancs), and make
sometimes 7s a week, sometimes not so much. I am a drawer, and work from 6 in the morning to 6 at night. Stop about
an hour at noon to eat my dinner; have bread and butter for dinner; I get no drink. I have two children, but they are too
young to work. I worked at drawing when I was in the family way. I know a woman who has gone home and washed
herself, taken to her bed, delivered of a child, and gone to work again under the week.
I have a belt round my waist, and a chain passing between my legs, and I go on my hands and feet. The road is very
steep, and we have to hold by a rope; and when there is no rope, by anything we can catch hold of. There are six women
and about six boys and girls in the pit I work in; it is very hard work for a woman. The pit is very wet where I work, and
the water comes over our clog-tops always, and I have seen it up to my thighs; it rains in at the roof terribly. My clothes
are wet through almost all day long. I never was ill in my life, but when I was lying in.
My cousin looks after my children in the day time. I am very tired when I get home at night; I fall asleep sometimes
before I get washed. I am not so strong as I was, and cannot stand my work so well as I used to. I have drawn till I have
bathe skin off me; the belt and chain is worse when we are in the family way. My feller (husband) has beaten me many
a times for not being ready. I were not used to it at first, and he had little patience.I have known many a man beat his
drawer. I have known men take liberties with the drawers, and some of the women have bastards.
Patience Kershaw, age 17, Halifax: I go to pit at 5 o'clock in the morning and come out at 5 in the evening; I get my
breakfast, porridge and milk, first; I take my dinner with me, a cake, and eat it as I go; I do not stop or rest at any time
for the purpose, I get nothing else until I get home, and then have potatoes and meat, not every day meat.
Source: from Parliamentary Papers, 1842, vols. XV-XVII, Appendix I, pp. 252, 258, 439, 461; Appendix II, pp. 107,
; I do not like working in pit, but I am obliged to get a living; I work always without stockings, or shoes, or trousers; I
wear nothing but my chemise; I have to go up to the headings with the men; they are all naked there; I am got well used
to that, and don't care now much about it; I was afraid at first, and did not like it; they never behave rudely to me; I
cannot read or write.
No. 7--Benjamin Miller, Underlooker at Mr. Woolley's, near Staley Bridge, April 14, 1841.
How do you account for women being used so frequently as drawers in the coal-pits?
--One reason is, that a girl of 20 will work for 2s. a-day or less, and a man of that age would want 3s. 6d.: It makes little
difference to the coal-master, he pays the same whoever does the work; some would say he got his coal cheaper, but I
am not of that opinion, the only difference is that the collier can spend 1s. to 1s. 6d. more at the alehouse, and very
often the woman helps him to spend it.
Do women ever become coal-getters?
--Not one woman in a hundred ever becomes a coal-getter, and that is one of the reasons the men prefer them.
Source: Parliamentary Papers, 1842, vols. XV-XVII, Appendix I, pp. 252, 258, 439, 461; Appendix II, pp. 107, 122,
205.
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Discussion Reading
British Textiles Clothe the World
How did Britain come to dominate the global production of cloth?
By Claire Hopley
By the middle of the 19th century, Britain was producing half the world's cotton cloth in giant mills that dotted the
valleys and dominated many towns in the north of England. The largest was Quarry Bank Mill at Styal in Cheshire,
which alone met 0.6 percent of world demand. Yet not a scrap of cotton was grown in Britain. How then did Britain
come to dominate global production of a cloth made entirely from material imported from the southern United States,
India and Egypt? The answer lies in a set of circumstances no less complex than the finely woven, beautifully printed
British muslins, calicoes and chintzes that clothed people and furnished homes everywhere.
Britain had long manufactured textiles. The damp climate is good for grazing sheep, so for centuries the country was
renowned for its fine woolens. Flax, the raw material for linen, also thrives in rain. Linen and wool were used to make
the linsey-woolsey worn by all but the richest people in the Middle Ages and Renaissance. Silk, introduced by French
Protestant silk workers fleeing persecution in the 17th century, was also made in Britain, mostly in London.
Textile workers plied their craft at home, sometimes to supplement farming. Women spun yarn, often helped by
children. The yarn then went to a weaver, usually a man, who might be another family member weaving cloth for the
household. More likely, both spinsters and weavers worked on the "putting out" system: A merchant supplied the raw
fiber and then picked up the finished goods for sale elsewhere.
Traditionally, one handloom weaver needed the yarn output of four spinsters. But by the mid-18th century, many
weavers were using the flying shuttle that had been invented by John Kay of Bury, Lancashire, in 1733. By speeding
the shuttle across the loom and freeing one of the weaver's hands, this invention upped the demand for yarn; one worker
could now weave the output of 16 spinsters. With cloth in demand both at home, where the population was increasing,
and abroad, where British colonies were a captive market, improved spinning methods were essential to meet the need
for cloth.
Wool production was difficult to mechanize because centuries-old laws protected traditional ways of making it.
Conversely, by the 1740s silk was already being machine-made in factories in Derby and Macclesfield with equipment
based on pirated Italian designs. But silk was too delicate and expensive for mass consumption. Cotton, on the other
hand, was hardwearing, comfortable and inexpensive. Unlike wool, its production was not controlled by ancient
practices because it had only become widely available after the East India Company began exporting it from India in
the late 17th century. Inventors therefore bent their minds to creating cotton-processing machines, and cotton
spearheaded British industry into the factory system.
The first major improvement in spinning technology was the spinning jenny, introduced in 1764 by Thomas Highs
(1718-1803) of Lancashire and named for his daughter. Highs wanted a machine for spinning cotton that would
multiply threads more quickly, and he built a device with six spindles. James Hargreaves (1720-78), who is widely
credited for inventing the spinning jenny and was also from Lancashire, apparently "improved" Highs' design by adding
more spindles. Hargreaves acquired the patent for it in 1770, but by then the device had been widely copied. By the
time of Hargreaves' death, more than 20,000 spinning jennies were in use. It spun yarn from between 20 and 30
spindles at one time, thus doing the work of several spinsters -- a prospect that had made Hargreaves so unpopular in
his neighborhood that a mob destroyed his spinning jennies and ran him out of town.
The next development was the water frame, again largely conceived by Highs, who now wanted a machine for the
spinning of twist by rollers. Richard Arkwright (1732-92), a Lancashire barber interested in weaving wigs, obtained one
of Highs' water frame models and built a full-size machine that used three or four sets of rollers to draw out the cotton
before it was twisted. In 1769 Arkwright obtained the patent for the water-powered device. Threatened by workers who
would be put out of business by the invention, Arkwright left his native Lancashire for Nottingham, where he met
Jedediah Strutt, who had improved the 16th-century machines that knit cotton for stockings. With his efficient new
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knitting machines, Strutt needed more cotton yarn, so he teamed with Arkwright to build the water frames in new
water-driven mills they built in Cromford, Derbyshire, in 1771.
Samuel Crompton (1753-1827), also of Lancashire, further improved spinning with a dual set of rollers that drew out
the yarn into a fine, soft, even filament. Since it used both the rolling action of the water frame and the drawing action
of the spinning jenny, Crompton's hybrid machine was called a "mule." A single operator could now work more than
1,000 spindles simultaneously. Factories equipped with mules made the Lancashire town of Bolton into the world
center for the finest cotton yarns. Crompton never did patent the mule, in part because the wording in Arkwright's
water-frame patent made it difficult if not impossible. Eventually, in 1785, after prolonged litigation, Arkwright lost his
patent rights, by a decision of the Court of King's Bench, and other manufacturers were able to use the water frame
freely.
By the 1780s the new spinning machines were producing so much yarn that inventors turned to the mechanization of
the loom. Weaving was a series of carefully timed steps, and weavers needed to watch the loom constantly so that if a
thread broke or ran out of the shuttle, they could stop and repair it immediately before a disaster occurred. Many
Manchester manufacturers therefore thought that mechanization was impossible. Hearing this, a man of the cloth, the
Reverend Edmund Cartwright (1743-1823) of Melton Mowbray in Leicestershire, decided to prove them wrong -- even
though he had no weaving experience and had never even seen anyone weave!
Cartwright's first power loom worked, but one moving part weighed more than 50 pounds and the springs threw the
shuttle so fast that two strong men were needed to tend it. This was not suitable for cost-conscious Manchester
businessmen. Nevertheless, Cartwright patented his machine in 1785, the same year Arkwright's patent was revoked.
Cartwright began to watch weavers at work, and based his next loom, invented between 1786 and 1788, on their
actions. Still, his device required full-time attention. Cartwright then invented a warp protector that instantly stopped
the loom when a problem occurred, and he began to produce fabric mechanically.
All these 18th-century machines needed vast supplies of cotton. In the 1790s, the first newly planted cotton came from
American plantations manned by slaves. The raw cotton had to be cleaned before it could be used by the fast-moving
equipment, but it was taking a full day for one person to remove the seeds from one pound of cotton. Eli Whitney, a
New Englander, solved that problem with his cotton gin, which used a series of steel disks fitted with hooks to drag the
cotton through slots in a grid, leaving the seeds behind. This invention both spurred the Industrial Revolution in Britain
and induced Southern planters in America to grow more cotton.
Britain not only had clean supplies of American cotton and an array of machines to handle every stage of making it into
cloth, it also had good power supplies. Eighteenth-century machines typically used water power, hence the sitting of
early factories near the fast-flowing rivers of the Pennines. But after James Watt invented the steam engine in 1781,
coal became the main fuel. Serendipitously, England's richest mines were also near the Pennines in Lancashire,
Yorkshire, Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire. Thus, these northern areas became the textile strongholds of the country.
The new machinery ended the traditional domestic system of textile production. Machines had to be close to their
power source; they could not be in cottages. Moreover, different machines sequenced to perform specific tasks required
both a division of labor and specialized skills. Workers therefore had to follow strict rules about work and punctuality.
Some mills specialized in one textile-making process, but others, such as Quarry Bank Mill at Styal, established in
1784, performed all the needed tasks to turn cotton fiber into cloth. At Quarry Bank Mill, nearly half the workers were
children between the ages of 7 and 21, most from workhouses and orphanages who were contracted to work for a
period of seven years as apprentices. By 1800 there were 90 children who lived and worked without pay at the mill,
learning the trade as the reward for their work, although there was no significant effort to teach them the trade; mostly
they were regarded as a source of cheap labor.
Children were essential in textile factories because they were small enough to scramble under the looms to clean them
or retie broken threads. Records from Quarry Bank Mill contain details of nearly 1,000 children who worked there
between 1785 and 1847. Their day began early. They typically rose at 5:30 a.m., were given a piece of bread to eat and
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began work at 6. Through the day, they usually had three short breaks, when they were fed oatmeal, and then at
8:30 p.m., after finishing their 141¼2-hour shift, they got a supper of bread or broth. On Sundays, they had reading
lessons, church and chores, such as tending the owner's vegetable gardens.
The unpaid apprentices sometimes ran away. About 100 appear to have fled from Quarry Bank Mill. A notice
describing fugitives Esther Price, 14, and Thomas Priestley, 13, read: "Whoever will apprehend the said Apprentices,
and give information thereof he shall receive one guinea reward and be paid all reasonable expenses. Both apprentices
committed this crime last night and are believed to be still hiding in the mill. Can you find them?" The guinea reward
(21 shillings) would have been more than a week's pay for many workers. Once recaptured, apprentices frequently were
beaten, had their hair cropped and had to work overtime to make up missed work and repay the costs of finding them.
When Price was located and returned, she was forced to live in a room with boarded-up windows. Priestley, recovering
from having one of his fingers torn off at the mill, was asked by the magistrate why he ran away. "I thought of my
mother," he said.
Life was equally hard for adult factory workers. Until 1833, hours of employment were not regulated, and it was 1844
before the law insisted that the machinery had to be fenced to prevent death and dismemberment. The thunderous noise
of the machinery never ceased, so most older workers became deaf. Lung diseases were also prevalent, caused by the
minute fiber fragments in the air. Few adults could leave the mills, especially when whole cities were devoted to
textiles and little other work was available.
The similarity to the conditions of America's slaves was not lost. Harriet Beecher Stowe noted it when she visited
England in the 1850s. The workers, too, saw the comparison. During the American Civil War, only 40,000 of the
355,000 cotton operatives in Lancashire were working full time. As elucidated in the Illustrated London News on
November 22, 1862, "The mills cannot be put to work until cotton is forthcoming, and the appearance of that substance
does not depend on us, but on the continuance of the blockade of southern ports." Nonetheless, the magazine lauded the
British government's support of the North, and encouraged its readers to heed "Lancashire's cry of distress" by sending
financial aid. The workers themselves, though out of work, met in Manchester's Free Trade Hall on New Year's Eve
1862 to pledge their support for the Union forces. President Abraham Lincoln, aware of their sacrifices, responded
quickly, sending the workers a letter of thanks just three weeks later. His statue still stands in Manchester.
One reason unemployed workers opposed the slavery on the plantations was that they were used to combating their own
hideous working conditions. Earlier, weavers had fought the introduction of technology that put them out of work, often
by breaking machines and burning factories. Wool and linen workers were for a while successful because their trades
were protected by local guilds. But this restraint was overcome when the woolen trade, historically based in East Anglia
with Norwich as its center, moved to Yorkshire, where guild practices were less stringent.
Even so, the woolen industry lagged 30 years behind the cotton industry in mechanization, partly because machines
invented for making cotton had to be modified before they could be used for wool or other fibers. Indeed, machines for
wool needed adapting for different kinds of wool, as Titus Salt discovered in the 1830s when he devised a way to
handle the intractable but much-prized wool of the alpaca. As a result he became so wealthy that in 1851 he began work
on his model village of Saltaire (see "The Town that Titus Built," July 2006 BH).
By this time, British cotton machines had long since jump-started America's industrial revolution. Samuel Slater of
Derbyshire had worked with Arkwright and Strutt, but realizing he had little chance of a partnership, he responded to an
advertisement offering £100 bounties to English mill workers prepared to emigrate to America. He took with him the
secrets of the water frame and -- just as significant -- the management techniques of continuous factory production that
Arkwright and Strutt had pioneered. In America, Slater teamed with Moses Brown, who had been experimenting with
machinery in Providence, R.I., and introduced him to the water frame. In 1790, they built a new water-powered factory
in Pawtucket, R.I., and in 1797 Slater built the White Mill on the Blackstone River and later a workers' village called
Slatersville.
Francis Cabot Lowell of Massachusetts traveled to England in 1810 to tour Manchester's mills, just as they were being
fitted with power looms. He gleaned enough so that in 1814 he built the first mill in America capable of transforming
raw cotton into finished cloth, located on the Charles River at Waltham, Mass. Four years after Lowell's death in 1817,
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the firm moved to a site on the Merrimack River, where a new town named Lowell in his honor soon became the
center of America's cotton industry.
By 1840 Lowell had 10 mills employing more than 40,000 workers, mainly young women. Many were from England.
The textile business in Britain, though successful, went through economic cycles. The 1840s were so grim that they
were known as the "Hungry Forties," and even after the Civil War ended in 1865, American cotton supplies were
uncertain and unemployment remained high. Many textile workers therefore emigrated. English immigrants staffed the
sorting rooms of the mills in Lawrence, Mass. Contingents of immigrants from Lancashire went to the mills of New
Bedford, Mass., and silk workers from Macclesfield in Cheshire left for Paterson, N.J. -- a town often called "Silk
City," as was Macclesfield.
Today, the sturdy brick mills built to house the massive textile machinery still stand throughout New England and
northern Britain, all turned to new uses. Among those that can be visited in Britain are Quarry Bank Mill, now a
magnificently preserved National Trust property; Titus Salt's village of Saltaire in Morley, Yorkshire; and Paradise Mill
and the Silk Trail at Macclesfield, Cheshire. There remains one original water frame, at the Helmshore Museum, and a
quarter of it works, powered by electricity, since the museum does not yet have a working water wheel. These 18th- and
19th-century devices express both the engineering achievements of their inventors and the difficult lives of those who
operated them.
This article was written by Claire Hopley and originally appeared in the September 2006 issue of British Heritage.
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Semester Break Assignment
From one of the units that you did not review in your study group or from one of topics from the semester research
paper that you did not choose, you are going to create a poster.
The poster should have the following components
Time Period
List the time period that your unit or topic occurs
Topic
Images appropriate here
A two paragraph synopsis of your unit or topic
Political
Explain how your unit or topic influenced the politics or legislation of society at the time
Economic
Explain how your unit or topic influenced the religious and/or general beliefs of society at the time
Religious
Explain how your unit or topic influenced the religious and/or general beliefs of the time period
Social
Explain how your unit or topic influenced the social patterns, ethnic relations, and/or class structure of the time period.
Intellectual
Explain how your unit or topic influenced the intellectual Discussion s, scientific discovery and/or educational patterns
of the time period
Artistic
(Yes- there should be images)
Explain how your unit or topic influenced the Arts (art, music, literature etc ) of the time period
If you’re clever, you’ve noticed the PERSIA acronym in this assignment. If were diligent through the first semester,
you should be quite good at assessing those particular components by now.
Your poster will be assessed on the following:
Completeness
Accuracy
Professionalism
Creativity
The poster will be due on the first day of the second semester
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"Alternative Assignment"
Create a video "travelogue" that would cover at least six different countries of a specific year.
A Travelogue is journal either real or fictional of an individuals travels.
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Your travelogue should have the following items:
o A specific year that we covered this semester
o Six specific locations throughout Europe that "you" visited
In each location you should describe the following:
o Economic conditions of at least two social classes
o The religious habits of the people
o The type of arts you may have encountered
o The type of political changes (if any) that were occurring in each country
o Any major historical figures that you may have encountered at the time.
You don't have to use actual video, you can use a series of maps, pictures and text to describe your fictional
journey. It also should have audio, either your own recitation of your journal or background music.
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Unit VIII- The Age of Nation States
Chapter 22
"If there is ever another war in Europe, it will come out of some damned silly thing in the Balkans”- Otto von Bismarck
After reading chapter 22 you should understand:
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




The causes and results of the Crimean War.
Reforms undertaken in the Ottoman Empire.
The unification of Germany and Italy.
The shift from the Second Empire to the Third Republic in France.
The emergence of the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary.
Russian political and social reforms, including emancipation of the serfs.
British liberalism and the confrontation with Irish nationalists over the Irish Question
146
Potential FRQ Questions
Compare and contrast Bismarck's unification of Germany with the efforts of Cavour and Garibaldi in Italy.
Identify the barriers to German unification that existed for hundreds of years. How was Bismarck able to overcome
these?
Assess the extent to which the unification of Germany under Bismarck led to authoritarian government there
between 1871 and 1914.
Discuss the process by which Great Britain continues to give representation to new groups throughout the 1800s.
In what other places in British history do such patterns exist?
How do the reigns of Alexanders II & III fit in with their predecessors going back to Peter the Great? What
historical patterns, if any, can you identify?
Discuss the instability of the Austrian Regime from 1848 to 1914. In what ways is this instability stirring the larger
pot of European conflict?
"The centralized governments of continental Europe dominated the rate and direction of industrial development in
their respective countries in the period 1850-1940." Explain the facts and events that form the basis of this
statement and describe the specific ways in which the statement is a valid generalization about the period 18501940.
Evaluate the effectiveness of collective responses by workers to industrialization in Western Europe during the
course of the 19th century.
Major Unit Assignments
Semester (Winter) Break Assignment- Due first day of the term
Nationalism Puppet Show
**Europe in 1871 map**
Bismarck and the Creation of Germany Virtual Discussion
Unification and Accommodation Chart
TIAA Assignment
147
Names in Group _______________________
National Unification Puppet Show
Group Points
Required
Everyone in the group does the reading
together—one person reading out loud. (10)
Together make a rough outline of how your
puppet show will go. (10)
The final puppet show is historically accurate,
including dates (10)
No off task time for your group (-5 for each
occurrence)
Total
Extra Credit: Make your puppet show a
musical (10)
Script Writers/Narrators
Required
Work together to write a comprehensive script
of the events. Use specific names and dates
whenever possible (10)
Script has a narrator and several other parts.
Script is written in typical script format. (ie,
Narrator: part…) (10)
Type the script so that it can be read easily (5)
For the A
Each person writes a summary of the reading
to turn in with the final script. (5)
Decide on the main characters and what the
puppet costumes will look like. (5)
The script is understandable and has a spirit
of fun. (5)
Earned
15
15
45
For the A
Script is historically accurate (10)
Possible
20
Script also has actions in italics for the
puppeteers so they know how to move the
puppets (10)
Have at least 4 copies of the final script so
there are enough for the narrators and
puppeteers (5)
20
Total
Puppet Designers/Puppeteers
Required
Make enough puppets out of the provided
brown lunch sacks to fill all of the parts in your
show (10)
Make any other necessary props (like maps)
out the provided paper. (10)
As puppeteers, use the script to make sure you
move and react accurately (5)
Total
Possible
15
Earned
10
50
For the A
Costume each puppet appropriately for their
role (10)
Possible
20
Create backdrops for the different scenes in
your show (10)
Make the events in the show understandable
through your work. (5)
20
10
50
Earned
148
Chapter 22 Worksheet – The Age of Nation States
Alexander II
Alexander III
Ausgleich
Austro-Prussian War
Bismarck, Otto von Bismarck
Bundesrat
Carbonari
Cavour, Camillo
Crimean War
Danish War
Disraeli, Benjamin
Dreyfus Affair
Education Act
Franco-Prussian War
Garibaldi, Giuseppe
Gladstone, William
Hatt-I Sharif of Gulhane
home rule
Terms to Identify
Italia irredenta
Mazzini, Giuseppe
North German Confederation
October Diploma
Paris Commune
Parnell, Charles Stewart
People's Will
Piedmont
populism
Reichstag
Schleswig-Holstein
Tanzimat
Thiers, Adolphe
transformismo
Victor Emmanuel II
Young Turks
zemstvos
Zola, Emile
Chapter Questions
Why was it so difficult to unify Italy?
Who was Camillo Cavour, and how did he achieve what others failed to do?
What were Garibaldi's contributions to Italian unification?
What was Bismarck's policy of unification and why did he succeed?
What effect did the unification of Germany have on the rest of Europe?
Why did the Second Empire fail and what problems faced the new Third Republic?
What effect did the Dreyfus affair have on the politics of the Third Republic?
Can Alexander II be regarded as a "visionary" reformer? Why or why not?
What was the Irish Problem?
Textbook DQs
Heinrich Von Treitschke Demands The Annexation of Alsace and Lorraine
On what grounds does Treitschke base the German clain to Alsace and Lorraine?
Why does he contend it is proper to ignore the wishes of the people involved?
What, if any, political morality informs his views?
149
Lord Acton Condemns Nationalism
Why does Acton see the principle of nationality as dangerous to liberty?
Why does he see nationalism as a threat to minority groups and to democracy ?
The People’s Will Issues A Revolutionary Manifesto
Which of the group’s seven demands might be associated with liberalism, and which go beyond liberalism in their
radical intent?
Why does the group believe it must engage in terrorism as well as propaganda?
Would any reforms by the Russian government have satisfied this group or dissuaded them from terrorist action?
The Arrival of the Penny Postage (Secondary)
What changes did Rowland Hill introduce into the British postal service?
How did those changes affect the quantity of mail and the size of the government work force?
Parnell Calls for Home Rule For Ireland
How does Parnell say the Act of Union affected Irish sentiment toward England?
What parallel does he draw with Hungary and Austria?
Why might Parnell be regarded as a moderate nationalist?
Laws are like sausages, it is better not to see them being made. - Otto von Bismarck
150
APPARTS Essay Reading- 1844- Joseph Mazzini,
An Essay On the Duties of Man
Addressed to Workingmen
(New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1898)
Hanover Historical Texts Project
Chapter V - Duties Towards Your Country
57-63
[Page 57] 1858.
Your first duties - first as regards importance - are, as I have already told you, towards Humanity. You are men before
you are either citizens or fathers. If you do not embrace the whole human family in your affection; if you do not bear
witness to your belief in the Unity of that family, consequent upon the Unity of God, and in that fraternity among the
peoples which is destined to reduce that Unity to action; if, wheresoever a fellow-creature suffers, or the dignity of
human nature is violated by falsehood or tyranny - you are not ready, if able, to aid the unhappy, and do not feel called
upon to combat, if able, for the redemption of the betrayed and oppressed - you violate your law of life, you
comprehend not that Religion which will be the guide and blessing of the future.
But what can each of you, singly, do for the moral improvement and progress of Humanity? You can from time to time
give sterile utterance to your belief; you may, on some rare occasions, perform some act of charity towards a brotherman not belonging to your own land - no more. But charity is not the watchword of the Faith of the Future. The
watchword of the faith of the future is Association and fraternal cooperation towards a common aim; [Page 58] and this
is far superior to all charity, as the edifice which all of you should unite to raise would be superior to the humble hut
each one of you might build alone, or with the mere assistance of lending and borrowing stone, mortar, and tools.
But, you tell me, you cannot attempt united action, distinct and divided as you are in language, customs, tendencies, and
capacity. The individual is too insignificant, and Humanity too vast. The mariner of Brittany prays to God as he puts to
sea; "Help me, my God! my boat is so small and Thy ocean so wide!" And this prayer is the true expression of the
condition of each one of you, until you find the means of infinitely multiplying your forces and powers of action.
This means was provided for you by God when He gave you a country; when, even as a wise overseer of labour
distributes the various branches of employment according to the different capacities of the workmen, he divided
Humanity into distinct groups or nuclei upon the face of the earth, thus creating the germ of nationalities. Evil
governments have disfigured the Divine design. Nevertheless you may still trace it, distinctly marked out - at least as
far as Europe is concerned - by the course of the great rivers, the direction of the higher mountains, and other
geographical conditions. They have disfigured it by their conquests, their greed, and their jealousy even of the righteous
power of others; disfigured it so far that, if we except England and France, there is not perhaps a single country whose
present boundaries correspond to that design.
These governments did not, and do not, recognize [Page 59] any country save their own families or dynasty, the egoism
of caste. But the Divine design will infallibly be realized; natural divisions and the spontaneous, innate tendencies of
the peoples will take the place of the arbitrary divisions, sanctioned by evil governments. The map of Europe will be
redrawn. The countries of the peoples, defined by the vote of free men, will arise upon the ruins of the countries of
kings and privileged castes, and between these countries harmony and fraternity will exist. And the common work of
Humanity, of general amelioration, and the gradual discovery and application of its Law of life, being distributed
according to local and general capacities, will be wrought out in peaceful and progressive development and advance.
Then may each one of you, fortified by the power and affection of many millions, all speaking the same language,
gifted with the same tendencies, and educated by the same historical tradition, hope even by your own single efforts to
be able to benefit all Humanity.
0, my brothers, love your Country! Our country is our Home, a house God has given us, placing therein a numerous
family that loves us, and whom we love; a family with whom we sympathize more readily and whom we understand
more quickly than we do others; and which, from its being centred round a given spot, and from the homogeneous
nature of its elements, is adapted to a special branch of activity. Our Country is our common workshop, whence the
products of our activity are sent forth for the benefit of the whole world; wherein the tools and implements of labour we
151
can most usefully [Page 60] employ are gathered together; nor may we reject them without disobeying the plan of
the Almighty, and diminishing our own strength.
In labouring for our own country on the right principle, we labour for Humanity. Our country is the fulcrum of the lever
we have to wield for the common good. If we abandon the fulcrum, we run the risk of rendering ourselves useless not
only to Humanity but to our country itself. Before men can associate with the nations of which Humanity is composed,
they must have a national existence. There is no true association except among equals. It is only through our country
that we can have a recognized collective existence. Humanity is a vast army advancing to the conquest of lands
unknown, against enemies both powerful and astute. The peoples are the different corps, the divisions of that army.
Each of them has its post assigned to it, and its special operation to execute; and the common victory depends upon the
exactitude with which those distinct operations are fulfilled. Disturb not the order of battle. Forsake not the banner
given to you by God. Wheresoever you may be, in the centre of whatsoever people circumstances may have placed you,
be ever ready to combat for the liberty of that people, should it be necessary, but combat in such wise that the blood you
shed may reflect glory, not on yourself alone, but on your country. Say not I, but We. Let each man among you strive to
incarnate his country in himself. Let each man among you regard himself as a guarantor, responsible for his fellowcountrymen, and learn so to govern his actions as to cause his country to be loved and respected [Page 61] through him.
Your country is the sign of the Mission God has given you to fulfill towards Humanity. The faculties and forces of all
her sons should be associated in the accomplishment of that mission. The true country is a community of free men and
equals, bound together in fraternal concord to labour towards a common aim. You are bound to make it and to maintain
it such. The country is not an aggregation, but an association. There is, therefore, no true country without a uniform
right. There is no true country where the uniformity of that right is violated by the existence of caste privilege and
inequality. Where the activity of a portion of the powers and faculties of the individual is either cancelled or dormant;
where there is not a common Principle, recognized, accepted, and developed by all, there is no true Nation, no People;
but only a multitude, a fortuitous agglomeration of men whom circumstances have called together and whom
circumstances may again divide. In the name of the love you bear your country, you must peacefully but untiringly
combat the existence of privilege and inequality in the land that gave you life.
There is but one sole legitimate privilege, the privilege of Genius when it reveals itself united with virtue. But this is a
privilege given by God, and when you acknowledge it, and follow its inspiration, you do so freely, exercising your own
reason and your own choice. Every privilege which demands submission from you in virtue of power, inheritance, or
any other right than the Right common to all, is a usurpation and a tyranny which you are bound to resist and destroy.
[Page 62] Be your country your Temple: God at the summit; a people of equals at the base.
Accept no other formula, no other moral law, if you would not dishonour alike your country and yourselves. Let all
secondary laws be but the gradual regulation of your existence by the progressive application of this Supreme law. And
in order that they may be such, it is necessary that all of you should aid in framing them. Laws framed only by a single
fraction of the citizens, can never, in the very nature of things, be other than the mere expression of the thoughts,
aspirations, and desires of that fraction; the representation, not of the country, but of a third or fourth part, of a class or
zone of the country.
The laws should be the expression of the universal aspiration, and promote the universal good. They should be a
pulsation of the heart of the nation. The entire nation should, either directly or indirectly, legislate.
By yielding up this mission into the hands of a few, you substitute the selfishness of one class for the Country, which is
the union of all classes.
Country is not only a mere zone of territory. The true Country is the Idea to which it gives birth; it is the Thought of
love, the sense of communion which unites in one all the sons of that territory.
So long as a single one amongst your brothers has no vote to represent him in the development of the national life, so
long as there is one left to vegetate in ignorance where others are educated, so long as a single man, able and willing to
work, languishes in poverty through want of work to do, you have no [Page 63] country in the sense in which Country
ought to exist - the country of all and for all.
152
Education, labour, and the franchise, are the three main pillars of the Nation; rest not until you have built them
thoroughly up with your own labour and exertions.
Be it yours to evolve the life of your country in loveliness and strength; free from all servile fears or sceptical doubts;
maintaining as its basis the People; as its guide the principles of its Religious Faith, logically and energetically applied;
its strength, the united strength of all; its aim, the fulfillment of the mission given to it by God.
And so long as you are ready to die for Humanity, the life of your country will be immortal.
153
Discussion Reading
Was Bismarck the Key Factor in the Unification of Germany?
By James Graham
Herr Otto Von Bismarcks iron-man image and the unique personality was the crucial factor in the unification of
Germany. His skill as a diplomat was unrivalled during his reign as chancellor of Prussia and Germany. The mastery he
showed in foreign policy was such that he was able to outwit all other powers and make their leaders look pathetic.
Bismarck inherited the ideas and political principles of the Junker class of which he was born into. Bismarcks father
was loyal to the Prussian crown and narrow minded in his outlook, except for his choice in wife. Whilhelmine,
Bismarcks mother was from a middle class background and cultured. She passed onto her son her love of music and
literature. He was later to become a master in many fields of knowledge through his interest in reading. Bismarck
disliked his mother but revered his father. From his family Bismarck gained a highly autocratic, intensively
conservative and monarchical outlook on life. He also became a Prussian patriot. Bismarck born into nobility accepted
its beliefs as his own.
Bismarck had a mostly typical Junker education that he used to gain employment in the Prussian Civil Service.
Bismarck started his education in Berlin at the spartan boarding school Plenum Academy where religious and physical
exercises dominated. He later transferred to the Gymnasium (high school) at which he learnt foreign languages. In 1832
he entered the University of Gottingen and studied law. Gottingen was one of the centres of German liberalism and a
strange choice for Bismarck. He rarely attended lectures preferring instead to drink, duel and womanise. A dabbling in
Liberal literature and German philosophy took up the rest of his time. Liberalism had no appeal to him so he changed
universities to the University of Berlin where he passed in 1835. As Bismarck himself put it "mob interference with
political authority conflicted with my Prussian upbringing and I returned to Berlin with less liberal opinions than when I
quitted it." After reluctantly serving his compulsory year in the military as a Gardejager (sharpshooter) Bismarck
entered the Prussian Civil Service. He disliked following other people's policy and left the Civil Service in 1839 to look
after his estates. Bismarck lived a restless life on his estates but did manage to marry Johanna von Puttkammer. His first
political break came in 1847 when he was appointed in place of an ill man to the United Diet. It was in the United Diet
that Bismarck emerged as a defender of the monarchy and a Junker reactionary. Bismarcks reactionary stance and anti
liberalism endeared him to the Prussian government. In 1851 he was appointed Prussian representative to the restored
German Bund as a reward for his stance in the United Diet. During his time in the Bund Bismarck formed an antiAustrian view point. He insisted on equal status for Prussia and Austria and emphasised it by smoking at the Bund. This
violated diplomatic procedure as only Austria previously smoked. Regent William sidelined Bismarck in 1859 for his
anti Austrian views and sent him to St Petersburg. As Ambassador in the Russian capital he formed a great respect for
Russian strength. In 1862 he was made Ambassador in Paris. Bismarcks views and attitudes saw him hold a series of
political posts.
The constitutional crisis brought Bismarck to power. William I now King of Prussia was by training a soldier and was
convinced the brief mobilisation of 1859 had revealed inadequacies in the Prussian military. In collaboration with the
Minister of War von Roon and the Chief of General Staff Moltke William presented proposals to the Prussian
parliament to increase the size of the army and various other army reforms. The Liberals dominated the parliament and
were determined to exercise one of the few powers that the constitution of 1849-50 had given the parliament. That is
control over the budget. The expansion of the army naturally involved considerable expenditure that would entail an
increase in taxation of 1.5 million pounds a year. The Liberals were opposed to this since they would have to pay the
extra taxation. Also another of the reforms was to consolidate the Landwehr a small middle class militia into the Junker
dominated Prussian army. By an overwhelming majority the proposed army reforms were rejected and a class struggle
ensued. On the verge of abdication William turned to Bismarck for help whose appointment meant no compromise.
Von Roon sent Bismarck the famous telegram "Delay is dangerous. Hurray." This was the opportunity Bismarck had
been waiting for and he acted quickly making William tear up his abdication document. He drove liberals from office,
gagged the press and encouraged William to create the new units by collecting existing taxation. This is an example of
Bismarcks Realpolitiks, the pursuing of realistic goals by any available method instead of the pursuit of an ideology.
Bismarck never wanted to have enemies for long and hoped to pacify the Liberals with foreign policy achievement
notably the unification of Germany. With an expanded army Bismarck resolved to achieve unification with "iron and
blood" rather than with Liberal methods. The Liberals rejection of the army reforms forced William to play his final
card, the appointment of Bismarck as Minister-President of Prussia.
The Schleswig Holstein war was manipulated by Bismarck to the advantage of Prussia. Schleswig and Holstein were
populated by Germans and had for centuries been ruled by the Danish King. In 1863 the Danes formed a new
constitution intended to incorporate Schleswig and Holstein into Denmark. Nationalist sentiment erupted all over
154
Germany and Bismarck saw his first great opportunity. The Confederation Diet voted to send troops to Holstein in
support of the German prince Augustenburg. Bismarck did not want to be seen as the aggressor so sent Saxon and
Hanoverian. Troops. From the outset it was clear Bismarck wanted to annex both duchies, to do this meant war with
Denmark. He set about ensuring that no one could help Denmark. Russia was sympathetic due to Prussia's help during
the Polish rebellion of 1863, France was bribed by hints of compensation in the Rhineland and Austria was persuaded
to form an alliance with Prussia. Britain stood firmly behind Denmark and Palmerston stated "if Denmark had to fight
she would not fight alone." Bismarck demanded Denmark submit the matter to a European congress, Denmark
encouraged by Britain refused. He correctly called Palmerston's bluff and together with Austria invaded Denmark in
February 1864. Isolated the Danes had no chance and were soundly beaten. Bismarcks secondary reason for attacking
Denmark was to gain support from nationalists and Liberals at home. This he achieved and his heavy handedness over
the army reforms was forgiven and forgotten. Prussia and Austria initially tried a joint rule of the duchies but this fell
apart by deliberate design of Bismarck who had ordered the annexation of Kiel. The Treaty of Gastein in 1865 let
Austria administer Holstein and Prussia Schleswig. Bismarck now new he could pick a fight with Austria when the
need arose. Using diplomatic skill Bismarck ensured Denmark's defeat and laid the foundations of war with Austria.
To achieve Kleindeutsch under Prussian control Bismarck had to defeat Austria. Bismarck once decided on a war with
Austria set about trying to isolate her. Russia was already hostile with Austria, Britain was overjoyed at the thought of
war between Austria and Prussia as was France who was also bribed with more hints of compensation at the secret
Biarritz Conference. Unwilling to fight the war alone he forged an alliance with the Kingdom of Italy. A promise of the
Austrian territory of Venetia to Italy ensured the alliance. The Prussian invasion of Holstein failed to start a war and
forced Bismarck to use other methods. To obtain the support of the Liberals both in Prussia and the other German states
Bismarck proposed universal suffrage in a new German Diet that would replace the old Confederation Diet. Austria was
to be excluded from the new parliament. This move was a masterstroke by Bismarck as it won him support and forced
Austria to declare war on Prussia. Austria encouraged nine states including the all the large states to take its side and
Prussia six states. The north and centre states were defeated by Prussia with little resistance. Austria and Saxony were
defeated in an overwhelming victory at Konniggratz. The Austrians were entirely successful against the Italians but this
failed to change the course of the war. With the road to Vienna open Bismarck arranged an armistice. Bismarcks true
diplomatic genius is evident here as he robbed France any chance of claiming advantage out of the war. The Treaty of
Prague expelled Austria from the German Confederation and Venetia was seceded to Italy. The extraordinary lenient
treaty was designed so that Austria did not remain an enemy of Prussia. Prussia annexed Hanover, North Hesse,
Schleswig and Holstein and formed the North German Confederation out of these states, Prussia and Saxony. Only
Napoleon III attitude and local feeling prevented the confederation including the southern states. Bismarck through
military might and diplomatic brilliance defeated Austria allowing Prussia to become dominant in Germany.
To complete German unification Bismarck had to deal with France. Napoleon III failed to receive compensation for his
neutrality during the two previous that made him disparate to acquire some territory to increase his flagging support at
home. France tried unsuccessfully to buy Belgium and Luxembourg. The British stopped the former and German public
feeling the second. Realising France was hostile enough to start a war Bismarck implemented his tactic of isolating the
country diplomatically. Russia was hostile to France and Austria reconciled with Prussia over the lenient Treaty of
Prague. Britain was offended over French intentions over Belgium which Bismarck had disclosed at a crucial time.
Italian friendship had been bought with Venetia. The south German states were drawn into a military alliance with
Prussia by Bismarcks publication of Napoleons intentions towards the states. Bismarck encouraged a Hohenzollern
relative of William I to stand as a candidature for the vacant Spanish throne hoping to encircle France. France was
incensed and demanded the candidature be removed. William agreed against Bismarcks wishes. The French not
satisfied sent the French Ambassador Benedetti to the spa of Ems to obtain an assurance the matter would not be
revived. Benedetti accosted William in the street. William furious sent a telegram to Bismarck who edited it to make it
sound like a Prussia snob of France. The telegram was released publicly and caused war fever to sweep France.
Bismarck ordered a Prussian mobilisation that caused France to declare war. Prussian mobilisation utilising railways
was much quicker than the French and the Prussian army soon encircled the main French army in the fortress town of
Metz. Before long Paris was encircled and Napoleon overthrown. The republic of 1848 was re-established and fought
on. Metz and Paris were eventually starved into surrendering and the defeat of France complete. The Treaty of
Frankfurt made France pay 5000 million francs in reparations and secede Alsace Lorraine to Germany. The harsh treaty
was not Bismarcks idea but rather Williams and the army's. Prussian military and industrial strength guided by
Bismarcks isolation of France ensured Prussia victory in the Franco-Prussian War.
155
Bismarck achieved his main goal of German unification under Prussian leadership. Ten days before the armistice
was signed Bismarck proclaimed the German Empire at the Hall of Mirrors in Versailles on 18 January 1871. Prussian
victory had conjured up feelings of patriotism right across Germany and with a bribe of Ludwig II King of Bavaria
unification was sealed. Bismarcks uncompromising personality helped to squash liberal opposition and save the
Prussian monarchy. A united Germany was achieved by the defeat of the two powers that stood in its way, Austria and
France. Prussian industrialization had ensured victory but Bismarck brought forward the triumph. Bismarck
outmaneuvered Austria and France diplomatically allowing the isolation of the two powers essential for Prussian
military victory. With astute political moves namely the war against Denmark Bismarck increased support for
unification at home. The German Empire was proclaimed by Bismarck who did much to aid its creation.
Bismarcks iron man image and unique personality was a major factor in German Unification. Born and brought up as a
Prussian Junker he pursued his nationalist ambitions and united Germany. His diplomatic skill was a major prerequisite of Prussia's military victories. By manipulating events to his advantage Bismarck was able to proclaim a
united Kleindeutsche under Prussian control.
156
Unit IX European Society to WWI
The Birth of Modern Thought
Chapters 23 and 24
To predict the behavior of ordinary people in advance, you only have to assume that they will always try to escape a
disagreeable situation with the smallest possible expenditure of intelligence. -Friedrich Nietzsche
After reading chapter 23 you should understand:





The impact of the Second Industrial Revolution.
Urban development programs, including sanitation systems and housing reform.
The condition of women, the cult of domesticity, and the rise of political feminism.
The extent of Jewish emancipation.
The development of political socialism and the entry of workers into politics.
After reading chapter 24 you should understand:





The dominance of scientific thought in this era.
The conflict between church and state, particularly over education.
The impact of modernism, psychoanalysis, and the new physics on intellectual life.
The rise of nationalistically inspired racism and the resurgence of anti-Semitism.
The laying of the foundations for twentieth-century feminism.
157
Potential FRQ Questions
Analyze the key developments that characterized the European economy in the second half of the 19th century.
Describe the physical transformation of European cities in the second half of the nineteenth century and analyze the
social consequences of this transformation.
Discuss the ways European Jews were affected by, and responded to, liberalism, nationalism, and anti-Semitism in the
19th century.
Compare and contrast the roles of British working women in the pre-industrial economy (before 1750) with their roles
in the era 1850 to 1920.
(Two pictures: an upper MC family and a very poor family) Contrast how a Marxist and a Social Darwinist would
account for the differences in the two pictures.
To what extent did Marx and Freud each challenge the nineteenth-century liberal belief in rationality and progress?
To what extent and in what ways did intellectual developments in Europe in the period 1880-1920 undermine
confidence in human rationality and in a well-ordered, dependable universe?
Major Unit Assignments
Ideologies on Stage - In Reader
Rationalism, Racism, Nationalism Discussion
TIAA Assignment with Art Analysis- Realism and Impressionism
Chapter 23-24 Worksheet
158
th
Ideologies on Stage: A 19 Century Talk Show
If we think about it in the modern context, those who have new, controversial ideas are often the guests of our TV talk
shows. WE are going to juxtapose our forum with the ideologies of the 19th century. Use the following rubric to
prepare for the talk show.
Requirements
Get into one of the 5 groups: Conservativism, Nationalism,
Liberalism, Utopian Socialism, or Marxian Socialism. In the
group discuss how you would respond to questions on the
following topics:
What should the government look like?
What should the government’s responsibility be to the people?
Who should have suffrage or the right to vote?
What are the main problems of society?
What would the ideal society look like?
Discuss the answers to the questions together. I will be
randomly calling on people in the group to come and be the
representative for your group in the talk show
When individuals from your group come step in front of the
camera, they are knowledgeable about their ideology,
representing the ideas well.
Audience participates actively—asking clarifying questions—at
least one per group
Total
Extra Credit: Your group performs exceptionally well, making
good points and asking additional clarifying questions
For the A
Group has a scribe write out
answers to each of these
questions
Possible Earned
20
Any group discussing anything
off topic will be docked 1 points
each time.
Use emotion and energy to sell
their ideas (arguing with other
guests as necessary)
Questions show an
understanding of the problems
in society at that time
5
20
15
60
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Chapter 23 Worksheet - European Supremacy
Terms to be identified
anti-Semitism
Bessemer, Henry
Bloody Sunday
Bolsheviks
Crystal Palace
Cult of Domesticity
Daimler, Gottlieb
Duma
Eiffel Tower
Erfurt Program
Fabians
Fawcett, Millicent
Ford, Henry
Gapon, George
Hardie, Keir
Haussmann, Georges
Krupp
kulaks
Married Women's Property Act
Mensheviks
metro
Mir
opportunism
Pankhurst, Emmeline
petite bourgeoisie
Port Arthur
putting out system
Rasputin, Grigory Efimovich
Revisionism
Second Industrial Revolution
Soviets
SPD
Stolypin, P.A.
Suffragettes
Ulyyanov, Vladimir, Ilyich
Union of German Women's Organizations (BDFK)
Witte, Sergei
Chapter Questions
How would you describe the living conditions in European cities during the late 19th century?
In what ways, were European cities redesigned during this period?
What was the status of European women in the second half of the 19th century?
Why did women grow discontented with their lot? (What factors led to change?)
What caused the growth in trade unions and organized mass political parties?
Textbook DQ’s
Paris Department Stores Expand Their Business
Why should French governments have favored the growth of department stores?
Where did these store in the process of economic production and sales?
Why was the volume of sales so important?
What kinds of people might have benefited from the jobs available in these stores?
Why might these stores have hurt small retailers?
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Bicycles: Transportation, Freedom and Sport (Secondary)
Why did bicycles become so popular in Europe in the late nineteenth century?
What advantages did bicycles bring to women?
A French Physician describes a slum in Lille
What does Villerme find most disturbing about the scene he describes?
How is his description possibly designed to call forth sympathy and concern from a middle-class reader?
How might the conditions described have led the poor of France toward socialism or radical politics?
How would addressing the problems described have increased the role of government?
An English Feminist Defends The Female Franchise
What motives does Cobbe assign to the pursuit of the right to vote?
Why does she emphasize “womanliness” as an issue that must not be allowed to undermine the cause of women?
What does Cobbe think about violence?
Why would later British advocates of votes for women turn to violent tactics?
Eduard Bernstein Criticizes Orthodox Marxism
According to Bernstein, what specific predictions in the Communist Manifesto failed to materialize?
Why is the advance of democracy important to his argument?
Why does he see the extension of political rights to German workers as so important?
Lenin Argues For the Necessity of A Secret and Elite Party of Professional Revolutionaries
What does Lenin mean by “professional revolutionaries”?
Why does Russia need such revolutionaries?
How does Lenin reconcile his antidemocratic views to the goal of aiding the working class?
"What is a suffragette? A being who has ceased to be a lady and is no gentleman." - Charles Hands
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Chapter 24 Worksheet- The Birth of Modern Thought
Terms to Identify
Butler, Josephine
Chamberlain, Houston Stewart
Comte, Auguste
Contagious Diseases Acts
cubism
Darwin, Charles
ego
Einstein, Albert
Ficke, Auguste
Folies-Bergere
Freud, Sigmund
Gobineau, Arthur de
Herzl, Theodor
Huxley, Thomas
Ibsen, Henrik
Id
impressionism
Joyce, James
Jung, Carl
Keynesian economics
Kulturkampf
Lyell, Charles
Mann, Thomas
May laws
Mendel, Gregor
modernism
natural selection
Nietzsch, Friedrich
papal infallibility
Picasso, Pablo
pointillism
positivism
post-impressionism
Protestant Ethic
Proust, Marcel,
racism
realism
relativity
Roentgen, Wilhelm
Shaw, George Bernard
Social Darwinism
Spencer, Herbert
Stopes,Marie
superego
Wallace, Alfred Russel
Weber, Max
Woolf, Virginia
Zionism
Chapter Questions
What effect did Darwin's theory of natural selection have on theories of European views of human nature?
How and why did Christianity come under attack in the late 19C?
What are the differences between realism and modernism?
How did Nietzsche and Freud challenge traditional middle-class and religious morality?
Textbook DQ’s
The Birth of Science Fiction (Secondary)
Why is Jules Verne considered the father of modern science fiction?
What enduring plot devices did H.G. Wells introduce?
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Why did science fiction become so popular?
T.H. Huxley Criticizes Evolutionary Ethics
What does Huxley mean by the “cosmic process”?
Why does he equate “social progress” with the “ethical process”?
In this passage, does Huxley present human society as part of nature or as something that may be separate from
nature?
Leo XII Considers the Social Question In European Politics
How does Leo XIII reject the concept of class conflict?
What responsibilities does he assign to the rich and to the poor?
Are the responsibilities of the two classes equal?
What kinds of social reform might emerge from these ideas?
Alexis de Tocqueville Forcasts The Danger of Gobineau’s Racial Thought
Why does Tocqueville see Gobineau’s idea as a kind of materialistic determinism?
Why does he think Gobineau’s views are wrong?
Why does he see political danger in racial thinking?
H.S. Chamberlain Exalts the Role of Race
What does Chamberlain mean by “Race” in this passage?
How, in his view, does race, as opposed to character or environment, determine human nature?
How might a nationalist use these ideas?
Herzl Calls For A Jewish State
Why doe Herzl define what he calls the Jewish Question as a national question?
What objections does he anticipate to the founding of a Jewish state?
What does he believe the founding of a Jewish state will be an effective move against anti-Semitism?
Virginia Woolf Urges Women to Write
How does Woolf’s fiction of Shakespeare’s sister establish a benchmark for women writers?
What does Woolf mean by the common life through which women will need to work to become independent writers?
Why does she emphasize the need for women to have both income and space if they are to become independent
writers?
"God is dead." - Nietzsche
"Nietzsche is dead." - God
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APPARTS Essay Reading
Alexander II The Abolition of Serfdom in Russia, Manifesto of February 19, 1861
This is the ceremonial preamble to the hundreds of pages of statutes spelling out the terms of the abolition of serfdom.
It was ghost-written by the Metropolitan of Moscow, who opposed the reform.
By the Grace of God WE, Alexander II, Emperor and Autocrat of All Russia, King of Poland, Grand Duke of Finland,
etc., make known to all OUR faithful subjects:
Called by Divine Providence and by the sacred right of inheritance to the Russian throne of OUR ancestors, WE vowed
in OUR heart to respond to the mission which is entrusted to Us and to surround with OUR affection and OUR Imperial
solicitude all OUR faithful subjects of every rank and condition, from the soldier who nobly defends the country to the
humble artisan who works in industry; from the career official of the state to the plowman who tills the soil.
Examining the condition of classes and professions comprising the state, WE became convinced that the present state
legislation favors the upper and middle classes, defines their obligations, rights, and privileges, but does not equally
favor the serfs, so designated because in part from old laws and in part from custom they have been hereditarily
subjected to the authority of landowners, who in turn were obligated to provide for their well being. Rights of nobles
have been hitherto very broad and legally ill defined, because they stem from tradition, custom, and the good will of the
noblemen. In most cases this has led to the establishment of good patriarchal relations based on the sincere, just
concern and benevolence on the part of the nobles, and on affectionate submission on the part of the peasants. Because
of the decline of the simplicity of morals, because of an increase in the diversity of relations, because of the weakening
of the direct paternal relationship of nobles toward the peasants, and because noble rights fell sometimes into the hands
of people exclusively concerned with their personal interests, good relations weakened. The way was opened for an
arbitrariness burdensome for the peasants and detrimental to their welfare, causing them to be indifferent to the
improvement of their own existence.
These facts had already attracted the attention of OUR predecessors of glorious memory, and they had adopted
measures aimed at improving the conditions of the peasants; but these measures were ineffective, partly because they
depended on the free, generous action of nobles, and partly because they affected only some localities, by virtue of
special circumstances or as an experiment. Thus Alexander I issued a decree on free agriculturists, and the late
Emperor Nicholas, OUR beloved father, promulgated one dealing with serfs: in the Western provinces, inventory
regulations now determine the peasant land allotments and their obligations. But decrees on free agriculturists and
[western] serfs have been carried out on a limited scale only.
WE thus became convinced that the problem of improving the condition of serfs was a sacred inheritance bequeathed to
Us by OUR predecessors, a mission which, in the course of events, Divine Providence has called upon Us to fulfill.
WE have begun this task by expressing OUR confidence toward the Russian nobility, which has proven on so many
occasions its devotion to the Throne, and its readiness to make sacrifices for the welfare of the country.
WE have left to the nobles themselves, in accordance with their own wishes, the task of preparing proposals for the new
organization of peasant life—proposals that would limit their rights over the peasants, and the realization of which
would inflict on them [the nobles] some material losses. OUR confidence was justified. Through members of the
provincial committees, who were entrusted [with the task] by the corporate organizations of the nobility in each
province, after collecting the necessary data, have formulated proposals on a new arrangement for serfs and their
relationship with the nobles.
These proposals were diverse, because of the nature of the problem. They have been compared, collated, systematized,
rectified and finalized in the Main Committee instituted for that purpose; and these new arrangements dealing with the
peasants and household serfs1[1] of the nobility have been examined in the Council of State.
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Having invoked Divine assistance, WE have resolved to execute this task.
On the basis of the above-mentioned new arrangements, the serfs will receive in time the full rights of free rural
inhabitants.
The nobles, while retaining their property rights to all the lands belonging to them, grant the peasants perpetual use of
their household plots in return for a specified obligation; and, to assure their livelihood as well as to guarantee
fulfillment of their obligations toward time government, [the nobles] grant them a portion of arable land fixed by the
said arrangements as well as other property.
While enjoying these land allotments, the peasants are obliged, in return, to fulfill obligations to the noblemen fixed by
the same arrangements. In this status, which is temporary, the peasants are temporarily bound.
At the same time, they are granted the right to purchase their household plots, and, with the consent of the nobles, they
may acquire in full ownership the arable lands and other properties which are allotted them for permanent use.
Following such acquisition of full ownership of land, the peasants will be freed from their obligations to the nobles for
the land thus purchased and will become free peasant landowners.
A special decree dealing with household serfs will establish a temporary status for them, adapted to their occupations
and their needs. At the end of two years from the day of the promulgation of this decree, they shall receive full freedom
and some temporary benefits.
In accordance with the fundamental principles of these arrangements, the future organization of peasants and household
serfs will be determined, the order of general peasant administration will be established, and the rights given to the
peasants and to the household serfs will be spelled out in detail, as will the obligations imposed on them toward the
government and the nobles.
Although these arrangements, general as well as local, and the special supplementary rules affecting some particular
localities, estates of petty nobles, and peasants working in factories and enterprises of the nobles, have been as far as
possible adapted to economic necessities and local customs; nevertheless, to preserve the existing order where it
presents reciprocal advantages, WE leave it to the nobles to reach a voluntary understanding with the peasants and to
reach agreements on the extent of the land allotment and the obligations stemming from it, observing, at the same time,
the established rules to guarantee the inviolability of such agreements.
This new arrangement, because of its complexity, cannot be put into effect immediately, an interval of not less than two
years is necessary. During this period, to avoid all misunderstanding and to protect public and private interests, the
order actually existing on the estates of nobles should be maintained until the new order shall become effective.
Towards that end, WE have deemed it advisable:
1. To establish in each province a special Office of Peasant Affairs, which will be entrusted with the affairs of the
peasant communes established on the estates of the nobility.
2. To appoint in every district arbiters of the peace to solve all misunderstandings and disputes which may arise from
time new arrangements and to organize from these justices district assemblies.
3. To organize Peace Offices on the estates of the nobles, leaving the village communes as they are, and to open
cantonal offices in the large villages and unite small village communes under one cantonal office.
4. To formulate, verify, and confirm in each village commune or estate a charter which will specify, on the basis of
local conditions, the amount of land allotted to the peasants for permanent use, and the scope of their obligations to the
nobleman for the land as well as for other advantages which are granted.
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5. To put these charters into practice as they are gradually approved on each estate, and to put them into effect
everywhere within two years from the date of publication of this manifesto.
6. Until that time, peasants and household serfs must be obedient towards their nobles, and scrupulously fulfill their
former obligations.
7. The nobles will continue to keep order on their estates, with the right of jurisdiction and of police, until the
organization of cantons and of cantonal courts.
Aware of the unavoidable difficulties of this reform, WE place OUR confidence above all in the graciousness of Divine
Providence, which watches over Russia.
WE also rely upon the zealous devotion of OUR nobility, to whom WE express OUR gratitude and that of the entire
country as well, for the unselfish support it has given to the realization of OUR designs. Russia will not forget that the
nobility, motivated by its respect for the dignity of man and its Christian love of its neighbor, has voluntarily renounced
serfdom, and has laid the foundation of a new economic future for the peasants. WE also expect that it will continue to
express further concern for the realization of the new arrangement in a spirit of peace and benevolence, and that each
nobleman will bring to fruition on his estate the great civic act of time entire group by organizing the lives of his
peasants and his household serfs on mutually advantageous terms, thereby setting for the rural population a good
example of a punctual and conscientious execution of the state’s requirements.
The examples of the generous concern of the nobles for the welfare of peasants, amid the gratitude of the latter for that
concern, give Us the hope that a mutual understanding will solve most of the difficulties, which in some cases will be
inevitable during the application of general rules to the diverse conditions on some estates, and that thereby the
transition from the old order to time new will be facilitated, and that in the future mutual confidence will be
strengthened, and a good understanding and a unanimous tendency towards the general good will evolve.
To facilitate the realization of these agreements between the nobles arid the peasants, by which the latter may acquire
full ownership of their household plots and their houses, the government will lend assistance, under special regulations,
by means of loans or transfer of debts encumbering an estate.
WE rely upon the common sense of OUR people. When the government advanced the idea of abolishing serfdom,
there developed a partial misunderstanding among the unprepared peasants. Some were concerned about freedom and
not concerned about obligations. But, generally, the common sense of the nation has not wavered, because it has
realized that every individual who enjoys freely the benefits of society owes it in return certain positive obligations;
according to Christian law every individual is subject to higher authority (Romans, chap. xiii., 1); everyone must fulfill
his obligations, and, above all, render tribute, dues, respect, and honor (Ibid., chap. xiii., 7). What legally belongs to
nobles cannot be taken away from them without adequate compensation, or through their voluntary concession; it
would be contrary to all justice to use the land of the nobles without assuming corresponding obligations.
And now WE confidently expect that the freed serfs, on the eve of a new future, which is opening to them, will
appreciate and recognize the considerable sacrifices which the nobility has made on their behalf.
They should understand that by acquiring property and greater freedom to dispose of their possessions, they have an
obligation to society and to themselves to live up to the letter of the new law by a loyal and judicious use of the rights
which are now granted to them. However beneficial a law may be, it cannot make people happy if they do not
themselves organize their happiness under protection of the law. Abundance is acquired only through hard work, wise
use of strength and resources, strict economy, and above all, through an honest God-fearing life.
The authorities who prepared the new way of life for the peasants and who will be responsible for its inauguration will
have to see that this task is accomplished with calmness and regularity, taking advantage of the time allotted, in order
not to divert the attention of cultivators away from their agricultural work. Let them zealously work the soil and
harvest its fruits so that they will have a full granary of seeds to return to the soil which will be theirs.
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And now, Orthodox people, make the sign of the cross, and join with Us to invoke God’s blessing upon your free
labor, the sure pledge of your personal well being and the public prosperity.
Given at St. Petersburg, March 3, the year of Grace 1861, and the seventh of OUR reign.
Alexander
dvorovye -- serfs who did not hold allotments of land; most of them worked as domestic servants or craftspeople.
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APPARTS Essay Reading
John Stuart Mill: from The Subjection of Women
In this classic analysis of the inequality of the sexes, John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) drew on forty years of collaboration
with Harriet Taylor, the last eight of which (1851-1859) they were married. Son of philosopher James Mill, John Mill
became a friend of feminist William Thompson in 1825. He met and fell in love with Harriet Taylor in 1830, who was
married with young children. They married in 1851 after the death of her husband. From 1834 to 1840 Mill edited The
London and Westminster Review, a radical quarterly that published Charles Dickens and other leading Victorian
writers. From 1840 to 1857 Mill supported himself as an administrator in the East India Company. This gave him time
to write major works in the history of British philosophical utilitarianism and liberalism, including System of Logic
(1843), Principles of Political Economy (1848), On Liberty (1859), Considerations on Representative Government
(1860), Utilitarianism (1863). After his wife's death in 1859, Mill served as a radical member of Parliament, where he
supported woman suffrage, the interests of working people, and land reform in Ireland.
The general opinion of men is supposed to be, that the natural vocation of a woman is that of a wife and mother. I
say, is supposed to be, because, judging from acts--from the whole of the present constitution of society--one might
infer that their opinion was the direct contrary. They might be supposed to think that the alleged natural vocation of
women was of all things the most repugnant to their nature; insomuch that if they are free to do anything else--if any
other means of living, or occupation of their time and faculties, is open, which has any chance of appearing desirable to
them--there will not be enough of them who will be willing to accept the condition said to be natural to them. If this is
the real opinion of men in general, it would be well that it should be spoken out. I should like to hear somebody openly
enunciating the doctrine (it is already implied in much that is written on the subject)--"It is necessary to society that
women should marry and produce children. They will not do so unless they are compelled. Therefore it is necessary to
compel them." The merits of the case would then be clearly defined. It would be exactly that of the slaveholders of
South Carolina and Louisiana. "It is necessary that cotton and sugar should be grown. White men cannot produce them.
Negroes will not, for any wages which we choose to give. Ergo they must be compelled." An illustration still closer to
the point is that of impressment. Sailors must absolutely be had to defend the country. It often happens that they will
not voluntarily enlist. Therefore there must be the power of forcing them. How often has this logic been used! and, but
for for one flaw in it, without doubt it would have been successful up to this day. But it is open to the retort--First pay
the sailors the honest value of their labour. When you have made it as well worth their while to serve you, as to work
for other employers, you will have no more difficulty than others have in obtaining their services. To this there is no
logical answer except "I will not:" and as people are now not only ashamed, but are not desirous, to rob the labourer of
his hire, impressment is no longer advocated. Those who attempt to force women into marriage by closing all other
doors against them, lay themselves open to a similar retort. If they mean what they say, their opinion must evidently be,
that men do not render the married condition so desirable to women, as to induce them to accept it for its own
recommendations. It is not a sign of one's thinking the boon one offers very attractive, when one allows only Hobson's
choice, "that or none." And here, I believe, is the clue to the feelings of those men, who have a real antipathy to the
equal freedom of women. I believe they are afraid, not lest women should be unwilling to marry, for I do not think that
any one in reality has that apprehension; but lest they should insist that marriage should be on equal conditions; lest all
women of spirit and capacity should prefer doing almost anything else, not in their own eyes degrading, rather than
marry, when marrying is giving themselves a master, and a master too of all their earthly possessions. And truly, if this
consequence were necessarily incident to marriage, I think that the apprehension would be very well founded. I agree in
thinking it probable that few women, capable of anything else, would, unless under an irresistible entrainement,
rendering them for the time insensible to anything but itself, choose such a lot, when any other means were open to
them of filling a conventionally honourable place in life: and if men are determined that the law of marriage shall be a
law of despotism, they are quite right, in point of mere policy, in leaving to women only Hobson's choice. But, in that
case, all that has been done in the modern world to relax the chain on the minds of women, has been a mistake. They
never should have been allowed to receive a literary education. Women who read, much more women who write, are, in
the existing constitution of things, a contradiction and a disturbing element: and it was wrong to bring a women up with
any acquirements but those of an odalisque, or of a domestic servant.
*
*
*
The equality of married persons before the law is not only the sole mode in which that particular relation can be
made consistent with justice to both sides, and conductive to the happiness of both, but it is the only means of rendering
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the daily life of mankind, in any high sense, a school of moral cultivation. Though the truth may not be felt or
generally acknowledged for generations to come, the only school or genuine moral sentiment is society between equals.
The moral education of mankind has hitherto emanated chiefly from the law of force, and is adapted almost solely to
the relations which force creates. In the less advanced states of society, people hardly recognise any relation with their
equals. To be an equal is to be an enemy. Society, from its highest place to its lowest, is one long chain, or rather
ladder, where every individual is either above or below his nearest neighbour, and wherever he does not command he
must obey. Existing moralities, accordingly, are mainly fitted to a relation of command and obedience. Yet command
and obedience are but unfortunate necessities of human life: society in equality is its normal state. Already in modern
life, and more and more as it progressively improves, command and obedience become exceptional facts in life, equal
association its general rule. The morality of the first ages rested on the obligation to submit to power; that of the ages
next following, on the right of the weak to the forbearance and protection of the strong. How much longer is one form
of society and life to content itself with the morality made for another? We have had the morality of submission, and
the morality of chivalry and generosity; the time is now come for the morality of justice. Whenever, in former ages, any
approach has been made to society in equality, Justice has asserted its claims as the foundation of virtue. It was thus in
the free republics of antiquity. But even in the best of these, the equals were limited to the free male citizens; slaves,
women, and the unenfranchised residents were under the law of force. The joint influence of Roman civilization and of
Christianity obliterated these distinctions, and in theory (if only partially in practice) declared the claims of the human
being, as such, to be paramount to those of sex, class, or social position. The barriers which had begun to be levelled
were raised again by the northern conquests; and the whole of modern history consists of the slow process by which
they have since been wearing away. We are entering into an order of things in which justice will again be the primary
virtue; grounded as before on equal, but now also on sympathetic association; having its root no longer in the instinct of
equals for self-protection, but in a cultivated sympathy between them; and no one being now left out, but an equal
measure being extended to all. It is no novelty that mankind do not distinctly foresee their own changes, and that their
sentiments are adapted to past, not to coming ages. To see the futurity of the species has always been the privilege of
the intellectual élite, or of those who have learnt from them; to have the feelings of that futurity has been the distinction,
and usually the martyrdom, of a still rarer élite. Institutions, books, education, society, all go on training human beings
for the old, long after the new has come; much more when it is only coming. But the true virtue of human beings is
fitness to live together as equals; claiming nothing for themselves but what they as freely concede to every one else;
regarding command of any kind as an exceptional necessity, and in all cases a temporary one; and preferring, whenever
possible, the society of those with whom leading and following can be alternate and reciprocal. To these virtues,
nothing in life as at present constituted gives cultivation by exercise. The family is a school of despotism, in which the
virtues of despotism, but also its vices, are largely nourished. Citizenship, in free countries, is partly a school of society
in equality; but citizenship fills only a small place in modern life, and does not come near the daily habits or inmost
sentiments. The family, justly constituted, would be the real school of the virtues of freedom. It is sure to be a sufficient
one of everything else. It will always be a school of obedience for the children, of command for the parents. What is
needed is, that it should be a school of sympathy in equality, of living together in love, without power on one side or
obedience on the other. This it ought to be between the parents. It would then be an exercise of those virtues which each
requires to fit them for all other association, and a model to the children of the feelings and conduct which their
temporary training by means of obedience is designed to render habitual, and therefore natural, to them. The moral
training of mankind will never be adapted to the conditions of the life for which all other human progress is a
preparation, until they practise in the family the same moral rule which is adapted to the normal constitution of human
society.
*
*
*
What marriage may be in the case of two persons of cultivated faculties, identical in opinions and purposes,
between whom there exists that best kind of equality, similarity of powers and capacities with reciprocal superiority in
them--so that each can enjoy the luxury of looking up to the other, and can have alternately the pleasure of leading and
of being led in the path of development--I will not attempt to describe. To those who can conceive it, there is no need;
to those who cannot, it would appear the dream of an enthusiast. But I maintain, with the profoundest conviction, that
this, and this only, is the ideal marriage; and that all opinions, customs, and institutions which favour any other notion
of it, or turn the conceptions and aspirations connected with it into any other direction, by whatever pretences they may
be coloured, are relics of primitive barbarism. The moral regeneration of mankind will only really commence, when the
most fundamental of the social relations is placed under the rule of equal justice, and when human beings learn to
cultivate their strongest sympathy with an equal in rights and in cultivation.
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Unit X - Imperialism, WWI, Russian Revolution
Chapters 25
Well, you've come to the right place, Bob. A war hasn't been fought this badly since Olaf the Hairy, high chief of all the
Vikings, accidentally ordered 80,000 battle helmets with the horns on the inside..." --Captain Blackadder, in
Blackadder Goes Forth (1989)
After reading chapter 25 you should understand:





The economic, strategic, and cultural forces driving the New Imperialism .
The search for strategic advantage among European nations and the creation of opposing alliance systems .
The immediate origins and course of the Great War (World War I) .
The Bolshevik Revolution in Russia that permanently swept away the monarchy and created the world’s first
viable Communist state.
The Versailles Treaty and associated treaties that ended the war, but left a very difficult legacy that threatened
the post-war order in Europe.
170
Potential FRQ Questions
"Every successful revolution puts on in time the robes of the tyrant that it deposed." Evaluate this statement with
regard to the English Revolution (1640-1660), the French Revolution (1789-1815), and the Russian Revolution
(1917-1930).
In what ways and why did Lenin alter Marxism?
Compare and contrast the roles of the peasantry and urban workers in the French Revolution with the peasantry and
urban workers of the Russian Revolution.
To what extent and in what ways did Nationalist tension in the Balkans between 1870 and 1914 contribute to the
outbreak of the First World War?
Compare and contrast the degree of success of treaties negotiated in Vienna (1814-1815) and Versailles (1919) in
achieving European stability.
"The tsarist regime fell in 1917 because it had permitted tremendous change and progress in some areas while
trying to maintain a political order that had outlived its time." Assess the validity of this statement as an explanation
of the abdication of Nicholas II in 1917.
Discuss and analyze the long-term social and economic trends in the period 1860 to 1917 that prepared the ground
for revolution in Russia.
"1914-1918 marks a turning point in the intellectual and cultural history of Europe." Defend, refute, or modify this
statement with reference to the generation before and the generation after the First World War.
Analyze and assess the extent to which the First World War accelerated European social change in such areas as
work, sex roles, and government involvement in everyday life.
Major Unit Assignments
World War I Limericks
World War I DBQ
TIAA Assignment
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World War I Limericks
The standard form for a limerick is a five line format with the rhyming scheme aabba (the first, second, and last lines
rhyme with one another, and the fourth and fifth lines usually use a different rhyme, and rhyme only with each other).
My name is John Wellington Wells.
I'm a dealer in magic and spells.
In blessings and curses
And ever-filled purses
In prophecies, witches and knells.
You and with a group of 3 will choose one of the key events or people from World War I to write a limerick about (see
below). Use the above format.
Requirements
Follows general limerick format (5)
Includes information about your event, alliance, or person
from the list below. (5)
Write your finished Limerick on a poster or large paper for
my to post in the room to help your classmates remember
World War I. (5)
Total Points
Bonus: Illustrate limerick (10) (Bonus available only if
group uses class time effectively.)
For the A
Creative use of language (5)
Limerick has specific information
and is designed to be memorable
(5)
Possible Earned
10
10
5
25
10
Assassination of the Archduke
Triple alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy)
Triple Entente (France, Great Britain, Russia)
Italy switches sides
Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottomans)
Allied Powers (France, Great Britain, Portugal, Russia, Serbia, Romania, Albania, Greece—you can leave some of the
minor one out if you must)
Rationing
Trench warfare
Women in the Workplace
Treaty of Versailles
Treaty of Trianon
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Chapter 25 Worksheet- Imperialism, World War I
Terms to Identify
Berlin Conference
Bethmann-Hollweg, Theobald
blank check
Boer War
Boers
Bolshevik Revolution
Bosnian Crisis
Clemenceau, Georges
Congress of Berlin
Conrad, Joseph
Dual Alliance
Entente Cordiale
Ferdinand, Francis
First Balkan War
First Moroccan Crisis
Fourteen Points
Franco-Russian Alliance
George, David Lloyd
Hobson, J.A.
imperialism
jingoism
Kemal, Mustafa
Kerensky, Alexander
Khedives
League of Nations
Leopold II
Ludendorff, Erich
Lusitania
mandates
Mecca
Moltke, Helmut von
Monroe Doctrine New Imperialism
Open Door Policy
reparations
Schlieffen Plan
Schlieffen, Alfred von
Scramble for Africa
Second Moroccan Crisis
Spanish American War
Stanley, Henry Morton
Suez Canal
Three Emperor's League
Tirpitz, Alfred von
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
Treaty of San Stefano
Triple Alliance
Triple Entente
Trotsky, Leon
Victoria
war guilt clause
White Russians
William II
Wilson, Woodrow
World War I
Chapter Questions
How and why did European attitudes toward imperialism change after 1871?
What features differentiate the New Imperialism from earlier imperialistic movements?
What factors led to the Anglo-German rivalry?
How did developments in the Balkans lead to the outbreak of WWI?
Who (or what) is most responsible for causing WWI?
What were the benefits of the Versailles Treaty to Europe, and what were its drawbacks ?
How did Lenin's version of socialism differ from that of other socialists in Europe?
What role did Trotsky play in the Russian Revolution?
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Textbook DQ’s
Social Darwinism and Imperialism
How does the author connect Darwin’s ideas to the concept of human progress?
Is it reasonable to equate biological species with human societies, races, or nations?
How do the author’s ideas justify imperial expansion?
What arguments can you make against the author’s assertions?
Bismarck Explains His Foreign Policy
What alliances made up Bismarck’s system?
How were they meant to preserve the peace?
What is Bismarck’s stated purpose for avoiding a war in Europe?
Were there other reasons too?
The Kaiser’s Comments on the Outbreak of the World War
What was the significance of mobilization on which the Kaiser places so much emphasis ?
Why does the Kaiser focus so much anger on England?
In 1914, why was Great Britain aligned with its traditional rivals, France and Russia against Germany?
The Outbreak of the Russian Revolution
What elements contributing to the success of the March Revolution emerge from this selection?
Why might the army have been unreliable?
Why did the two ambassadors think a new ministry should be appointed?
What were the grievances of the revolutionaries?
Why is there no Discussion of the leaders of the revolution?
What role did the emperor (tsar) play in these events?
An Eyewitness Account of the Bolshevik’s Seizure of Power
What was the Provisional government?
How did it come into being?
Why was it under pressure in November 1917?
Which groups were vying for power?
What program gave victory to the Bolsheviks?
174
War Propaganda and the Movies: Charlie Chaplin (Secondary)
What were the purposes of propaganda in the war?
What were the advantages of using movies in the war effort?
Imperialism (Secondary)
What were the major ancient attitudes toward imperialism and what are the major modern attitudes?
How do you account for the differences?
What justifications and explanations have modern people used in connection with imperialism?
Which do you think are the most important?
Do you think ancient and modern reasons for imperialism are fundamentally different?
175
APPARTS Essay Reading: Karl Pearson:
National Life From the Standpoint of Science, 1900
History shows me one way, and one way only, in which a high state of civilization has been produced, namely, the
struggle of race with race, and the survival of the physically and mentally fitter race. If you want to know whether the
lower races of man can evolve a higher type, I fear the only course is to leave them to fight it out among themselves,
and even then the struggle for existence between individual and individual, between tribe and tribe, may not be
supported by that physical selection due to a particular climate on which probably so much of the Aryan's success
depended. . .
The struggle means suffering, intense suffering, while it is in progress; but that struggle and that suffering have been the
stages by which the white man has reached his present stage of development, and they account for the fact that he no
longer lives in caves and feeds on roots and nuts. This dependence of progress on the survival of the fitter race, terribly
black as it may seem to some of you, gives the struggle for existence its redeeming features; it is the fiery crucible out
of which comes the finer metal. You may hope for a time when the sword shall be turned into the plowshare, when
American and German and English traders shall no longer compete in the markets of the world for their raw material
and for their food supply, when the white man and the dark shall share the soil between them, and each till it as he lists.
But, believe me, when that day comes mankind will no longer progress; there will be nothing to check the fertility of
inferior stock; the relentless law of heredity will not be controlled and guided by natural selection. Man will stagnate;
and unless he ceases to multiply, the catastrophe will come again; famine and pestilence, as we see them in the East,
physical selection instead of the struggle of race against race, will do the work more relentlessly, and, to judge from
India and China, far less efficiently than of old. . .
There is a struggle of race against race and of nation against nation. In the early days of that struggle it was a blind,
unconscious struggle of barbaric tribes. At the present day, in the case of the civilized white man, it has become more
and more the conscious, carefully directed attempt of the nation to fit itself to a continuously changing environment.
The nations has to foresee how and where the struggle will be carried on; the maintenance of national position is
becoming more and more a conscious preparation for changing conditions, an insight into the needs of coming
environments.
We have to remember that man is subject to the universal law of inheritance, and that a dearth of capacity may arise if
we recruit our society from the inferior and not the better stock. If any social opinions or class prejudices tamper with
the fertility of the better stocks, then the national character will take but a few generations to be seriously modified. The
pressure of population should always tend to push brains and physique into occupations where they are not a primary
necessity, for in this way a reserve is formed for the times of national crisis. Such a reserve can always be formed by
filling up with men of our own kith and kin the waste lands of the earth, even at the expense of an inferior race of
inhabitants. . . .
You will see that my view---and I think it may be called the scientific view of a nation---is that of an organized whole,
kept up to a high pitch of internal efficiency by insuring that its numbers are substantially recruited from the better
stocks, and kept up to a high pitch of internal efficiency by insuring that its numbers are substantially recruited from the
better stocks, and kept up to a high pitch of external efficiency by contest, chiefly by way of war with inferior races,
and with equal races by the struggle for trade-routes and for the sources of raw material and of food supply. This is the
natural history view of mankind, and I do not think you can in its main features subvert it. Some of you may realize it,
and then despair of life; you may decline to admit any glory in a world where the superior race must either eject the
inferior, or, mixing with it, or even living alongside it, degenerate itself. What beauty can there be when the battle is to
the stronger, and the weaker must suffer in the struggle of nations and in the struggle of individual men? You may say:
Let us cease to struggle; let us leave the lands of the world to the races that cannot profit by them to the full; let us cease
to compete in the markets of the world. Well, we could do it, if we were a small nation living on the produce of our own
soil, and a soil so worthless that no other race envied it and sought to appropriate it. We should cease to advance; but
then we should naturally give up progress as a good which comes through suffering. . .
The man who tells us that he feels to all men alike, that he has no sense of kinship, that he has no patriotic sentiment,
that he loves the Kaffir as he loves his brother, is probably deceiving himself. If he is not, then all we can say is that a
176
nation of such men, or even a nation with a large minority of such men, will not stand for many generations; it
cannot survive in the struggle of the nations, it cannot be a factor in the contest upon which human progress ultimately
depends. The national spirit is not a thing to be ashamed of, as the educated man seems occasionally to hold. If that
spirit be the mere excrescence of the music hall, or an ignorant assertion of superiority to the foreigner, it may be
ridiculous, it may even be nationally dangerous; but if the national spirit takes the form of a strong feeling of the
importance of organizing the nation as a whole, of making its social and economic conditions such that it is able to do
its work in the world and meet its fellows without hesitation in the field and in the market, then it seems to me a wholly
good spirit---indeed, one of the highest forms of social, that is, moral instinct.
So far from our having too much of this spirit of patriotism, I doubt if we have anything like enough of it. We wait to
improve the condition of some class of workers until they themselves cry out or even rebel against their economic
condition. We do not better their state because we perceive its relation to the strength and stability of the nation as a
whole. Too often it is done as the outcome of a blind class war. The coal owners, the miners, the manufacturers, the
mill-hands, the landlords, the farmers, the agricultural laborers, struggle against each other, and, in doing so, against the
nation at large, and our statesmen as a rule look on. That was the correct attitude from the standpoint of the old political
economy. It is not the correct attitude from the standpoint of science; for science realizes that the nation is an organized
whole, in continual struggle with its competitors. You cannot get a strong and effective nation if many of its stomachs
are half fed and many of its brains untrained. We, as a nation, cannot survive in the struggle for existence if we allow
class distinctions to permanently endow the brainless and to push them into posts of national responsibility. The true
statesman has to limit the internal struggle of the community in order to make it stronger for the external struggle. We
must reward ability, we must pay for brains, we must give larger advantage to physique; but we must not do this at a
rate which renders the lot of the mediocre a wholly unhappy one. We must foster exceptional brains and physique for
nation purposes; but, however useful prize cattle may be, they are not bred for their own sake, but as a step toward the
improvement of the whole herd. . .
Science is not a dogma; it has no infallible popes to pronounce authoritatively what its teaching is. I can only say how it
seems to one individual scientific worker that the doctrine of evolution applies to the history of nations. My
interpretation may be wrong, but of the true method I am sure: a community of men is as subject as a community of
ants or as a herd of buffaloes to the laws which rule all organic nature. We cannot escape from them; it serves no
purpose to protest at what some term their cruelty and their bloodthirstiness. . .
Mankind as a whole, like the individual man, advances through pain and suffering only. The path of progress is strewn
with the wreck of nations; traces are everywhere to be seen of the hecatombs of inferior races, and of victims who
found not the narrow way to the greater perfection. Yet these dead peoples are, in very truth, the steppingstones on
which mankind has arisen to the higher intellectual and deeper emotional life of today.
177
APPARTS Essay Reading: January 8, 1918:
President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points
It will be our wish and purpose that the processes of peace, when they are begun, shall be absolutely open and that
they shall involve and permit henceforth no secret understandings of any kind. The day of conquest and aggrandizement
is gone by; so is also the day of secret covenants entered into in the interest of particular governments and likely at
some unlooked-for moment to upset the peace of the world. It is this happy fact, now clear to the view of every public
man whose thoughts do not still linger in an age that is dead and gone, which makes it possible for every nation whose
purposes are consistent with justice and the peace of the world to avow nor or at any other time the objects it has in
view.
We entered this war because violations of right had occurred which touched us to the quick and made the life of our
own people impossible unless they were corrected and the world secure once for all against their recurrence. What we
demand in this war, therefore, is nothing peculiar to ourselves. It is that the world be made fit and safe to live in; and
particularly that it be made safe for every peace-loving nation which, like our own, wishes to live its own life,
determine its own institutions, be assured of justice and fair dealing by the other peoples of the world as against force
and selfish aggression. All the peoples of the world are in effect partners in this interest, and for our own part we see
very clearly that unless justice be done to others it will not be done to us. The programme of the world's peace,
therefore, is our programme; and that programme, the only possible programme, as we see it, is this:
I. Open covenants of peace, openly arrived at, after which there shall be no private international understandings of
any kind but diplomacy shall proceed always frankly and in the public view.
II. Absolute freedom of navigation upon the seas, outside territorial waters, alike in peace and in war, except as the
seas may be closed in whole or in part by international action for the enforcement of international covenants.
III. The removal, so far as possible, of all economic barriers and the establishment of an equality of trade
conditions among all the nations consenting to the peace and associating themselves for its maintenance.
IV. Adequate guarantees given and taken that national armaments will be reduced to the lowest point consistent
with domestic safety.
V. A free, open-minded, and absolutely impartial adjustment of all colonial claims, based upon a strict observance
of the principle that in determining all such questions of sovereignty the interests of the populations concerned must
have equal weight with the equitable claims of the government whose title is to be determined.
VI. The evacuation of all Russian territory and such a settlement of all questions affecting Russia as will secure the
best and freest cooperation of the other nations of the world in obtaining for her an unhampered and unembarrassed
opportunity for the independent determination of her own political development and national policy and assure her of a
sincere welcome into the society of free nations under institutions of her own choosing; and, more than a welcome,
assistance also of every kind that she may need and may herself desire. The treatment accorded Russia by her sister
nations in the months to come will be the acid test of their good will, of their comprehension of her needs as
distinguished from their own interests, and of their intelligent and unselfish sympathy.
VII. Belgium, the whole world will agree, must be evacuated and restored, without any attempt to limit the
sovereignty which she enjoys in common with all other free nations. No other single act will serve as this will serve to
restore confidence among the nations in the laws which they have themselves set and determined for the government of
their relations with one another. Without this healing act the whole structure and validity of international law is forever
impaired.
VIII. All French territory should be freed and the invaded portions restored, and the wrong done to France by
Prussia in 1871 in the matter of Alsace-Lorraine, which has unsettled the peace of the world for nearly fifty years,
should be righted, in order that peace may once more be made secure in the interest of all.
178
IX. A readjustment of the frontiers of Italy should be effected along clearly recognizable lines of nationality.
X. The peoples of Austria-Hungary, whose place among the nations we wish to see safeguarded and assured,
should be accorded the freest opportunity to autonomous development.
XI. Rumania, Serbia, and Montenegro should be evacuated; occupied territories restored; Serbia accorded free and
secure access to the sea; and the relations of the several Balkan states to one another determined by friendly counsel
along historically established lines of allegiance and nationality; and international guarantees of the political and
economic independence and territorial integrity of the several Balkan states should be entered into.
XII. The turkish portion of the present Ottoman Empire should be assured a secure sovereignty, but the other
nationalities which are now under Turkish rule should be assured an undoubted security of life and an absolutely
unmolested opportunity of autonomous development, and the Dardanelles should be permanently opened as a free
passage to the ships and commerce of all nations under international guarantees.
XIII. An independent Polish state should be erected which should include the territories inhabited by indisputably
Polish populations, which should be assured a free and secure access to the sea, and whose political and economic
independence and territorial integrity should be guaranteed by international covenant.
XIV. A general association of nations must be formed under specific covenants for the purpose of affording mutual
guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike.
In regard to these essential rectifications of wrong and assertions of right we feel ourselves to be intimate partners
of all the governments and peoples associated together against the Imperialists. We cannot be separated in interest or
divided in purpose. We stand together until the end.
For such arrangements and covenants we are willing to fight and to continue to fight until they are achieved; but
only because we wish the right to prevail and desire a just and stable peace such as can be secured only by removing the
chief provocations to war, which this programme does remove. We have no jealousy of German greatness, and there is
nothing in this programme that impairs it. We grudge her no achievement or distinction of learning or of pacific
enterprise such as have made her record very bright and very enviable. We do not wish to injure her or to block in any
way her legitimate influence or power. We do not wish to fight her either with arms or with hostile arrangements of
trade if she is willing to associate herself with us and the other peace- loving nations of the world in covenants of justice
and law and fair dealing. We wish her only to accept a place of equality among the peoples of the world, -- the new
world in which we now live, -- instead of a place of mastery.
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Unit XI- Political Experiments of the 1920s and the Great Depression of the 1930s
Chapters 26 and 27
“If Hitler invaded hell I would make at least a favorable reference to the devil in the House of Commons.”- Winston
Churchill
After reading chapter 26 you should understand:







Economic and political disorder in the post-Great War years.
The establishment of the Soviet Union’s far-reaching political and economic experiment.
Mussolini’s Fascism in Italy.
French efforts to enforce the Versailles Treaty, leading to the Ruhr crisis of 1923.
Britain’s first Labour Party government and the General Strike of 1926.
The struggles of the successor states in eastern Europe.
The Weimar Republic’s efforts to create a stable, democratic Germany.
After reading chapter 27 you should understand:





Factors contributing to the Great Depression in Europe.
Coalition governments of the Right and the Left in the National Government of Britain and the Popular Front of
France.
The Nazi seizure of power in Germany and its effects.
Central economic planning in the Soviet Five Year Plan and Italian Fascist "syndicalism".
The human costs of Soviet Communism, including collectivization, shortages of housing and consumer goods,
and the purges.
180
Potential FRQ Questions
Compare and contrast the extent to which Catherine the Great and Joseph Stalin were "Westernizers".
Account for the responses of the European democracies to the military aggression by Italy and Germany during the
1930s.
Compare and contrast the relationship between the great powers and Poland in the periods 1772-1815 and 1918-1939.
Why did Germany's experiment with parliamentary democracy between 1919 and 1933 fail?
Compare the rise to power of the fascists in Italy with the Nazis in Germany.
Compare and contrast the ways in which the following paintings reflect the artistic styles and political conditions of the
eras in which they were produced. See Art Index - (Goya's Third of May and Picasso's Guernica).
Contrast European diplomacy in the time periods 1890-1914 and 1918-1939. Include in your analysis goals, practices,
and results.
How and in what ways did European painting or literature reflect the disillusionment in society between 1919 and
1939? Support your answer with specific artistic or literary examples.
Compare and contrast the French Jacobins' use of state power to achieve revolutionary goals during the Terror (17931794) with Stalin's use of state power to achieve revolutionary goals in the Soviet Union during the period 1928-1939.
Major Unit Assignments
Lenin/Mussolini Comparison Chart
The Great Depression in Germany- The Nazi's Discussion
You Are There Assignment
TIAA Assignment with Art Analysis – Propaganda
Chapter 26- 27 Worksheet
181
You Are There”: The Great Depression
The purpose of this assignment is to create a 7-10 minute NPR-like audio news story about the long and short term
causes for a major event. Your story should be centered around what the conflict was, and it should include
“interviews” that provide a variety of perspectives—political, religious, economic, etc.—that capture the many ways
different groups of people defined what these long-term conflicts, in their views, were really about.
This assignment is an experiment, and your feedback is vital to helping develop this project for the next time around. In
the future, we will be building audio news stories that include a wide range of sound effects, and you will engage in
digital audio editing. We will also put your creations online so that you or anyone in the world can access your
masterpieces. Please share with the class any suggestions you have on how to make this project better.
For the “You Are There”: Great Depression project, you will be in three groups of 4-5 people building a story on the
following topics. Suggestions on who you might “interview” for the economic crisis are below:

Upon the American Stock market crash of 1929
o
“Big Players’” Point of View: President Herbert Hoover, Prime Minister Ramsay McDonald, Leon
Blum, President von Hindenburg,
o
“Man in the Street” Point of View: A member of the English House of commons, a member of the SS,
a German Jew, a Russian worker

On the Scene Reporting- The Reichstag Fire, The Assassination of Sergei Kirov and the beginning of
the Soviet Purges
Your creative process should begin with a) a brainstorm where you discuss the issues and people you need to include in
your story, b) research and preparation on these issues, and c) a “script” outline which your team can use to
perform/present the entire 7-10 presentation non-stop.
You do not need to script out exactly what you are going to say when we record your news story, but you should create
a very specific outline, identify who is going to play what role, and then practice your presentation beforehand to ensure
it is of the appropriate length.
In addition to using your textbook and your class notes, you need to use at least three other sources for your
information.
182
Chapter 26 Worksheet Political Experiments of the 1920s
Terms to Identify
BBC
Beer Hall putsch
Black Shirt March
Cheka
Comintern
Dail Eireann
Dawes Plan
Duce
Fasci di Combattimento
fascism
General Strike of 1926
Great Depression
Hitler, Adolf
Horthy, Miklos
IRA
Kapp Putsch
Kellogg-Briand Pact
Kollontai, Alexandra
Lateran Accord
lebensraum
Lorcarno Agreements
MacDonald, Ramsay
Mein Kampf
Mussolini, Benito
Nazis
NEP
normalcy
Pilsudski, Josef
Poincare, Raymond
pravda
Red Army
Ruhr
SA
SinnFein
Stalin, Joseph
Stresemann, Gustav
Twenty-one Conditions
Victor Emmanuel III
war communism
Weimar Republic
Chapter Questions
Define fascism.
Why were Britain and France "joyless victors"?
How did WWI change British politics?
Why did all but one of the successor states in eastern and central Europe fail to establish viable democracies?
What factors enabled the Red Army to win Russia's Civil War (1917-1921)?
Why did Lenin institute the NEP?
How did Stalin manage to overcome the opposition of Trotsky and establish himself as head of the Soviet state?
What were the positive and negative effects of Stalinism?
Textbook DQ’s
Trotsky Urges the Use of Terror
How does Trotsky’s justification of terror compare with that associated with the Reign of Terror during the French
Revolution?
183
Hoe might the circumstances of the Russian civil war have led Trotsky to these views?
Did the communist terror Trotsky advocated differ from the repressive policies of the tsars?
Alexandra Kollontai Demands a New Family Life in the Soviet Union
Why did Kollontai see the restructuring of the family as essential to establishing a new kind of communist society?
Would these changes make people loyal to that society?
What changes in society does the kind of economic independence she seeks with women presuppose?
What might childhood be like if the state, rather than parents, assumed responsibility for children?
Mussolini Heaps Contempt on Political Liberalism
Which nineteenth century liberal political leaders might Mussolini have been attacking?
Why might Mussolini’s audience have been receptive to these views?
What events or developments within liberal states allowed Mussolini to portray liberalism as corrupt and powerless?
The Coming of Radio: The BBC (Secondary)
In what ways was the BBC different from American commercial radio stations?
How did the BBC affect the popularity of the British monarchy?
Hitler Denounces the Versailles Treaty
How might the French invasion of the Ruhr and the resulting inflation have made this speech particularly effective?
To what extent was Hitler’s condemnation of the control of the Versailles treaty imposed on Germany correct?
How does Hitler contrast his young Nazi movement with the young Weimar Republic?
Why does the one appear a strong and the other a weak support of German national goals?
If you tell a big enough lie and tell it frequently enough, it will be believed.- Adolf Hitler
184
Chapter 27 Worksheet- Europe and the Great Depression
Terms to Identify
Blum, Leon
corporatism
Enabling Act of 1933
Final Solution
Fuhrer
Gosplan
Great Purges
Hindenburg, Paul von
Kreditanstalt
Nuremberg Laws
Popular Front
Reichstag Fire
SS
Chapter Worksheet
How did the Great Depression begin?
How did Hitler rise to power?
What were Hitler's economic policies, and why were they successful?
Why were some nations more successful than others in addressing the Great Depression?
Textbook DQ’s
John Maynard Keynes Calls for Government Investment to Create Employment
Why does Keynes believe the private economy will not always provide sufficient employment?
Why does he call government spending the “socialization of investment”?
How much of his argument is analytical?
How much political?
Cinema of the Political Left and Right
Why were the Soviet and Nazi regimes so interested in cinema?
How did Leni Riefenstahl’s films of Hitler and Nazi rallies affect her later career?
An American Diplomat Witnesses Kristallnacht in Leipzig
Why did the Nazis claim that the destruction of life and property in Leipzig and other German cities arose from
spontaneous actions?
How did the Nazi perpetrators of Kristallnacht intimidate Jewish citizens?
What aid that was available to other German citizens was denied to Jews during these destructive events?
Why did other German citizens not oppose the Nazi actions against the Jews?
Hitler Rejects the Emancipation of Women
What social tasks does Hitler assign to women?
Why does he associate the emancipation of women with Jews and intellectuals?
How does he attempt to subordinate the lives of women to the supremacy of the state?
185
Stalin calls for the Liquidation of the Kulaks as a Class
What were the goals of the collectivization of farms in the Soviet Union?
How did the kulaks stand in the way of collectivization?
How does Stalin dehumanize the kulaks by discussing them entirely as a class and as part of the capitalistic system?
“The Great Depression was caused by the invention of credit cards.”
186
APPARTS Essay Reading: Adolf Hitler Attempts a Coup, 1923
On November 8, 1923 Adolph Hitler led his Nazi followers in an abortive attempt to seize power in Munich in what
became known as the "Beer Hall Putsch". Although the plan failed, and Hitler was imprisoned, the notoriety the Nazi
leader gained laid the groundwork for the rise of the Nazi party. While in prison, Hitler wrote Mein Kampf, the book
that described his political philosophy and planned conquest of Europe.
At the time of Hitler's attempted coup, Germany's Weimar Republic - which had been established at the end of World
War I - was in chaos. Gangs of opposing political groups fought each other in the streets - Communists, Socialists,
Nazis, and others resorted to violence in order to promote their political agenda and silence their opponents.
Assassinations of unpopular political leaders were a common occurrence. Germany's economy was a shambles.
Uncontrollable inflation reduced the value of the money in a worker's wallet to next to nothing. Before the start of
World War I, just over four German Reichmarks were equivalent to one U.S. dollar. At the beginning of 1923, the
exchange rate had risen to 18,000 marks per dollar by July it had reached 350,000 marks and by September, a
staggering one hundred million marks per dollar.
In the midst of this turmoil, Hitler saw an opportunity to grab political power in Munich, rally popular support behind
him and topple the German national government through a march on Berlin. The Nazi leader was inspired by the
success the previous year of Mussolini's March on Rome, which installed a Fascist government in Italy.
On the evening of November 8, 1923 leaders of the Bavarian government were holding a rally at a Munich beer hall
before 3000 spectators. Suddenly, Hitler burst into the hall, fired a pistol in the air and announced that the building
was surrounded by 600 of his storm troopers. The Nazi leader whisked the stunned Bavarian officials off the stage and
into a back room where he vowed to hold them hostage until they expressed support for his revolution. The hostages
soon acquiesced. Unfortunately, the spontaneous enthusiasm Hitler expected from the local population was not
immediately forthcoming. By dawn the following day, the coup attempt was running out of steam, riddled with
confusion and lack of direction.
However, Hitler had promised a march on Berlin and despite the dwindling chance of success, he led a column of
approximately 2,000 armed followers through the streets of Munich. Entering a city square, the marching rebels were
confronted by a police unit. Shots rang out and fourteen Nazis were killed in the ensuing bedlam. Hitler escaped only to
be arrested two days later. Tried and convicted of treason, the Nazi leader was sentenced to five years of confinement
under reasonably comfortable conditions, but actually served only eight months.
The experience taught Hitler that power was to be achieved not through armed conflict but through manipulation of the
existing political system.
"The national revolution has started."
Egon Larsend was a young man living in Munich. We join his account as Adolph Hitler sits nervously nursing a beer at
a bar just outside the entrance to the hall where the rally is taking place. He is awaiting word that his stormtroopers
have been deployed around the building:
"A look-out man rushed to Hitler, reporting that the storm trooper lorries were just arriving. With a ham-actor's gesture,
Hitler swept his beer glass aside, took out his Browning, and signaled the group of men around him to follow him into
the hall.
These men were a motley crowd. Among them were Hitler's bodyguard, a primitive and brutal butcher's apprentice; his
former sergeant in the army; Rudolf Hess, who was to become his second-in-command in the party; 'Putzi' Hanfstaengl,
the son of Munich's most famous art publisher, who had studied at Harvard together with F.D. Roosevelt, and who
would have felt more comfortable at home playing the piano than handling the pistol that had been pushed into his
hand.
187
The planned dramatic effect of the group's march into the hall was somewhat marred by the difficulty of pushing
through the perplexed crowd to the platform. Kahr [one of the Bavarian leaders] had stopped speaking, and saw with
dismay that a heavy machine-gun was being wheeled into the entrance by uniformed stormtroopers. Some people
panicked and tried to leave, but every exit was now guarded, no one was allowed out, and a few who tried were kicked
and beaten back.
At last Hitler arrived below the platform, grabbed a chair, mounted it, and fired a pistol shot at the ceiling. There was a
sudden silence in the hall. He jumped from the chair and leapt up the steps to the platform. A police major, hand in
pocket, tried to bar the way. Hitler put his pistol at the officer's head and shouted, 'Take your hand out of your pocket!'
The man obeyed.
Hitler was now in front of the triumvirate Kahr, Lossow, and Seisser [the three Bavarian leaders]. He turned to the
audience and declared in a hoarse, excited voice: 'The national revolution has started. The building is guarded by six
hundred heavily armed men. The barracks of the Reichswehr [army forces] and police have been occupied. Reichswehr
and police are now on the march under the swastika banner!'"
"If I am not victorious by tomorrow, I shall be a dead man."
Hitler was bluffing. The Nazis did not have control of the local army nor the police. Hitler forced the three political
leaders into a small room behind the stage where he attempted to extort their allegiance to his plot:
"The three listened in silence, anxiously watching the excited man with his pistol and the armed guards barring the way
out. Hitler ended with the threat: 'Anyone who refuses to collaborate with me has no right to live. I have four bullets in
my gun three for my collaborators if they abandon me and the last for myself.' He put the barrel to his temple: 'If I am
not victorious by tomorrow, I shall be a dead man.'
Kahr was the first to answer. 'You can have me shot or shoot me yourself,' he said calmly, 'or just lock me up. A life
more or less makes no difference.' Seisser: 'But Herr Hitler, you promised me a few days ago that you wouldn't stage a
putsch!' Hitler: 'Yes, I promised. But I had to do it, for the good of the fatherland.' He called his bodyguard to get him
another glass of beer.
Suddenly he seemed to get rattled as his prisoners did not declare their enthusiastic allegiance. He jumped up and ran
out on to the platform. Here, during the quarter of an hour of his absence, the scene had changed. Hermann Goering, at
that time commander of the SA, had arrived, and occupied the deserted speaker's rostrum. He was in full gala uniform,
with medals pinned to his chest - awarded to him during the war as a pilot, squadron leader, and eventually commander
of Richthofen's famous 'air circus'. He had joined Hitler's party only a year earlier.
Goering appeared just in time to tame the three thousand people in the hall who were getting restless, despite the
threatening machine-guns and pistols around them. What, they wanted to know, was happening in that back room?
'Don't worry,' Goering told them. 'No harm will come to Herr von Kahr, to Lossow and Seisser. They are holding
preliminary Discussion s for the formation of a national government which all of you want.'
'You don't need machine-guns and hundreds of armed men for that,' cried someone, and there was a roar of applause.
'Shut up!' Goering snarled arrogantly. 'You've got your beer, haven't you?'
Now Hitler came dashing back. The excitement in the hall, far from abating, heightened. He seemed to have lost. Again
he drew his pistol and fired a shot at the ceiling. 'If you don't keep quiet,' he shouted, 'I'll have another machine-gun put
in the gallery!' At last there was silence, and he started anew, calmly and without his usual melodramatic gimmicks.
What was happening, he said, was in no way directed against Kahr, who would remain in control of Bavaria. But a new
Reichs government had to be formed, with Ludendorff, Lossow, Seisser and himself. 'There are these three men in the
back room, wrestling with their conscience,' he said, putting on a touch of emotion. 'Can' I tell them that all of you will
be behind them?'
188
'Ja, ja,' came the thunderous answer. He had succeeded in swinging the mood of the crowd on his side in a matter of
minutes - it was a demagogue's masterstroke. 'In a free Germany,' he went on, now with passion, 'there will be a place
for an independent Bavaria!' And he ended on his favourite heroic note; here was the man of destiny pleading for the
hearts and souls of the people: 'This I can tell you, either the German revolution begins tonight, or we shall all be dead
by tomorrow morning.'"
At this point Generall Ludendorff, commander of the German forces on the Western Front at the end of World War I
and a German national hero, arrived at the beer hall. Ludendorff had lent his support to Hitler's coup attempt and had
been brought to the hall to persuade the three Bavarian leaders to give in to Hitler's demands. The effort was successful
as the Bavarian politicians voiced their support and were released. Once free, however, they recanted and the local
army garrisons were ordered to halt the coup attempt.
References:
Egon Larsen's account appears in: Larsen, Egon, Weimar Eyewitness (1976); Bullock, Alan, Hitler, a Study in
Tyranny (1960); Gordon, Harold, Hitler and the Beer Hall Putsch (1972).
How To Cite This Article:
"Adolf Hitler Attempts a Coup, 1923," EyeWitness to History, www.eyewitnesstohistory.com (2005).
189
APPARTS Essay Reading: 1925- NAZI program
Program of the National Socialist German Workers' Party
The program of the German Workers' Party is an epochal program.
The leaders reject the idea of setting up new goals after those included in the program have been achieved merely in
order to make possible the further existence of the Party by artificially inducing discontent among the masses.
1. We demand the union of all Germans in a Great Germany on the basis of the principle of self-determination of all
peoples.
2. We demand that the German people have rights equal to those of other nations; and that the Peace Treaties of
Versailles and St. Germain shall be abrogated.
3. We demand land and territory (colonies) for the maintenance of our people and the settlement of our surplus
population.
4. Only those who are our fellow countrymen can become citizens. Only those who have German blood, regardless of
creed, can be our countrymen Hence no Jew can be a countryman.
5. Those who are not citizens must live in Germany as foreigners and must be subject to the law of aliens.
6. The right to choose the government and determine the laws of the State shall belong only to citizens. We therefore
demand that no public office, of whatever nature, whether in the central government, the province. or the municipality,
shall be held by anyone who is not a citizen.
We wage war against the corrupt parliamentary administration whereby men are appointed to posts by favor of the
party without regard to character and fitness.
7. We demand that the State shall above all undertake to ensure that every citizen shall have the possibility of living
decently and earning a livelihood. If it should not be possible to feed the whole population, then aliens (non-citizens)
must be expelled from the Reich.
8. Any further immigration of non-Germans must be prevented. We demand that all non-Germans who have entered
Germany since August 2, 1914, shall be compelled to leave the Reich immediately.
9. All citizens must possess equal rights and duties.
10. The first duty of every citizen must be to work mentally or physically. No individual shall do any work that offends
against the interest of the community to the benefit of all.
Therefore we demand:
11. That all unearned income, and all income that does not arise from work, be abolished.
Breaking the Bondage of Interest
12. Since every war imposes on the people fearful sacrifices in blood and treasure, all personal profit arising from the
war must be regarded as treason to the people We therefore demand the total confiscation of all war profits.
13. We demand the nationalization of all trusts.
14. We demand profit-sharing in large industries.
190
15. We demand a generous increase in old-age pensions.
16. We demand the creation and maintenance of a sound middle-class, the immediate communalization of large stores
which will be rented cheaply to small tradespeople, and the strongest consideration must be given to ensure that small
traders shall deliver the supplies needed by the State, the provinces and municipalities.
17. We demand an agrarian reform in accordance with our national requirements, and the enactment of a law to
expropriate the owners without compensation of any land needed for the common purpose. The abolition of ground
rents, and the prohibition of all speculation in land.
18. We demand that ruthless war be waged against those who work to the injury of the common welfare. Traitors,
usurers, profiteers, etc., are to be punished with death, regardless of creed or race.
19. We demand that Roman law, which serves a materialist ordering of the world, be replaced by German common law.
20. In order to make it possible for every capable and industrious German to obtain higher education, and thus the
opportunity to reach into positions of leadership, the State must assume the responsibility of organizing thoroughly the
entire cultural system of the people The curricula of all educational establishments shall be adapted to practical life. The
conception of the State Idea (science of citizenship) must be taught in the schools from the very beginning. We demand
that specially talented children of poor parents, whatever their station or occupation, be educated at the expense of the
State.
21. The State has the duty to help raise the standard of national health by providing maternity welfare centers, by
prohibiting juvenile labor, by increasing physical fitness through the introduction of compulsory games and gymnastics,
and by the greatest possible encouragement of associations concerned with the physical education of the young.
22. We demand the abolition of the regular army and the creation of a national (folk) army.
23. We demand that there be a legal campaign against those who propagate deliberate political lies and disseminate
them through the press. In order to make possible the creation of a German press, we demand:
(a) All editors and their assistants on newspapers published in the German language shall be German citizens.
(b) Non-German newspapers shall only be published with the express permission of the State. They must not be
published in the German language.
(c) All financial interests in or in any way affecting German newspapers shall be forbidden to non-Germans by law, and
we demand that the punishment for transgressing this law be the immediate suppression of the newspaper and the
expulsion of the nonGermans from the Reich.
Newspapers transgressing against the common welfare shall be suppressed. We demand legal action against those
tendencies in art and literature that have a disruptive influence upon the life of our folk, and that any organizations that
offend against the foregoing demands shall be dissolved.
24. We demand freedom for all religious faiths in the state, insofar as they do not endanger its existence or offend the
moral and ethical sense of the Germanic race.
The party as such represents the point of view of a positive Christianity without binding itself to any one particular
confession. It fights against the Jewish materialist spirit within and without, and is convinced that a lasting recovery of
our folk can only come about from within on the principle:
COMMON GOOD BEFORE INDIVIDUAL GOOD
191
25. In order to carry out this program we demand: the creation of a strong central authority in the State, the
unconditional authority by the political central parliament of the whole State and all its organizations.
The formation of professional committees and of committees representing the several estates of the realm, to ensure that
the laws promulgated by the central authority shall be carried out by the federal states.
The leaders of the party undertake to promote the execution of the foregoing points at all costs, if necessary at the
sacrifice of their own lives.
© 1997 The Avalon Project. William C. Fray and Lisa A. Spar, Co-Directors.
192
Unit XII- WWII
Chapters 28
"Ladies and gentlemen, boys and girls, contrary to what you've just seen, war is neither glamorous nor fun. There are no
winners, only losers. There are no good wars, with the following exceptions: The American Revolution, World War II,
and the Star Wars Trilogy. If you'd like to learn more about war, there are lots of books in your local library, many of
them with cool, gory pictures.”- Bart Simpson
After reading chapter 28 you should understand:





The long-term and immediate causes of World War II.
The course of battles and economic management during the war.
Nazi racism and the Holocaust.
The impact of the war on the people of Europe.
Wartime diplomatic relations and plans for the postwar world.
193
Potential FRQ Questions
Compare and Contrast the two World Wars, how did the reasons for the two wars vary and how were they the same?
How did the results of the Versailles treaty lead to World War II?
What historical connections did the Nazis use in their anti-Semitism?
Major Unit Assignments
POV – Kristallnacht
Racism and the Holocaust Discussion
Domestic Fronts Chart
TIAA Assignment with Art Analysis – Expressionism
Chapter 28 Worksheet
194
Chapter 28 Worksheet- World War II
Terms to Identify
Lytton Report
Maginot Line
Munich Conference
Nagasaki
Nazi-Soviet Pact
Operation Barbarossa
Phony War
Rommel, Erwin
Spanish Civil War
Sudetenland
Tehran Conference
Third Reich
Third World
Tojo, Hideki
untermenschen
Vichy France
Yalta Conference
ZEGOTA
Anschluss
Atlantic Charter
Axis
Badoglio, Pietro
Battle of Britain
Battle of Stalingrad
Battle of the Bulge
Big Three
blitzkrieg
Bombing of Pearl Harbor
D-day
Eisenhower, Dwight D
Eisenstein, Serge
Free French
Goebbels, Josef
Hirohito
Hiroshima
island hopping
Luftwaffe
Chapter Questions
How was Hitler able to defeat France so easily in 1940?
Why was the air war against Britain a failure?
Why did Hitler invade Russia?
What impact did WWII have on the civilian population of Europe?
What was Hitler’s “final solution” to the Jewish problem?
Textbook DQ’s
Hitler Describes His Goals In Foreign Policy
One what basic principle is Hitler’s policy founded?
How does he justify his plans for expansion?
Why is he hostile to France and Russia?
Why does Hitler claim every man has a right to own farmland?
Was that a practical goal for Germany in the 1930’s?
Could Hitler have achieved his goals without a major war?
Churchill’s Response to Munich
What was decided at Munich?
Why were the representatives of Czechoslovakia not at the meeting?
195
Why did Chamberlain think the meeting was successful?
Munich was the high point of the policy call appeasement How would its advocates defend this policy?
Churchill was a leading opponent of appeasement. What are his objections to it?
Rosie the Riveter and American Women in the War Effort (Secondary)
How did the war change women’s place in American society?
What attitudes did it need to overcome?
Mass Murder at Belsen
What were the reasons for Hitler’s policy of exterminating millions of men, women and children?
Why did many Germans take part in the process?
Why did so conscientious a man as Colonel Gerstein not resist?
We have women in the military, but they don't put us in the front lines. They don't know if we can fight or if we can
kill. I think we can. All the general has to do is walk over to the women and say, "You see the enemy over there? They
say you look fat in those uniforms." - -- Elayne Boosler
196
APPARTS Essay Reading
Treaty of Nonaggression Between Germany and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
The Government of the German Reich and the Government of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics desirous of
strengthening the cause of peace between Germany and the U.S.S.R and proceeding from the fundamental provisions of
the Neutrality Agreement concluded in April 1926 between Germany and the U.S.S.R., have reached the following
agreement:
ARTICLE I
Both High Contracting Parties obligate, themselves to desist from any act of violence, any aggressive action, and any
attack on each other, either individually or jointly with other powers.
ARTICLE II
Should one of the High Contracting Parties become the object of belligerent action by a third power, the other High
Contracting Party shall in no manner lend its support to this third power.
ARTICLE III
The Governments of the two High Contracting Parties shall in the future maintain continual contact with one another
for the purpose of consultation in order to exchange information on problems affecting their common interests.
ARTICLE IV
Neither of the two High Contracting Parties shall participate in any grouping of powers whatsoever that is directly or
indirectly aimed at the other party.
ARTICLE V
Should disputes or conflicts arise between the High Contracting Parties over problems of one kind or another, both
parties shall settle these disputes or conflicts exclusively through friendly exchange of opinion or, if necessary, through
the establishment of arbitration commissions.
ARTICLE VI
The present treaty is concluded for a period of ten years, with the provision that, in so far as one of the High
Contracting Parties does not denounce it one year prior to the expiration of this period, the validity of this treaty shall
automatically be extended for another five years.
ARTICLE VI
The present treaty shall be ratified within the shortest possible time. The ratifications shall be exchanged in Berlin. The
agreement shall enter into force as soon as it is signed.
Done in duplicate, in the German and Russian languages.
MOSCOW, August 23, 1939.
For the Government of the German Reich:
V. RIBBENTROP
With full power of the Government of the U.S.S.R.:
V. MOLOTOV
197
APPARTS Essay Reading
THE ATLANTIC CHARTER - AUGUST 14.1941
The President of the United States of America and the Prime Minister, Mr. Churchill, representing His Majesty's
Government in the United Kingdom, being met together, deem it right to make known certain common principles in
the national policies of their respective countries on which they base their hopes for a better future for the world.
First, their countries seek no aggrandizement, territorial or other;
Second, they desire to see no territorial changes that do not accord with the freely expressed wishes of the peoples
concerned;
Third, they respect the right of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they will live; and they
wish to see sovereign rights and self government restored to those who have been forcibly deprived of them;
Fourth, they will endeavor, with due respect for their existing obligations, to further the enjoyment by all States,
great or small, victor or vanquished, of access, on equal terms, to the trade and to the raw materials of the world which
are needed for their economic prosperity;
Fifth, they desire to bring about the fullest collaboration between all nations in the economic field with the object of
securing, for all, improved labor standards, economic advancement and social security;
Sixth, after the final destruction of the Nazi tyranny, they hope to see established a peace which will afford to all
nations the means of dwelling in safety within their own boundaries, and which will afford assurance that all the men
in all lands may live out their lives in freedom from fear and want;
Seventh, such a peace should enable all men to traverse the high seas and oceans without hindrance;
Eighth, they believe that all of the nations of the world, for realistic as well as spiritual reasons must come to the
abandonment of the use of force. Since no future peace can be maintained if land, sea or air armaments continue to be
employed by nations which threaten, or may threaten, aggression outside of their frontiers, they believe, pending the
establishment of a wider and permanent system of general security, that the disarmament of such nations is essential.
They will likewise aid and encourage all other practicable measure which will lighten for peace-loving peoples the
crushing burden of armaments.
Franklin D. Roosevelt
Winston S. Churchill
198
Unit XIII: The Cold War Era and the Emergence of the New Europe
Chapter 29 and 30
Do you think when two representatives holding diametrically opposing views get together and shake hands, the contradictions
between our systems will simply melt away? What kind of a daydream is that? - Nikita Khrushchev
After reading chapter 29 you should understand:





The origins of the Cold War and the division of Europe into rival eastern and western blocs.
The process of decolonization, including the Korean and Vietnam conflicts.
Political and economic developments in western Europe, particularly the European Union.
The revolutions of 1989 and the collapse of the Soviet Union.
The changing relations in global politics between the United States and radical political Islamism.
After reading chapter 30 you should understand:







Population trends and migrations throughout Europe, and the continuing problem of ethnic tensions.
The expansion and contraction of the European welfare state.
The changing roles and aspirations of women.
The rapid growth of western Europe's consumer economy.
Postwar intellectual movements.
The ongoing role of religion in Western political and intellectual life.
The emergence of computers as everyday tools for some individuals and societies.
199
Potential FRQ Questions
Compare and contrast the political, religious and social motivations of Islamic-fascist groups like the Taliban to the
nationalistic groups that existed in Europe prior to World War I?
What were the political, economic and social impact of the collapse of the Soviet Union?
Compare the actions of Ho Chi Minh and Mohandas Gandhi in their attempts to gain independence for their nations,
which approach was more successful?
Major Unit Assignments
Post WWII FRQ
The collapse of European communism Discussion
The rise of radical political Islam Virtual Discussion
TIAA Assignment with Art Analysis – Dadaism and Surrealism
200
Chapter 29 Worksheet- The Cold War Era
Terms to Identify
Al Qaeda
Atlantic Charter
August 1991 coup
Badoglio, Pietro
Balfour Declaration
Ben-Gurion, David
Berlin Blockade
Berlin Wall
Big Three
Brezhnev Doctrine
Brezhnev, Leonid
Cold War
COMECON
Cominform
Commonwealth of Independent States
containment
Cuban Missile Crisis
De Gaulle, Charles
decolonization
Diem Ngo Dinh
Dubcek, Alexander
Eisenstein, Serge
FLN
Gandhi, Mohandas
glasnost
Goebbels, Josef
Gorbachev, Mikhail
Gulf of Tonkin
Havel, Vaclav
Helsinki Accords
Hirohito
Hungarian Uprising
Indian National Congress
Iron Curtain speech
Islamic fundamentalism
jihad
Khomeini, Ruhollah
Khruschev, Nikita
Korean War
madrasas
Marshall Plan
Masaryk, Thomas
Minh, Ho Chi
Muslim League
Nagy, Imre
NATO
perestroika
Prague Spring
SDI
SEATO
Solidarity
Sputnik
Taliban
Third World
Tito, Josip
Truman Doctrine
Truman, Harry S.
Velvet Revolution
Vietnamization
Wahhabism
Walsea, Lech
Wojtyla, Karol
Yalta Conference
Yeltsin, Boris
Yiddish
Yishuv
Chapter Questions
How did the US and the USSR come to dominate Europe after 1945?
What caused the superpower rivalry between the US and the USSR after WWII?
Discuss the nature and results of Khrushchev's efforts at reform. What led to his downfall?
Discuss the restlessness in the Soviet satellites in the 1950s and 1960s. How did the Soviets react in (a) Poland, (b)
Hungary, (c) Czechoslovakia?
201
Textbook DQ’s
The Truman Doctrine Declared
How does Truman relate the goals of the Second World War to the emerging Cold War with the Soviet Union?
What qualities does Truman associate with free governments, and how were these qualities absent in the Soviet
Union and its satellites in Eastern Europe?
How does this speech establish guidelines that the United States might apply in parts of the world beyond Greece?
The Church and the Communist Party Clash Over Education in Hungary
How does Mussolini relate the position of church supported schools to the nature and rights of parenthood?
How does he compare the actions of the Communist Party to those of Hitler?
How does the Minister of Public Worship set party members against the church?
How does he attempt to place loyalty to the party above private beliefs?
What does the Communist Party fear from religious education and participation in religious activities by its members
or their children?
Khrushchev Denounces the Crimes of Stalin: The Secret Speech
What specific actions by Stalin did Khrushchev denounce?
Why does Khrushchev pay so much attention to Stalin’s creation of the concept of an “enemy of the people”?
Why does Khrushchev distinguish between the actions of Stalin and those of Lenin?
Gandhi Explains His Doctrine of Nonviolence
Why does Gandhi see nonviolence as evidence of strength?
How does he refrain from extending nonviolence to external relations?
How was Gandhi’s doctrine transferable to other political movements, such as the American civil rights struggle?
202
Rock Music and Political Protest (Secondary)
How did rock music evolve into an antiestablishment form of entertainment?
Why was rock considered subversive in the Eastern bloc nations?
Gorbachev Proposes The Soviet Communist Party Abandon Its Monopoly of Power
Why did Gorbachev argue that the Soviet Communist Party must reform itself?
To what extent did his speech call for the abandonment of traditional Communist Party goals?
How did he think the Soviet Communist Party could function in a pluralistic political system?
203
Chapter 30 Worksheet – The West at the Dawn of the 21st Century
Terms to Identify
Americanization
Beauvoir, Simone de
ENIAC
Euro
European Economic Community
European Union
existentialism
Green movement
Kierkegaard, Soren
Thatcher, Margaret
Chapter Questions
How did Western Europe move toward political unity? What were the chief steps in this process?
Textbook DQ’s
Margaret Thatcher Asserts the Need for Individual Responsibility
How and why does Mrs. Thatcher contend that there is no such thing as society?
Does she criticize all government aid to citizens ?
How does she emphasize the reciprocal character of social relationships?
How does she argue in favor of personal and private charity to aid persons in need?
Simone De Beauvoir Urges Economic Freedom For Women
Why does Beauvoir argue that economic freedom for women must accompany their achievement of civil rights?
Why does the example of the small number of professional women illustrate issues foe European women in general?
How does she indicate that even professional women must overcome a culture in which the experience of women is
fundamentally different from that of men?
Do de Beauvoir’s comments seem relevant for women at the opening of the twenty-first century?
What similarities do you see to the views of Pricilla Wakefield (Chapter 15) and Mary Wollstonecraft (Chapter 17)
Sartre Discusses His Existentialism
How might the experience of fascism in Europe and the fall of France to the Nazis have led Sartre to emphasize the
need of human beings to choose?
Why does Sartre believe existentialism must be related to atheism?
Why did Sartre regard existentialism as optimistic?
204
Toys From Europe Conquer The United States (Secondary)
How has LEGO been an example of the European penetration of popular culture around the world?
Why has the influence of LEGO on children’s toys been less controversial than the appearance of American fast-food
chains in Europe?
Pope John Paul II Discusses International Social Justice
How does the pope relate the fate of the poorest nations to the international system of trade and finance?
What evidence is there that the pope did not favor radical social actions by Roman Catholic clergy?
How does this encyclical illustrate the pope’s concern for non-European parts of the world?
Energy and the Modern World (Secondary)
Trace the transformation of energy used in the West from wind and water to petroleum. How did coal transform both
the industry and the military power of the West?
How did inventions, such as the internal combustion engine, change the demands on sources of energy?
Why did the rise of electrical power increase the need for petroleum?
What opportunities and dangers has nuclear energy posed?
205
APPARTS Essay Reading: Letter from Feigin
Dear Sergo [Ordzhonikidze],
I'm writing you from Novosibirsk. I have driven around several collective farms [kolkhozes] and consider it necessary
to inform you about a few items. I was in various kolkhozes--not productive and relatively unproductive ones, but
everywhere there was only one sight--that of a huge shortage of seed, famine, and extreme emaciation of livestock.
In the kolkhozes which I observed I attempted to learn how much the livestock had diminished in comparison with the
years 1927-28. It turns out that kolkhoz Ziuzia has 507 milch cows at present while there were 2000 in '28; kolkhoz
Ust'-Tandovskii collectively and individually has 203 head, earlier they had more than 600; kolkhoz Kruglo-Ozernyi at
present has 418 head of beef cattle and 50 held by kolkhozniks, in 1928 there were 1800 head; kolkhoz Goldoba
collectively and individually has 275 head, in 1929 there were 1000 plus head, this kolkhoz now has 350 sheep, in 1929
there were 1500. Approximately the same correlations were found also in the kolkhozes Ol'gino and Novo-Spasski.
The region which I visited (Barabinskii) is known for its butter export, but even in the other regions of Western Siberia
the decline of livestock farming during this period is not much smaller.
These are facts that I myself checked, and on this basis I think that the data in the general census recently carried out by
Gosplan significantly embellish the real picture.
The situation of the kolkhoz livestock farms is a bad one, primarily because of lack of feed. Milk production has
reached extremely low levels of 1, 2 or 3 liters per day instead of the 5-7 liters normal for this region in a high-yield
year [crossed out: "as noted by kolkhozniks and individual farmers"]. The poor condition of the livestock cannot be
blamed on poor care or poor labor organization since in most of the kolkhozes I visited, the situation in terms of care
and labor organization, relatively speaking, is not bad (although it could be much better), but in any case it is immeasurably better than in the butter-producing state farms [sovkhozes] of the region, which I also visited.
And so, undoubtedly, if the collectivized livestock is sufficiently fed every year, we can increase greatly the yield of
commodity production, but this still does not remedy the situation, in that the sovkhozes and kolkhozes will not be able
to meet the needs of the country for meat and butter in the next 2-3 years, and I think it is now necessary, when the
socialistic sector of the villages has been strengthened, to speed up the growth of livestock farming in the private
households of the kolkhozniks and individual farmers. The resolution of the Central Committee forbidding
collectivization of the last cow is somewhat of a plus in this regard, but this is not the main issue. The main issue is the
fact that almost all of the kolkhoznik's livestock is contracted and removed. This livestock consists of the last cows and
last sheep. In addition, when this livestock is contracted, the kolkhoznik and individual farmer slaughter off the rest. As
a result, in the villages where I have observed this situation, not more than 20-30% of the kolkhozniks have one cow
each and a few sheep, but as a rule, the kolkhoznik and individual farmer not only do not raise livestock, but they try to
get rid of or slaughter those they do own.
If this situation continues, then in my opinion, next year the shortage of meat, leather, and fats will be greater than this
year.
The regional [Party] workers firmly believe that the sovkhozes and the commodity farms of the kolkhozes will be able
to supply the nation already this year with the necessary production and express the idea that private ownership of
livestock by the kolkhozniks should cease.
I think we should undertake all measures to increase private ownership of livestock by the kolkhoznik or else there is no
way out of the present periodic shortage of products.
The second item concerns the sowing campaign. The situation is such that there is not enough seed in the kolkhozes.
There is no way that we will be able to fulfill the plan for grain production, and the shortfall in the krai will probably be
15-20 percent. Besides this, horses are quite emaciated, a significant number of them have already died, and in addition,
the people do not have provisions. And so the spring planting will occur in exceptionally tight circumstances, but I
figure that with the right organization of seed distribution within the krai and among the kolkhozes we can achieve such
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a level that the gross yield in 1932 will rise above not only the gross yield of last year, but even that of the highyield year of 1930.
How can we accomplish this? Here is the situation: all kolkhozes have been given a plan for sowing. [crossed out:
Some areas were given state subsidies in order to carry out this plan. As a result] some kolkhozes have enough or nearly
enough seed (including the state subsidy), but other kolkhozes have barely any seed. Since the planting will be carried
out according to plan, one group of kolkhozes will sow all fields, but another group with less seed will be faced with a
large underfulfillment of the sowing plan. How does this relate to crop capacity? The point is that in these
circumstances fields which may yield an extremely insignificant harvest will be sown in the first group of kolkhozes;
that is, not only the fallow and autumn fields will be sown, but if the plan is followed blindly even the salt-marshes, on
which absolutely nothing grows, will be sown (as was done last year); whereas fallow and autumn fields in the second
group of kolkhozes which that readied last year and have proven to be productive will remain unsown.
In order to prevent this situation it is necessary to change the existing plan, but no one wants to do this, even though
they understand perfectly well that it is imperative to review the plan. The situation I discovered in the kolkhozes that I
observed last year was that at least 30% of all the sown fields were sown by the kolkhozes at too late a date, merely to
carry out the sowing plan (this is one of the reasons for the crop failure); on the other hand, fields known to produce a
less than decent harvest were sown, also merely to carry out the plan. This year the same episode will be repeated if
instructions on behalf of the Central Committee are not be issued accordingly--in a time of acute seed deficiency a
significant amount of seed will be wasted on worthless land, the sowing will occur at a time when the land is already
drying out, that is, when it is too late to sow, but the fallow and autumn fields of the second group of kolkhozes will
remain underutilized. These conditions guarantee a meager harvest, and in some places complete crop failure, only
because a plan was given based on a forecast of spring planting, consisting of as many favorable qualifying indicators
as possible, not considering that the fall harvest will result in extremely unfavorable qualitative results.
And so I come to my second conclusion--that the Central Committee give the order to all regional organizations (as
soon as possible, there is little time left before the spring planting) depending on the conditions of each raion and
kolkhoz, that the plan be changed in such a way as to produce the best qualitative results. For this it is imperative to
conduct a review from the standpoint of 1) sowing all prepared fields (fallow and autumn fields) without exception; 2)
redistribution of seed among the kolkhozes in the time remaining before the planting date so that the planting be
completed within 15 days, and under no circumstances more than 17 days; 3) and finally, that the improvement of
fallow land be stipulated for 1933.
In fulfilling these conditions, given average or especially favorable climatic conditions, the gross yield, and
consequently, even the commodity output of bread may yield not less but even more than in 1930, even if the sown area
declines. But in addition, I believe that in reality the sown area will not decline because last year and the year before all
agricultural agencies and Party organizations pushed madly for quantitative indicators, the planting season was
extremely lengthy, they sowed worthless land and, as a rule, only lands that were suitable and were sown at the correct
time were productive. If in following this course (to conceal the actual nature of things with quantitative indicators) we
immediately start and propose to review the plan from the standpoint of achieving the best qualitative indicators
[crossed out: results] (taking into account the seed shortage), then we can reach the necessary results.
Third issue--the peasant's attitude. Their attitude is utterly bad in light of the famine and the fact that they are losing
their last cows through contracting--as a result the kolkhoznik has neither bread nor milk. I saw all this with my own
eyes and am not exaggerating. People are starving, living on food substitutes, they grow weaker, and naturally, under
such circumstances, their mood is hostile. I have not seen such an attitude as is now found in the villages, due to famine
and the loss of the last cows and sheep through contrac-ting, in a long time. I will inform you of the facts that
substantiate this when we meet. Upon arriving in Moscow, I will try to see Stalin and inform him, or if he cannot spare
the time, I will write him a letter.
It seems that you told me in 1926-27 (in Morozovka), when the opposition was making quite furious attacks on the
Central Committee that Stalin sees farther than the rest of you. This is undoubtedly so and was substantiated during the
period from 1923 on and especially since the establishment of the five-year plan. But in order for him to see beyond
everyone, one must, with absolute objectivity, relate to him those facts which are based on reality. I will attempt to do
this upon my arrival in Moscow, and I will tell him what I have seen with my own eyes. Maybe I am drawing incorrect
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conclusions, but I acquainted myself thoroughly with the factual situation and it seems to me that it is utterly
imperative that Stalin take up this matter. This sounds like those arguments the German Social Democrats made in
Marx's lifetime, saying, "I know the factual situation, but let "papa" Marx draw the conclusion." I have nothing new to
say besides what I have already related, and I will just repeat what the German Social Democrats used to say: "Let
'papa' Stalin draw the conclusions, and I will describe the factual situation as it is."
Take care. Feigin
19/9 April 32
At the same time I am sending you the doctor's statement on the famine in peasant families and in turn I corroborate
that I observed a similar situation.
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APPARTS Essay Reading:
Letter From Chairman Khrushchev to President Kennedy, October 24, 1962
Source: U.S. Department of State, FOREIGN RELATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES, 1961-1963, Volume XI, Cuban
Missile Crisis and Aftermath
Moscow, October 24, 1962.
//Source: Kennedy Library, President's Office Files, Cuba. A copy of this letter, transmitted in telegram 1070 from
Moscow, October 24, arrived in the Department of State at 9:24 p.m. (Department of State, Presidential
Correspondence: Lot 66 D 304)
Dear Mr. President: I have received your letter of October 23,/1/ have studied it, and am answering you.
/1/See Document 52.
Just imagine, Mr. President, that we had presented you with the conditions of an ultimatum which you have presented
us by your action. How would you have reacted to this? I think that you would have been indignant at such a step on
our part. And this would have been understandable to us.
In presenting us with these conditions, you, Mr. President, have flung a challenge at us. Who asked you to do this? By
what right did you do this? Our ties with the Republic of Cuba, like our relations with other states, regardless of what
kind of states they may be, concern only the two countries between which these relations exist. And if we now speak of
the quarantine to which your letter refers, a quarantine may be established, according to accepted international practice,
only by agreement of states between themselves, and not by some third party. Quarantines exist, for example, on
agricultural goods and products. But in this case the question is in no way one of quarantine, but rather of far more
serious things, and you yourself understand this.
You, Mr. President, are not declaring a quarantine, but rather are setting forth an ultimatum and threatening that if we
do not give in to your demands you will use force. Consider what you are saying! And you want to persuade me to
agree to this! What would it mean to agree to these demands? It would mean guiding oneself in one's relations with
other countries not by reason, but by submitting to arbitrariness. You are no longer appealing to reason, but wish to
intimidate us.
No, Mr. President, I cannot agree to this, and I think that in your own heart you recognize that I am correct. I am
convinced that in my place you would act the same way.
Reference to the decision of the Organization of American States cannot in any way substantiate the demands now
advanced by the United States. This Organization has absolutely no authority or basis for adopting decisions such as the
one you speak of in your letter. Therefore, we do not recognize these decisions. International law exists and universally
recognized norms of conduct exist. We firmly adhere to the principles of international law and observe strictly the
norms which regulate navigation on the high seas, in international waters. We observe these norms and enjoy the rights
recognized by all states.
You wish to compel us to renounce the rights that every sovereign state enjoys, you are trying to legislate in questions
of international law, and you are violating the universally accepted norms of that law. And you are doing all this not
only out of hatred for the Cuban people and its government, but also because of considerations of the election campaign
in the United States. What morality, what law can justify such an approach by the American Government to
international affairs? No such morality or law can be found, because the actions of the United States with regard to
Cuba constitute outright banditry or, if you like, the folly of degenerate imperialism. Unfortunately, such folly can bring
grave suffering to the peoples of all countries, and to no lesser degree to the American people themselves, since the
United States has completely lost its former isolation with the advent of modern types of armament.
209
Therefore, Mr. President, if you coolly weigh the situation which has developed, not giving way to passions, you
will understand that the Soviet Union cannot fail to reject the arbitrary demands of the United States. When you
confront us with such conditions, try to put yourself in our place and consider how the United States would react to
these conditions. I do not doubt that if someone attempted to dictate similar conditions to you--the United States--you
would reject such an attempt. And we also say--no.
The Soviet Government considers that the violation of the freedom to use international waters and international air
space is an act of aggression which pushes mankind toward the abyss of a world nuclear-missile war. Therefore, the
Soviet Government cannot instruct the captains of Soviet vessels bound for Cuba to observe the orders of American
naval forces blockading that Island. Our instructions to Soviet mariners are to observe strictly the universally accepted
norms of navigation in international waters and not to retreat one step from them. And if the American side violates
these rules, it must realize what responsibility will rest upon it in that case. Naturally we will not simply be bystanders
with regard to piratical acts by American ships on the high seas. We will then be forced on our part to take the measures
we consider necessary and adequate in order to protect our rights. We have everything necessary to do so.
Respectfully,
N. Khrushchev
Printed from a copy that indicates Khrushchev signed the original.
210
Unit XIV AP Course Review
Technically, this isn’t a unit, but it’s been plugged in accordingly because we will be spending a large amount of time
reviewing for the AP exam.
211
The Golden Years: Your 50 years
To review for the AP Exam, you will work with a partner and present in a PowerPoint 50 years worth of history to the
class in 30 minutes. Use the following rubric to guide your work.
Requirements
For the A
Possible
Earned
You talk about at least 5-7 key figures (either make a
At least every other slide has a graphic
20
separate slide for each or talk about them as you talk
that helps add to your presentation. You
about their influence on social, political, religious,
must include images of these significant
history, etc.
figures
Include 1-3 slides in each of the following categories:
You address these issues in all of the
15
(use the questions as a guide to help you create your
main regions of Europe,
power point, you don’t have to answer each one)
You may choose to go through the
whole chronology region by region, or
Social history
What were the main social movements? How did
go through the whole chronology
families operate? How were women treated?
mentioning regions as appropriate. It is
Was there class distinction? Where were people living?
up to you.
You address these issues in all of the
15
Political history
Who was in control? How did they get control?
main regions of Europe.
How did they maintain control? What was the prevailing
political climate? Who were the key players? How did
politics change over time?
Were there any women in politics?
Revolutions? Were they successful?
You address these issues in all of the
15
Religious history
How was religion shaping peoples lives (or was it)?
main regions of Europe.
What were the main religions in the different regions of
Europe? How did the different religious groups interact
with one another? How much power did the churches
have over politics?
You address these issues in all of the
15
Intellectual history
What were the main ideas that dominated the era?
main regions of Europe.
Major books? Art movements?
Important changes in philosophy?
How did these ideas impact other things in society?
Technological history
You address these issues in all of the
15
What new inventions were changing society?
main regions of Europe.
Or, what technology were people still using that wasn’t
serving them well?
How did new inventions impact everyday life?
Economic history
You address these issues in all of the
15
What were the prevailing economic systems?
main regions of Europe.
How did they impact commerce and foreign relations
between countries? How did politics impact economics
and vice versa?
Who came up with the key ideas about economics being
used? How did the economic situation impact people’s
lives?
Include a bibliography of any sources used out side of
10
Kagan
No inaccurate information in your
Email the project to Mr. Guemmer two school days
slideshow (-5 for each inaccuracy)
before your presentation so he can take a look at
your work.
Total
120
212
Unit XV The World After WWII
"European imperialism long ago made Tahiti a distant suburb of Paris, the missionaries made it a suburb of Christ's
kingdom, and the radio made it a suburb of Los Angeles” Cedric Belfrage
1. Understand the challenges in the regions, including their geopolitical, cultural, military, and economic
significance and the international relationships in which they are involved.
2. Describe the recent history of the regions, including political divisions and systems, key leaders, religious
issues, natural features, resources, and population patterns.
3. Discuss the important trends in the regions today and whether they appear to serve the cause of individual
freedom and democracy.
213
Imperialism Group Assignment
The year is _________ (the date that an imperial power has left a colony) and a special group has come together to
present the findings of an important study of the colony ___________. The group includes a historian, a politician, an
economist, and a native. Together you will assess for the class the impact of imperialism (based on your field) on the
colony and home country based on the following rubrics.
Historian from the home country: Remember you are a historian from the year the colonial occupation ends. (2-3
minutes)
(You will go first and also last—to wrap things up)
Requirements
For the A
Possible Earned
Give a brief history of the Colonial
Put this information onto a sheet that can be shown 20
occupation including the following
on the document camera so students can add it to
information:
their notes. (5)
The years of the Colonial occupation (5)
The way the colony was taken over (5)
The way the colony was lost (5)
Explain why the colonization of the area was Shows an understanding of the depth of the issues
20
significant for the home country and for the
of Imperialism for this region (10)
colony. (10)
Dress and act like a professional historian of
10
the period (10)
Total
50
Economist from the home country: You will discuss the economic impact of colonizing this area of the world (2-3
minutes)
Requirements
For the A
Possible Earned
Explain to the class the economic impact of
Demonstrates a clear understanding of the
20
colonizing this area considering the following
economics of imperialism and cost/benefit
questions: What raw materials does this colony analysis in looking at the costs and benefits of
have? (5)
this particular colony (5)
How can they be exported and used in the
home country? (5)
How will that impact both the home country
and the colony? (5)
Explain why holding onto this colony was no
Explain the economic repercussions of losing this 20
longer economically feasible in light of the
colony (10)
costs (10)
Dress and act as an economist of the era (10)
10
Total
50
Politician from the home country: You are a politician who supported the colonial venture (2-3 minutes)
Requirements
For the A
Possible Earned
Explain why in the beginning you felt your country
Demonstrates a clear understanding of the
20
should make this colony a colony based on the
political motivations that prompted
following things
Imperialism (5)
How would it impact your relations with other
countries in Europe? (5)
How would it impact the native population? (5)
How would it impact your popularity with the
people in the home country (5)
Discuss struggles you have had to maintain this
Discuss the political impact of the end of
20
colony. Looking at the fact that you have lost
colonial occupation of this region. Why is
control, have these struggles been worth it? (10)
it a good or a bad thing for your country
214
(10)
Dress and act like a politician of the era, accurately
reflecting their sentiments (10) [you will most likely
be showing the opposite view from the native of the
country]
Total
Native: You are a native of the area that has been colonized (2-3 minutes)
Requirements
For the A
Explain to the class why you do
Use the story of one specific person to help demonstrate the
not think it was necessary for the pain and difficulty that imperialism can cause (then pretend it
Europeans to colonize your land
was you the things happened to) (5) [Many students in our
addressing these questions:
school are from countries that are still recovering from
What did their occupation do to
Imperialism. You are welcome to interview one of them for
your language and culture? (5)
information.]
How did the occupation impact
your traditional economy? (5)
How did the occupation impact
your education and values? (5)
Now that the imperial rulers have Discuss the lasting ramifications of colonialism from your
pulled out of your country, what
perspective (10)
do you need to do to recover?
Will you ever recover? Why
(10)
Dress and act as a native
inhabitant of this area (10)
Total
Group Points: Work together to make sure to fulfill these requirements.
Requirements
For the A
Group displays a map of their colony that shows the location of
Presenters refer to the map (5)
the colony in relation to the home country during the presentation
(5)
Every member of the group is on time and prepared (5)
Members stay in their time
limit (5)
Total presentation is no longer than 15 minutes including set up
Presentations require few
and take down (10)
notes or are memorized (10)
Group gives an edible reinforcement/small creative handout to
Handout is fun and creative
help the class remember their colony (5)
(5)
Total
10
50
Possible Earned
20
20
10
50
Possible Earned
10
10
20
10
50
215
Unit XVI Worksheet
African National Congress
apartheid
Arafat, Yasir
Bangladesh
dailts
Darfur
Gandhi, Indira
hejab
Huks
Hussein, Saddam
Hutus
insurgent
intifadas
Kashmir
Kenyatta, Jomo
kibbutz
Kikuyu
Terms to Identify
Mandela, Nelson
Mynamar
Nehru, Jawaharlal
Nkrumah, Kwame
nonalignment
O.P.E.C.
Oslo Accord
Palestinian Liberation Organization
partition
Sadat, Anwar
savannas
Seko, Mobutu Seso
Sikhs
Sukarno
Suu Kyi, Aung San
Theocracy
Tutsis
WMD
216
APPARTS Essay Reading: Nelson Mandela:
Speech on Release from Prison, 1990
After a quarter century in jail, Nelson Mandela, the leader of the South African National Congress, was released and
faced the world's press in a speech carried live throughout the world.
Comrades and fellow South Africans, I greet you all in the name of peace, democracy and freedom for all. I stand here
before you not as a prophet but as a humble servant of you, the people. Your tireless and heroic sacrifices have made it
possible for me to be here today. I therefore place the remaining years of my life in your hands.
On this day of my release, I extend my sincere and warmest gratitude to the millions of my compatriots and those in
every corner of the globe who have campaigned tirelessly for my release. I extend special greetings to the people of
Cape Town, the city which has been my home for three decades. Your mass marches and other forms of struggle have
served as a constant source of strength to all political prisoners.
I salute the African National Congress. It has fulfilled our every expectation In its role as leader of the great march to
freedom.
I salute our president, Comrade Oliver Tambo, for leading the ANC even under the most difficult circumstances.
I salute the rank-and-file members of the ANC: You have sacrificed life and limb in the pursuit of the noble cause of
our struggle.
I salute combatants of Umkhonto We Sizwe (the ANC's military wing) who paid the ultimate price for the freedom of
all South Africans.
I salute the South African Communist Party for its sterling contribution to the struggle for democracy: You have
survived 40 years of unrelenting persecution. The memory of great Communists like Bram Fisher and Moses Mabhida
will be cherished for generations to come.
I salute General Secretary Joe Slovo, one of our finest patriots. We are heartened by the fact that the alliance between
ourselves and the party remains as strong as it always was.
I salute the United Democratic Front, the National Education Crisis Committee, the South African Youth Congress, the
Transvaal and Natal Indian Congresses, and COSATU, and the many other formations of the mass democratic
movement.
I also salute the Black Sash and the National Union of South African Students. We note with pride that you have
endured as the conscience of white South Africans, even during the darkest days of the history of our struggle. You held
the flag of liberty high. The largescale mass mobilization of the past few years is one of the key factors which led to the
opening of the final chapter of our struggle.
I extend my greetings to the working class of our country. Your organized strength is the pride of our movement: You
remain the most dependable force in the struggle to end exploitation and oppression.
I pay tribute to the many religious communities who carried the campaign for justice forward when the organizations of
our people were silenced.
I greet the traditional leaders of our country: Many among you continue to walk in the footsteps of great heroes.
I pay tribute for the endless heroism of youth: You, the young lions, have energized our entire struggle.
I pay tribute to the mothers and wives and sisters of our nation: You are the rock-hard foundation of our struggle.
Apartheid has inflicted more pain on you than on anyone else.
217
On this occasion, we thank the world, we thank the world community for their great contribution to the antiapartheid struggle. Without your support, our struggle could not have reached this advanced stage.
The sacrifice of the front-line states will be remembered by South Africans forever.
My celebrations will be incomplete without expressing my deep appreciation for the strength that has been given to me
during my long and gloomy years in prison by my beloved wife and family. I am convinced that your pain and suffering
was far greater than my own.
Before I go any further, I wish to make the point that I intend making only a few preliminary comments at this stage. I
will make a more complete statement only after I have had the opportunity to consult with my comrades.
Today, the majority of South Africans, black and white, recognize that apartheid has no future. It has to be ended by our
own decisive mass action in order to build peace and security.
The mass campaigns of defiance and other actions of our organizations and people can only culminate in the
establishment of democracy.
The apartheid's destruction on our subcontinent is incalculable. The fabric of family life of millions of my people has
been shattered. Millions are homeless and unemployed. Our economy lies in ruins and our people are embroiled in
political strife.
Our resort to the armed struggle in 1960 with the formation of the military wing of the ANC (Umkhoto We Sizwe) was
a purely defensive action against the violence of apartheid. The factors which necessitated the armed struggle still exist
today. We have no option but to continue. We express the hope that a climate conducive to a negotiated settlement
would be created soon, so that there may no longer be the need for the armed struggle.
I am a loyal and disciplined member of the African National Congress. I am therefore in full agreement with all of its
objectives strategies and tactics.
The need to unite the people of our country is as important a task now as it always has been. No individual leader is
able to take all this enormous task on his own. It is our task as leaders to place our views before our organization and to
allow the democratic structures to decide on the way forward
On the question of democratic practice, I feel duty-bound to make the point that a leader of the movement is a person
who has been democratically elected at a national congress. This is a principle which must be upheld without any
exception.
Today, I wish to report to you that my talks with the government have been aimed at normalizing the political situation
in the country. We have not yet begun discussing the basic demands of the struggle. I wish to stress that I myself have
at no time entered negotiations about the future of our country, except to insist on a meeting between the ANC and the
government.
Mr. de Klerk has gone further than any other nationalist president in taking real steps to normalize the situation.
However, there are further steps, as outlined in the Harare declaration, that have to be met before negotiations on the
basic demands of our people can begin.
I reiterate our call for, inter-alia, the immediate ending of the state of emergency and the freeing of all - and not only
some - political prisoners.
Only such a normalized situation, which allows for free political activity, can allow us to consult our people in order to
obtain a mandate.
The people need to be consulted on who will negotiate and on the content of such negotiations.
218
Negotiations cannot take their place above the heads or behind the backs of our people.
It Is our belief that the future of our country can only be determined by a body which is democratically elected on a
non-racial basis.
Negotiations on the dismantling of apartheid will have to address the overwhelming demands of our people for a
democratic, non-racial and unitary South Africa.
There must be an end to white monopoly on political power and a fundamental restructuring of our political and
economic systems to ensure that the inequalities of apartheid are addressed, and our society thoroughly democratized.
It must be added that Mr. de Klerk himself is a man of integrity who is acutely aware of the dangers of a public figure
not honoring his undertaking. But as an organization, we base our policy and our strategy on the harsh reality we are
faced with, and this reality is that we are still suffering under the policies of the nationalist government.
Our struggle has reached a decisive moment: We call on our people to seize this moment, so that the process toward
democracy Is rapid and uninterrupted.
We have waited too long for our freedom. We can no longer wait. Now is the time to intensify the struggle on all fronts.
To relax our efforts now would be a mistake which generations to come will not be able to forgive.
The sight of freedom looming on the horizon should encourage us to redouble our efforts. It Is only through disciplined
mass action that our victory can be assured.
We call on our white compatriots to join us in the shaping of a new South Africa. The freedom movement is a political
home for you, too.
We call on the international community to continue the campaign to isolate the apartheid regime. To lift sanctions now
would run the risk of aborting the process toward the complete eradication of apartheid. Our march toward freedom is
irreversible. We must not allow fear to stand in our way.
Universal suffrage on a common voters roll in a united, democratic and non-racial South Africa is the only way to
peace and racial harmony. In conclusion, I wish to go to my own words during my trial in 1964 - they are as true today
as they were then:
I have fought against white domination, and I have fought against black domination. I have cherished the ideal of a
democratic and free society in which all persons live together in harmony and with equal opportunity. It is an ideal
which I hope to live for and to achieve. But, if need be, it is an ideal for which I am prepared to die.
This text is part of the Internet Modern History Sourcebook. The Sourcebook is a collection of public domain and copypermitted texts for introductory level classes in modern European and World history.
219
APPARTS Essay Reading: Defense Minister Lin Piao:
The Nature of People's War, Statement of September 3, 1965
Comrade Mao Tse-tung's theory of people's war has been proved by the long practice of the Chinese revolution to be in
accord with the objective laws of such wars and to be invincible. It has not only been valid for China, it is a great
contribution to the revolutionary struggles of oppressed nations and peoples throughout the world. . . .
It was on the basis of the lessons derived from the people's wars in China that Comrade Mao Tse-tung, using the
simplest and the most vivid language, advanced the famous thesis that "political power grows out of the barrel of a
gun."
He clearly pointed out:
The seizure of power by armed force, the settlement of the issue by war, is the central task and the highest form of
revolution, This Marxist-Leninist principle of revolution holds good universally, for China and for all other countries.
Since World War II, U.S. imperialism has stepped into the shoes of German, Japanese and Italian fascism and has been
trying to build a great American empire by dominating and enslaving the whole world. It is actively fostering Japanese
and West German militarism as its chief accomplices in unleashing a world war. Like a vicious wolf, it is bullying and
enslaving various peoples, plundering their wealth, encroaching upon their countries' sovereignty and interfering in
their internal affairs. It is the most rabid aggressor in human history and the most ferocious common enemy of the
people of the world. Every people or country in the world that wants revolution, independence arid peace cannot but
direct the spearhead of its struggle against U.S. imperialism. . . .
U.S. imperialism is stronger, but also more vulnerable, than any imperialism of the past, It sets itself against the people
of the whole world, including the people of the United States. Its human, military, material and financial resources arc
far from sufficient for the realization of its ambition of dominating the whole world. U.S. imperialism has further
weakened itself by occupying so many places in the world, over-reaching itself, stretching its fingers out wide arid
dispersing its strength, with its rear so far away and its supply lines so long. As Comrade Mao Tse-tung has said,
"Wherever it commits aggression, it puts a new noose around its neck. It is besieged ring upon ring by the people of the
whole world.". . .
Everything is divisible. And so is this colossus of U.S. imperialism. It can be split up and defeated. The peoples of Asia,
Africa, Latin America and other regions can destroy it piece by piece, some striking at its head arid others at its feet.
That is why the greatest fear of U.S. imperialism is that people's wars will be launched in different parts of the world,
and particularly in Asia, Africa and Latin America, and why it regards people's war as a mortal danger.
U.S. imperialism relies solely on its nuclear weapons to intimidate people. But these weapons cannot save U.S.
imperialism from its doom. Nuclear weapons cannot be used lightly .. . . .
However highly developed modern weapons and technical equipment may be and however complicated the methods of
modern warfare, in the final analysis the outcome of a war will be decided by the sustained fighting of the ground
forces, by the fighting at close quarters on battlefields, by the political consciousness of the men, by their courage and
spirit of sacrifice. Here the weak points of U.S. imperialism will be completely laid bare, while the superiority of the
revolutionary people will be brought into full play. The reactionary troops of U.S. imperialism cannot possibly be
endowed with the courage and the spirit of sacrifice possessed by the revolutionary people. The spiritual atom bomb
which the revolutionary people possess Is a far more powerful and useful weapon than the physical atom bomb.
Viet Nam is the most convincing current example of a victim of aggression defeating U.S. imperialism by a people's
war. The United States has made South Viet Nam a testing ground for the suppression of people's war. It has carried on
this experiment for many years, and everybody can now see that the U.S. aggressors are unable to find a way of coping
with people's war. On the other hand, the Vietnamese people have brought the power of people's war into full play in
their struggle against the U.S. aggressors. The U.S. aggressors are in danger of being swamped in the people's war in
Viet Nam. They are deeply worried that their defeat in Viet Nam will lead to a chain reaction. They are expanding the
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war in an attempt to save themselves from defeat. But the more they expand the war, the greater will be the chain
reaction. The more they escalate the war, the heavier will be their fall and the more disastrous their defeat. The people
in other parts of the world will see still more clearly that U.S. imperialism can be defeated, arid that what the
Vietnamese people can do, they can do too.
History has proved arid will go on proving that people's war is the most effective weapon against U.S. imperialism arid
its lackeys. All revolutionary people will learn to wage people's war against U.S. imperialism arid its lackeys. They will
take up arms, learn to fight battles and become skilled in waging people's war, though they have not done so before.
U.S. imperialism like a mad bull dashing from place to place, will finally be burned to ashes in the blazing fires of the
people's wars it has provoked by its own actions.
Source:
From Lin Piao, Long Live the Victory of the People's War ! (Peking: Foreign Language Press, 1965), pp. 42-58
This text is part of the Internet Modern History Sourcebook. The Sourcebook is a collection of public domain and copypermitted texts for introductory level classes in modern European and World history.
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Unit XVI Secondary Reading: LITTLE EMPERORS
China's only children--more than 100 million of them--make up the largest Me Generation ever. And their
appetites are big.
By CLAY CHANDLER
October 4, 2004
(FORTUNE Magazine) – IT'S BACK-TO-SCHOOL DAY FOR 3-YEAR-OLD FENG QIYI, AND things are off to a
bumpy start. The bites inflicted by mosquitoes that feasted on him overnight have begun to itch. The smelly ointment
smeared on him by his grandmother isn't helping. And now his grandmother and the family driver have deposited Qiyi
at the Beijing Intelligence and Capability Kindergarten, waved goodbye, and left him to fend for himself. "Children,"
asks the teacher, "does everyone remember the baby-chick dance we learned before vacation?" Qiyi's classmates flap
their arms and sing. The best performers are invited to the front of the class and rewarded with candy. Qiyi isn't picked.
"I have candies at home!" he blurts. "Many, many candies!"
And so he does. As the only child in a well-to-do Beijing household that includes his father, his mother, and his
mother's parents, Qiyi is used to getting plenty of candy, lavish praise from grownups, and pretty much anything else he
wants. Indeed, nearly every aspect of Qiyi's short, comfortable existence has reinforced the notion that he is the center
of the universe. That may not be the most rational view of the cosmos, but it is one shared by millions of other Chinese
youngsters born since 1980, the year China's social planners issued a sweeping edict limiting each family to just one
child. Beijing touts the one-child policy for its success in reducing poverty and raising living standards. Government
demographers credit it with preventing nearly 300 million births over the past 25 years and lowering the average
number of children per woman to two from more than six. But it is widely lamented that the policy has had a nasty side
effect: spawning a generation of selfish brats.
The Chinese have a special name for those tots: xiao huangdi, or "little emperors." They are regularly deplored in the
state-run press. China's children are growing up "self-centered, narrow-minded, and incapable of accepting criticism,"
declared Yang Xiaosheng, editor of a prominent literary journal, in a recent interview in the Beijing Star Daily. Wang
Ying, the director of Qiyi's kindergarten, concurs: "Kids these days are spoiled rotten. They have no social skills. They
expect instant gratification. They're attended to hand and foot by adults so protective that if the child as much as
stumbles, the whole family will curse the ground."
The one-child policy has been loosely enforced in the countryside, where more than two-thirds of China's people live.
In remote areas it's not uncommon to find farm families with as many as five or six children. But in cities one child per
family remains the norm. Demographers estimate that of Chinese under age 25, at least 20%--about 100 million--have
been raised in one-child households. That's only a sliver of China's 1.3 billion people. But for foreign companies hoping
to capture the hearts and minds of Chinese consumers, little emperors are a crucial market vanguard. They're confident,
cosmopolitan, and eager to try new things. And unlike their rural cousins, they have the financial wherewithal to gratify
their whims. An April survey by Hill & Knowlton and Seventeen magazine of 1,200 students at 64 universities in
Beijing and Shanghai found that six in ten reported spending more than $60 a month on "unessential items"--a
staggering sum given that monthly per capita income in those cities averages less than $250. Many analysts predict that
as their purchasing power increases, China's little emperors will emerge as a driving force of lifestyle and market trends
beyond China--not only in Asia but in the U.S. and Europe as well. Says Conrad Persons, a consumer-trends analyst at
Ogilvy & Mather: "Get ready for the biggest Me Generation the world has ever seen."
The key to understanding this generation is to recognize that it is a breed apart. Everything is different for these kids;
the sibling dearth is just the start. China's little emperors and empresses have come of age in an era of unprecedented
prosperity. Their parents and grandparents endured years of famine under Mao's disastrous communal agriculture
policies and the chaos of the Cultural Revolution. They remember the trauma of the crackdown in Tiananmen Square.
But for the Chinese born since 1980, that's ancient history. For youngsters in Beijing and Shanghai--and even secondtier cities such as Dalian, Chengdu, or Kunming--each passing week brings a gleaming new shopping complex,
restaurant, highway, or residential development.
And it's not just that they're better off. They're better informed. Although the state retains a firm grip on the media and
has spent billions on technologies enabling police to snoop on Internet users, Chinese kids today know more about the
world beyond the Middle Kingdom than any previous generation. They are avid techies, making ready use of mobile
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phones, the Internet, and electronic gizmos of every sort. They track the latest fashion fads in Tokyo, swoon over
pop stars from Hong Kong and Taiwan, and watch Hollywood blockbusters on knockoff DVDs.
Consider Wang Qi, a 19-year-old hip-hop music producer scouting for a new pair of Air Force 1 sneakers at the Nike
shop in Beijing's trendy Xidan district. Wang--who prefers to be addressed by his street name, "Jerzy King"--moved to
Beijing three years ago from the coastal province of Shandong. A music school dropout who has never set foot outside
China, he totes a mini-disc player loaded with Eminem, Puff Daddy, and Fabolous. On this particular day he's looking
phat in a blue-and-white fleece jacket bearing the logo of the Toronto Maple Leafs. Where'd he get the getup? The U.S.,
of course. He spotted the jacket and matching pants on www.footlocker.com, paid for them using a Western Union
credit card, and had them express-mailed to Beijing via the U.S. Postal Service. At last count Wang's wardrobe
included more than 100 jackets and jerseys. Using an Intel-powered computer he assembled himself, he spends hours
each day tracking the latest hip-hop styles over the Internet and does a brisk business importing and reselling American
street wear (most of it originally manufactured in China) to Chinese friends.
China's little emperors are weaned on cheeseburgers from McDonald's, pizza from Pizza Hut, and fried chicken from
KFC. Their enthusiasm for fast food is fattening their own bottoms as it fattens multinationals' bottom lines. In big
cities one in five children under 18 suffers from obesity. The weight-loss business is booming. At the Aimin Fat
Reduction Hospital in Tianjin, a former military institution that launched China's first weight clinic in 1992, doctors
treat 200 patients, most of them under 25, with a daily regimen of acupuncture, exercise, and healthy food. Fifteenyear-old Liang Chen reports proudly that he has lost 33 pounds in less than a month at Aimin. But he can't stop
reminiscing wistfully about his regular visits to KFC. (Indeed, his favorite T-shirt is a souvenir from China's largest
KFC store.) "I used to be able to eat an entire family-size bucket all by myself," he recalls. "Just one?" snorts his
roommate, 14-year-old Li Xiang. "That's nothing. I used to be able to eat four buckets--sometimes five, if I didn't eat
the corncobs and bread."
TV commercials starring Jay Chou, a pop heartthrob from Taiwan, have helped persuade millions of mainland teens to
drink Pepsi. China's urban youngsters are easily dazzled by fast food, flashy clothes, and the glitter of foreign lifestyles,
says Yi Wei, author of Unbearable Happiness, a book about Chinese youth. "This is a fragile generation," Yi argues.
"They grow up sheltered, without any concept of sacrifice or self-control." Among parents, the nearly universal
complaint is that young Chinese haven't learned to "eat bitterness," a common expression for enduring hardship.
That criticism isn't entirely fair. Little emperors bear the weight of an entire family's expectations on their tiny
shoulders. In today's China, urban middle-class children come under enormous pressure to excel academically from as
early as 5 or 6 years of age. Parents prod their offspring through a gantlet of costly lessons: piano, English conversation,
martial arts, even golf.
Beijing insurance saleswoman Leng Yaqun has drawn up a daunting study schedule for her 13-year-old son, Bingyang,
during his six-week summer vacation. It begins at 9:30 A.M. with an hour of homework assigned from school. Then
comes an hour of extra math drills and an hour memorizing The Analects of Confucius. After lunch there's an hour for
penmanship and an hour for reading (among the titles she has assigned: a Chinese translation of Tony Robbins's
Awaken the Giant Within). The day wraps up with an hour for listening to recordings of classic texts in English,
including Romeo and Juliet, Darwin's The Origin of Species, and the lectures of Herbert Marcuse.
"I tell him, 'You are so lucky,'" says Leng. "When I was his age, we had nothing to study except the basic school texts.
But Bingyang can buy all kinds of books. He can take extra courses. He can get a private tutor and learn about anything
he wants from the Internet."
Bingyang does his best. But the Bard goes in one ear and out the other; he gave up on Robbins after the first few pages.
"Too boring!" He'd just as soon use the computer to play videogames and the break from school to pursue his real
passion: assembling model cars. Many parents confess that they are pushing their kids so hard out of a desire to
compensate for the opportunities they never had. But it is also true that advancing through China's educational system
requires hours of drilling. The nation's university system has places for only about half of those who apply. Chinese
families spare no expense to help their children pull high test scores. Some rent air-conditioned hotel rooms so that their
little Einsteins can study in comfort before exams. And as they venture into the workplace, new graduates are figuring
out that their status as only children, combined with the inadequacy of China's public pension system, means that
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responsibility for caring for aging grandparents and parents will fall to them. China's little emperors are "born into a
kind of fairyland," says Ellen Hou, a planner at the Shanghai office of global advertising giant TBWA. "But from the
moment school starts, their lives become a struggle."
At Qiyi's kindergarten, one of Beijing's best, the struggle starts early. Founded in 1996 by a prominent Chinese
educator, the school takes up to 400 pupils each year, from 18 months to 6 years. Tuition and other fees run $6,000,
about double the income of the average Beijing household. In addition to instruction in math, science, art, Chinese
language, and music, the school offers lessons in English, golf, and tennis. The school puts a premium on discipline,
competition, and proper manners. To help young students grasp the virtues of self- denial, teachers offer them candy
early in the morning with the promise that they'll receive a second piece if they can refrain from eating the first one
before lunch. "By age 3, most students have learned to control their desires," says Wang. That is also the age by which
they are expected to be able to recite pi out to 100 digits.
Some thrive in this sort of environment. The Intelligence and Capability Kindergarten's star pupil is 5-year-old Ying
Rudi, the son of China's most popular television host and sitcom director and the grandson of a famous actor who was
once the country's Minister of Culture. Rudi began piano lessons at age 3 and is now a celebrated prodigy. A poster in
the school's front hall congratulates him for sweeping piano competitions this year in Beijing, Chicago, and Geneva.
AT 13, XU QIUSHI is a hardened junior achiever. She, too, is an award-winning pianist--and a formidable competitor
in Korean kickboxing. On a recent evening she mesmerized guests gathered in the family living room with delicate
renditions of Beethoven and Debussy, then--after a few mouthfuls of fried chicken and a quick costume change-launched into a boisterous demonstration of her head kicks. Xu hasn't the slightest doubt that she will be admitted to
Beijing's elite Tsinghua University, and she is already contemplating postgraduate study in Paris. Her long-term goal is
to become a diplomat--like her idol, piano-playing Bush security advisor Condoleezza Rice.
Twenty-one-year-old Li Cheng, by contrast, just wanted off the academic treadmill. Li hails from a long line of
scholars. His mother and father are nuclear scientists, and his parents and grandparents, he says, "have more advanced
degrees than you can count." Li has found his calling as a veejay with the Chinese subsidiary of Rupert Murdoch's
Channel V. He says his family is appalled. But the pay is good, and there are other benefits. On a breezy evening in
August, Li's career choice puts him before a crowd of 10,000 pumped-up fans at the Summer Shake, a raucous Channel
V music festival on the outskirts of Shanghai. His appearance onstage, in a sleek tank top and straw fedora, provokes a
wave of high-pitched squeals. Offstage he is mobbed by teenage girls begging for his autograph.
Rebellion has also proved a shrewd career move for Chun Shu, a 21-year-old high school dropout who shot to fame two
years ago with Beijing Doll, a sexually explicit novel recounting her search for love, truth, and the perfect punk band.
Beijing Doll lambastes the education system for draining the passion from China's youth and pours scorn on Chinese
who came of age during the Cultural Revolution for their mindless preoccupation with academic achievement. Before
being banned, the book sold hundreds of thousands of copies and was embraced by disaffected students throughout
China.
"Don't talk to me about how kids my age have more freedom," Chun rages, stubbing out a cigarette in a Beijing café.
"The day China abolishes these stupid entrance exams, that's when you can talk to me about freedom." For all her
invective against scholarship, Chun herself can be surprisingly cerebral. She has strong views about George Orwell,
Henry Miller, and China's own Lu Xun. But she is apt to lurch from a discussion of great books into a rant about the
relative merits of Converse vs. Nike, or Courtney vs. Avril. "Does anyone in America believe Avril is a true punk?" she
wants to know. "The silky hair, the perfect skin, that little nose--real punks don't look like that."
But Chun also confesses doubts about her own punk credentials. "I used to think of myself as a lover of music,
literature, and ideas, who cared nothing for fashion or style," she wrote in a recent posting on Sina.com, a popular
Internet portal. But "rereading Beijing Doll today, I realize that, even more than most girls, I have been obsessed with
material things. I could spend money like water just to buy a handbag with a fancy brand name. I am easily bewitched
by television advertisements and can be as vain as a peacock. Am I less able to debate the ideas of Dostoevsky because
I'm wearing beautiful panties?"
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China's old guard doesn't begrudge Chun and other young rebels their choice of lingerie, as long as what they
debate in it doesn't verge into topics that are really taboo--like whether they ought to have the right to choose their
political leaders. Authorities have taken solace in public opinion surveys suggesting that Chinese born in the 1980s, fed
a steady diet of patriotic propaganda in public schools, profess more ardent devotion to their country than those born in
the 1970s.
And yet the spread of consumer culture is quietly subversive. The fundamental idea of communism, after all, is the
subordination of the individual to the collective; consumerism presupposes the reverse. Gilbert Lee of Research
International, a Beijing marketing consultancy, advises foreign firms hoping to win over young consumers to play
precisely to their yearning for self-expression, crafting messages that stress values of individuality, freedom, and
physical attraction. Lee sees a stark divergence in the preferences of Chinese consumers born before 1980, who are
likelier to seek out products that help them arrange their lives in a more secure and orderly way, and those born after the
one-child policy, who are looking to project themselves, establish their uniqueness, and make a positive impression on
others. In a society where children are indulged as infants and grow accustomed as adolescents to asserting their
identity through spending decisions every day--what to wear, what to eat, what music to listen to, what to drive--how
much longer before some also begin clamoring for a say in other things: property rights, taxes, the quality of public
services?
Shen Jie, a sociologist at China's Academy of Social Sciences, says that all the hand-wringing about little emperors is
overdone. They haven't gone soft, he argues, and aren't about to foment revolution. Like kids everywhere, he says,
they're just trying to find their way: "If you judge Chinese kids today by the standards of yesterday, then sure, they
come up short. They don't like to suffer. They aren't used to eating bitterness. But so what? Is that the main thing China
needs right now--more people who are good at being miserable? These kids have other skills. They're creative and
opinionated, and have the courage to do new things. Shouldn't that be grounds for hope?"
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Unit XVI Secondary Reading: Democracy and Drugs in Central America
by Donald J. Mabry, November, 1988
Thanks to Opus, Bill the Cat, and other denizens of Bloom County, it's not necessary to explain the economics of the
drug trade nor the difficulties of drug interdiction policy. As they so aptly explained, overcoming the actions of the
human ego is difficult. When I speak of ego in this context, I am including manifestations of it such as selfishness, selfindulgence, greed, and vanity.
The story of the drug trade, at the supply end or the demand end or both, is a story of human egotism but so, too, is the
story of Central America and its occasional forays into democracy or what some people call democracy.
Not being a political scientist nor an expert on Central America, I will not pursue those comments directly. Instead, my
comments are about the nature and extent of the drug trade in Central America and the apparent effects of that trade on
the possibility of democracy in the region. Since the drug trade is illicit and, therefore, clandestine, accurate information
is difficult to obtain. Thus, I am tentative in my comments.
Central American democracy is like a desert flower in a very parched land; fed by intermittent rainfall, it quickly
blooms and dies. This is not true of Costa Rica and Belize, of course, and some would say it is not true of Nicaragua.
For most of these countries, the military is the political force whether or not civilians are the titular heads of
government. This has been true for many years and the drug trade has not caused the rise of military power. This is an
important point to remember as we take a quick look at drugs and democracy in Central America.
THE DRUG TRADE
Central American nations play three roles in the Latin American drug trade:
(1) They produce and export marijuana. Belize and Guatemala are the two most important.
(2) They serve as transshipment points for cocaine and marijuana from South America.
(3) Drug money is laundered in Panama.
The Central American drug trade is not new, of course. As Bill Walker points out in his Drug Control in the Americas,
Honduras, Costa Rica, and Panama were transshipment points in the 1930s. In 1932-33, Honduras imported enough
morphine to meets its scientific and medical needs for 100 years; in 1934, enough came in for another 72 years. It was
sent to the U.S. via New Orleans and the U.S. Coast Guard had to spend a lot of money patrolling the southern coast of
the region.
The region is ideally suited for smuggling activities. Flights from Colombia or the Bahamas can easily reach it, land
and refuel, and then fly at low levels into isolated areas of the U.S. Local officials, civilian and military, in these poor
nations are just as amenable to bribes or shares of the profits as are similar officials in the much richer United States.
Military officers are often deeply involved in the trafficking. The military is the only public security force with the
capability of eradicating crops and busting smuggling rings. Panama, because of its banking laws guaranteeing secrecy,
is an ideal place through which to launder the many millions of dollars obtained by this illicit trade. U.S. policy
interests in the region have focused on maintaining control of the Panama Canal and alternative canal routes and
prevention of regimes hostile to the U.S. or powerful interests in the U.S., thus leaving wide latitude to thug dictators to
do as they pleased. Since 1981, the U.S. has wanted to oust the Sandinistas in Nicaragua but has had to make special
deals with Panama and Honduras in the process. Parts of these deals have apparently involved tolerance of the drug
trade.
The rising U.S. appetite for cocaine and well-publicized cocaine violence and death within the U.S. made it more
difficult for U.S. officials to ignore what was happening in Central America. The problem became, however, that as
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U.S. agents, usually from the Drug Enforcement Administration, pursued drug dealers and encouraged crop
eradication programs, they risked embarrassing other branches of the U.S. government, which had a different interest in
Central America. This interest was the overthrow of the Sandinista government through support of the Contras.
In Honduras, location of the principal Contra bases and a country into which the U.S. has poured many millions of
dollars, the drug trade was small before 1986, the year Ramón Mata Ballesteros, a high profile cocaine dealer, returned
home from Colombia. The U.S. wanted to extradite him for complicity in the murder of Enrique Camarena in Mexico,
something that was possible under the terms of the U.S.-Colombian extradition treaty but not possible when he was a
Honduran citizen in Honduras. Mata could not have returned home unless the Honduran military allowed it. We do not
know why the military allowed it. We do know that Honduras soon became an important cocaine transshipment point
(late in 1987, DEA seized 6 tons of cocaine which passed through Honduras). The Honduran military has been engaged
in a variety of illegal activities and DEA officials are convinced that a number of officers were engaged in the lucrative
cocaine trade. Mata became an embarrassment and a source of friction between the Honduran military and the U.S.
government. Apparently with connivance on the part of the Honduran military, Mata was kidnapped from Honduras,
taken to the Dominican Republic, loaded onto a plane, and arrested by the U.S. when he was in international airspace.
Honduran nationalists burned the U.S. consulate in protest.
Cocaine entered the Honduran scene in another way, if periodicals and indicted criminals are to be believed. Evidence
no doubt exists to clarify this story but it is unlikely that we will see it for years on the grounds of U.S. national
security. The Arms Supermarket--the CIA-Mossad-Honduran military intelligence operation--stored weapons bound for
the Contras in San Pedro Sula, Honduras. Assertions are made that the purchase and the transport of these weapons was
done, in part, by drug dealers. That is, some of the money came from the so-called Medellin cartel (who are laissez faire
capitalists and thus opposed to leftist governments and who also may have hoped to curry favor with U.S. authorities).
Drugs were flown to the U.S. and, on the return trip, arms to Honduras. These are the assertions of Richard Brenneke
and of Jorge Morales, who also said he made the same arrangements for Costa Rica and El Salvador.
Panama and its dictator, General Antonio Manuel Noriega, are a special case. As Ambler Moss, U.S. ambassador to
Panama (1978-82) puts it, U.S. interest in Panama has been, in descending order, the Canal, U.S. military bases, and
democracy. With the Sandinista revolution, the military bases (the Southern Command) assumed additional importance.
The Panama Canal Treaty stipulates that the Southern Command can only be used to defend the Canal. Noriega
conveniently ignored how many soldiers and of what nationality are stationed and trained there. The Southern
Command became an important part of the anti-Sandinista effort. Further, Noriega passed along intelligence
information to the U.S. If we are to believe the Miami and Tampa grand jury indictments against him, he also engaged
in drug trafficking and drug money laundering. If we are to believe Morales and other traffickers as well as former
Panamanian Consul José Blandón, a Noriega opponent, the U.S. knew that Noriega was deeply involved in the drug
business, that he was taking a cut from the traffic of drugs to the United States and of the money laundered through
Panamanian-charted banks. On the other hand, he allowed Panamanian territory to be used to resupply the Contras and
kept quiet about what was happening at Southern Command bases.
>From the U.S. standpoint, however, the problem with Noriega was that he was too greedy; he could be rented but not
bought. He is also vicious. The 1985 murder of Dr. Spadafora, an outspoken critic of Noriega who charged the
commander of the Panamanian Defense Forces with being a drug trafficker, angered many, especially when his
beheaded body was thrown into Costa Rica. Many believed that Noriega ordered this atrocity. From a U.S. policy
perspective, more important were the facts that Noriega allowed the KGB to open a field office in Panama and that he
helped Cuba and Nicaragua evade the U.S. embargo against them. He aided the Sandinistas as well as the Contras.
Some assert that he sold U.S. intelligence data to U.S. opponents.
Tired of Noriega's doings, the U.S. government obtained indictments against him in Miami and Tampa, the first time
the U.S. formally charged the head of state of an ally with criminal charges. The U.S. also brought intermittent pressure
to bear in its unsuccessful effort to oust Noriega. The general proved smarter than his opponents, however. He had
made sure that officers of the Panamanian Defense Forces had a piece of the drug money action, just as the PDF has a
piece of the legitimate business action in Panama. Within Panama, only the PDF can overthrow Noriega and its officers
are not likely to do so in the near future. If the U.S. is willing to bring Noriega to the U.S. for trial, surely it would bring
lesser officers as well. And, of course, Noriega wrapped himself in the Panamanian flag. No matter who one is or what
one has done (or not done), wrapping oneself in the national flag is a great tactic.
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DEMOCRACY
As mentioned before, military establishments are the political arbiters in most Central American nations today, just as
they have been for most of the region's history. This is true even though there are currently civilian presidents in most
of these countries. The threat to democracy in such nations as Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, and Panama is the
power of the military.
Democracy requires voluntary restraints on the human ego. Rules, be they statutes or customs, are the principal means
by which a community restrains egotism. In a democratic society, the people are sovereign. They make the rules and
obey them voluntarily. In democratic societies, law enforcement exists to deal with the inevitable deviants.
Democracies work when their members respect each other enough to tolerate each other and to obey the laws they
create. Democracies require social trust. Military governments are not based on popular sovereignty or social trust; after
all, in those governments, it is the officers who are the principal voters.
The illicit drug trade and the lawlessness which must accompany it are a threat to democracy for they undermine social
trust, foster egotism, and threaten the ability of the State to rule. Drug barons can and do become powers unto
themselves. When those drug barons are military officers or allied to military officers, democracy has little chance.
Finally, the drug trade threatens democracy in Central America for a number of reasons. It mocks the laws. It produces
large amounts of private violence. It cannot exist without the connivance of the military. It corrupts the military while
also empowering the military with large sums of illicit money and additional control over civilians. Meeting at
American University in June, 1988, fifty Latin American military officers, including the ministers of defense of
Guatemala and Honduras, agreed that the military should not get involved in anti-drug campaigns because military
involvement would strengthen the military vis-a-vis civilian government and make the military more autonomous.
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Unit XVI: Discussion Reading
African Agriculture and Medicine: Modern Orphans in a Globalizing World
By Thomas R. Odhiambo
Revised, shortened version of the 8th Rajiv Gandhi Science and Technology Annual Lecture, delivered by the author in
Trivandrum, Kerala, India on 25th November 2000.
The orphans
During the three months of October, November, and December 2000, over 195 people, including the crisis management doctor,
died in the District of Gulu, in northern Uganda, of Ebola, an acute viral disease. First reported in 1976, in a village near Ebola
River in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), it has subsequently spread to other parts of Africa. Because Ebola kills its
victims faster than it can spread, being terminal within 48 hours with internal and external bleeding, it has acquired the notoriety
of being the most virulent disease known to humans. The disease, of which 4 sub-types exist, is transmitted through direct contact
with the infected person's blood, fluids, secretions, and organs. It has no known wild host. It has no known cure. Doctors can only
provide basic health support, such as rehydration and good nutrition. The Ebola victims therefore fight their infections alone.

Orphan diseases: In addition to Ebola, other tropical diseases, such as malaria, are major killer diseases in
Africa (and other parts of the tropical developing world). They have acquired the epithet of orphan diseases,
because the great instruments of science, and the brilliant brains in science and technology (S & T), have not
yet turned their innovative instruments and creativity to challenge them in a sustained manner. Why? Because
these diseases are endemic in zones of the world where the inhabitants are largely income-poor and may not,
therefore, easily pay for the resultant science-based therapies.1

Orphan food tropical crops: Such crops, including cassava, banana, millet, and the leafy vegetables, are not
receiving attention from modern biotechnology, because these commodities are not important in the temperate
industrialized countries, nor are they immediately profitable to food-related transnational corporations
(TNCs).1

The orphaning of the accumulated indigenous knowledge and technology systems (particularly those related to
Africa's living resources): Taking one example, that of healing, it is not difficult to discern the origin of such
orphaning and exclusion, as John Janzen (1997) states so openly:2
"Just as Muslim crusaders had attacked 'pagan' African forms of healing and religion, so Western Christian missionaries
discredited the basis of knowledge as well as the overall approach to ritual healing. Assumptions that human relations
could cause sickness were dismissed as superstition or 'witchcraft' at a time when the first steps of positive science were
discovering the causes of contagious diseases… [But now] in medicinal plant research African scientists and other
scholars search for ways to modernize uniquely African solutions to their needs." (page 281)
In this context, let it be known that the conservation of medicinal plant diversity occupies a major concern of most
communities in Africa -- even during the several centuries of external interference with the African indigenous healing
practice.

Metallurgy: Finally, there is the stark reality of the orphaning of the practice of metallurgy in Africa in the
course of the last 500 years or so. Objects of gold, copper, and iron have always been at the core of African
political, economic, social, and religious affairs - all the way from about 2000 B.C.E.3
Consequences of orphaning
Consequently, when one considers Africa as poor, one should instantly realize that the African phenomenon of poverty
is not intrinsically one of material poverty. It is a far more fundamental experience of impoverishment, stemming
broadly from two streams of experience:
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
It is the entire rejection, since the 16th century, of the African peoples' indigenous knowledge and
technology systems in agriculture, in medical practice and healing, and of their philosophical and religious
worldview by alien dominant forces, sometimes coercively or even violently. This rejection has led to the
impoverishment of the socio-cultural underpinnings of the African economic vitality and social wellbeing.

This impoverishment has been further deepened by the loss or under-utilization of the continent's productive
assets, including the loss of their experts in the brain drain to the West. And the continent is likely to continue
on the poverty treadmill as long as she fails to construct a new vision for the contemporary contextual reality,
or fails to take advantage of opportunities to position herself to compete successfully for market access and
market share in her areas of comparative advantage.
The crisis of poverty in Africa is so great and so pervasive that only a radical strategy for its amputation is feasible. The previous
four decades has seen United Nations-led development, financed by the World Bank, the African Development Bank, and a
plethora of aid agencies, largely staffed by external experts. But this has led not only to stagnation or worse; it has also deprived
Africa of taking the leadership role in her won development.
Quantum leap into the future
Traditionally, during the just-concluded twentieth century, universities in Africa have educated an elite corps of
scholars, scientists, and engineers; while research institutes have undertaken both basic and applied research, largely in
the natural sciences, agriculture, fisheries, and the medical sciences. In both cases, these institutions have not engaged
directly in matters of economic and social development, in livelihood issues, or in linking with industry, business, and
community aspirations. They have all along adopted a hands-off posture.
The core of the radical strategy for the four-decade long science-led development programme consists of four major
elements:
1. Adopt the indigenous knowledge and technology systems as the foundational bedrock on which the African
communities can graft the new knowledge emerging from problem solving scientific research and technology
development (R & D). In this way, the successful bridging of these two knowledge systems becomes assured;
and the modern science culture then comes to be assimilated seamlessly.
2. Proactively promote a functionally working relationship between the science and technology (S & T)
leadership, the community leadership, the business-cum-industrial sector, and the geopolitical leadership; so as
to create a solid, focused partnership for the development of Africa. Consequently, this partnership brings
together, in joint leadership, the best of knowledge, wisdom, entrepreneurship, and democratic responsibility to
the development agenda.
3. Induce Africa-based universities and R & D institutes to become consistently active agents of economic, social,
and cultural development.
4. Create strategic alliances in priority areas of Africa's concern with the foremost centres of excellence in
learning, skills development, and R & D located in the South as well as in the North.
In this context, Africa is relatively well endowed with universities and R & D institutes, although there are gaping holes
in the array of such institutions. For instance, there are no research universities; and there are few R & D institutes
concentrating on industrial innovations. In any case, there are approximately:


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220 public-funded universities and 186 public-funded R & D institutes in Africa, including a dozen or so
regional and international ones5
Egypt alone has 17 universities; South Africa has 12 polytechnics and 21 universities, including the largest
distance learning university in the world -- the University of South Africa, with students enrolling from more
than 100 countries
Nigeria has 30 polytechnics and 36 universities, with the Sheda Complex located on the outskirts of the capital
city, Abuja, being designed as a "science village" for new and emerging technologies.5
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What the program can do: an example
Take one example, that of food and nutritional security. Indigenous African agriculture relies on polycultures, which
consists of



many crops being grown on the same plot
trees and shrubs are the anchor perennial species, providing mycorrhiza (for mobilizing phosphorus and other
nutrients); these trees and shrubs promoting soil fixation against erosion by wind and water
leguminous relationships (providing nitrogen fixation)
Polycultural agriculture has, for most of the twentieth century, been condemned by agronomists as messy and
inefficient in terms of industrial agriculture. However, recent scientific research7 has shown quite clearly that the
opposite is true. Indeed, it is becoming clear that a permanent polyculture, with most crop species in the mixture
being perennial in character -- as most home-gardens in indigenous African homesteads had traditionally been -could once again become a significant part of mainstream farming systems in Africa. We know that each of Africa's
main staples and about 300 leafy vegetables have perennial cultivars which could provide a starting point for the
genetic selection and breeding of the best cultivars to incorporate into the traditional tree-and-shrub polyculture in
farming households.
We have not far to go to see the feasibility of such a revolutionary farming system being demonstrated as
prospectively successful. Dr. Wes Jackson, an American geneticist, the founder in 1976 of The Land Institute based
in rural Kansas at Salina, USA, has just won the 2000 Right Livelihood Award for his dedication to prove that a
natural systems agriculture based on perennial crops is indeed feasible. In his long-term research, he has been able to
obtain yields comparable to annual grain crops, manage insect pests, plant diseases, and weeds without the
intervention of synthetic pesticides, and maintain the fertility of the soil without chemical fertilizers.8
Africans, who have suffered so cruelly over the last half-a-millennium, who have seen deprivation and exclusion to
unfathomable depths, can now create for themselves a new spiritual renaissance, linked to material well-being and
social value, if they can but accept to take a new path of holistic development, as the radical strategy for Africa's
development is proclaiming.
What, then, are the next steps in putting into practice this radical strategy?
The way forward
Two giant steps -- representing elements 2 and 3 of the radical strategy -- are already being implemented: a joint
continent-wide leadership to spearhead this "impossible task" and plans for a regional research university with
associated solution-oriented R & D institutes.
Both of these bold initiatives are coordinated by an independent, non-profit, perpetual Trust, The Research and
Development Forum for Science-Led Development in Africa (RANDFORUM). Established in 1992, The
RANDFORUM operates as a think-tank, whose primary objective is the promotion of the sustainable development of
Africa, the promotion of problem-solving R & D and S & T cooperation, through capacity building and its utilization
in wealth creation and socio-economic development, and through policy research and coordination.
The RANDFORUM took over the role of the Future Actions Committee9 and established the working concept of The
Presidential Forum on the Management of Science and Technology for Development in Africa. Already, three
sessions of The Presidential Forum have been held in Gaborone, Botswana in 1993; in Maputo, Mozambique in 1994;
and in Kampala, Uganda in 1995. The next session is to be convened in Dakar, Senegal in 2001. Associated with
these two-day summits, are country-specific National S & T Exhibitions; as well as pre-Forum sessions of The
Roundtable on Science-Led Development.
Four critically important products have come out of these summits:
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



the movement towards establishing The African Foundation for Research and Development (AFRAND),
headquartered in Lilongwe, Malawi;
the design of a Debt-for-Science-Swap (DFFS) scheme, as a means of garnering endowment for AFRAND;
the completion of a detailed study on the Distressed and Expatriate Scientists and Scholars from Africa
(DESSA);
the development of a long-term policy for their utilization in Africa's industrialization and sustainable
development; and searching for deliberate policies on Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs) that would
favourably work for Africa, particularly in relation to indigenous knowledge and technology systems and the
world trends in trade liberalization.
The RANDFORUM's efforts challenge several of the root causes and factors responsible for the continent's
underdevelopment, one of which is the failure of most African universities to be the gathering fulcrum for
development. It is the intention of The RANDFORUM to sponsor a region-wide Research University -- Mbeji
University of Science and Health.



Initially, the university will cater to the East African Lake Victoria Basin (consisting of Kenya, Uganda,
Tanzania, Rwanda, and Burundi).
Starting to operate in 2001 in the field of mathematics, Mbeji University will progressively widen its purview
to include other sciences over the next 5 - 7 years.
This new institution is an entirely postgraduate university, undertaking its programmes largely within
university owned R & D institutes. These institutes are geared towards the major problems of their area, such
as:
o safe drinking water
o the exploitation of mineral resources and their processing
o natural products as a source of novel and bioactive compounds
o the promise of nanotechnology
o the management and cure of tropical diseases
o and the domestication and mainstreaming of indigenous tropical crops.
A most essential context of this bold new African adventure is the selective networking and collaboration of the new
problem-solving R & D institutes and their umbrella university, as well as other proven R & D centres of excellence
in Africa.
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Unit XVI Discussion Reading
Education in Apartheid South Africa: Propaganda with a Purpose
Author: Jessica Powers Published on: Jun 28, 2005
In 1976, when schoolchildren took to the streets to protest the schools in South Africa, they revealed one of the
government’s insidious strategies for controlling the black population: training them into servitude for the white
minority. These African youth objected to the inferior education they were receiving, an education that continually
reinforced their status in society. For example, as late as 1980, one Cape Town school used an Afrikaans dictionary that
defined baas (boss) as “the name of a white man” while meit (maid) was defined as “the name of a black or coloured
woman.” Further, terms like swartgoed (“black thing”) was defined as “black labourer” (Finnegan, 274).
Though anti-apartheid activists around the world applauded the schoolchildren’s objections to such racist
indoctrination, nobody appeared to object per se to the truth that propaganda is an integral part of public education,
whether that public education is in South Africa, England, the United States, or Mexico. Though anti-apartheid activists
were incensed by these particular ideas sold without apology to white and black kids alike, nobody argued that all
education systems are somehow flawed by this same systemic approach to society.
One of the major advantages to public education is that it allows a society to incubate citizens. Education theorists in
nations around the world have long understood the necessity of public education for creating citizens who “fit” into the
society and government of that nation.
Shortly after the American Revolution, for example, education specialists in the United States articulated the idea that
the “American youth was to be taught only by American teachers, who were thought to be in better cultural frames to
transmit American nationalistic ideals, principles, and values” (Marah, 461). Nations, they argued, only worked when
the individuals living within them shared an “in-group feeling,” a feeling that is cultivated when people begin to
identify with a particular social group and is manifested in so-called “national character,” which can easily be
developed via the school system (Marah, 462).
Likewise, shortly after Independence, African politicians in nations from Ghana to Ethiopia argued for a new education
system that didn’t rely on the colonial education structures that had been left in place. They argued for universities
established on African principles that would create nationalism and loyalty to Africa while diminishing the effects of
“tribalism” (Marah, 466).
We all agree that an education system that reinforces the ideals of a racist society is unconscionable. But is it really so
different when the message is different but the methods of indoctrination are the same?
That is, I would argue that all governments use public education as a vehicle for propaganda that “socializes” children
into certain mindsets, behaviors, and expectations so that they can become model citizens in the society that produced
them. Public education’s fundamental advantage of creating a model citizen is also one of its major drawbacks—at least
in the eyes of those who believe the government’s set of values is harmful (e.g., apartheid) or in the eyes of those of us
who believe education’s purpose is to teach children to think for themselves.
In other words, even if you agree with the value system taught to children in the school system, should children be
spoon-fed a set of ideas upon which to base their lives? Truth may be an anti-dote to some propaganda, but some
propaganda can also be true; purpose and intent—not truth—are at question here.
Whether you look at the education system as a womb protecting and creating future citizens or as a laboratory
developing clones depends partly, perhaps, on how much you agree with the values propagated within that system. This
is surely one major reason why so many South Africans have, in recent years, started teaching their own children:
educational benefits aside, it allows parents to control the lessons and ideas their children receive so that they are
instilling values and shaping their children’s characters, rather than the State.
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Homeschooling has the potential to be a radical reversal of the school system but it usually falls far short of that
goal. In fact, parents often end up doing the same thing as the public school system—breeding children who view the
world through a particular lens. It just happens that the lens given to them is the lens their parents wish, rather than the
State.1
Homeschool in South Africa may be post-apartheid’s version of the “school boycott,” and it may turn out to be just as
political. Boycotting school ultimately produced few changes to education, though it had an enormous effect on African
children who never returned to school. But the movement for black resistance in South Africa was under girded by a
vast system of “political education,” called “conscientization.” If you received the slogans and political opinions of the
movement, and became an active participant in the liberation struggle, you were “conscientized.”
Again, my point is that this is no different than the political education the schoolchildren learned in school, that the
boycotts allowed children to ignore the State’s message only to be compelled to accept the liberation struggle’s world
view wholesale (like being converted or “born again”). The message is different but the result is the same: individuals
who have swallowed a belief system and adopted a lifestyle without thought or reason.
Of course, I don’t wish to suggest that “the system” produces nothing but unthinking drones or clones (or both). I would
argue that it tries to produce general conformity of expectations of perhaps wealth or success or freedom with the belief
that one particular economic and political system works best to achieve those goals. It has a lot of success, yet we see
resistance all over the place. One might argue that the widespread use of drugs in American schools is rebellion against
the constant indoctrination against it. Widespread violence in South African townships during apartheid was definite
resentment smoldering against the system. People do assert themselves; people do begin to see holes in their worldview. (Mid-life crises are examples of people recognizing that they’re not fulfilled by the life and career and religion
that they believed would.)
The liberation struggle in South Africa worked to subvert the system in place and replace it with a system that would
work for all who lived in South Africa. To achieve this, they needed unity among the “masses.” Hence, the political
slogans and rallies, the boycotts that led to “conscientization.” But how is that different from what the government
under apartheid did? Indoctrination is indoctrination, regardless of the message.
Like me, the American journalist William Finnegan, who taught at a “coloured” school in Cape Town during 1980,
struggled with the “group mentality” brought on by conscientization. He especially found it “distasteful” when it
included ostracizing a person who hadn’t conformed. Another teacher at the school argued that his problem is that he’s
a “cowboy” at heart, “a true American individualist….You think renegades should be allowed to go their own way.
You think of them as ‘nonconformists.’ But we have group objectives we must accomplish. And we understand
reactionaries to be the enemy” (Finnegan, 275).
In a way, that teacher is right—both that group unity is necessary to achieve certain goals for a nation and, at the same
time, that there is a certain kind of American who will always argue that any kind of group identity is conformity and
thus, bad. How can we achieve anything if we don’t have agreement of goals? Yet, I would ask, isn’t there a way to
have agreement of goals without conformity of thought? True, I am that kind of American. Does it thus betray my own
conformity to certain values in my own culture? Maybe whether my parents shaped this view—they were always
different than my friends’ parents—or whether my nation shaped this view or whether I developed it on my own, or
both, doesn’t ultimately matter. We are all shaped by forces outside of our control.
South Africa still faces enormous problems ahead as it seeks to achieve a democratic society. Perhaps democracy’s
greatest strength is the reality that people do think differently, that people do resist propaganda, that despite public
education, free democratic societies do allow people to develop their own values. Thus, it is my profound hope that it is
unlikely true democracy will ever lead to complete conformity or to the kind of evil experienced by Africans under
apartheid.
Finnegan, William. Crossing the Line: A Year in the Land of Apartheid. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986.
Marah, John K. “America and Africa: A Comparative Study in Educational Philosophy.” Journal of Black Studies 19.4
(June 1989): 459-474.
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Unit XVI Discussion Reading
Freedom and Justice in the Modern Middle East By Bernard Lewis
From Foreign Affairs , May/June 2005
Summary: To speak of dictatorship as being the immemorial way of doing things in the Middle East is simply untrue. It
shows ignorance of the Arab past, contempt for the Arab present, and lack of concern for the Arab future. Creating a
democratic political and social order in Iraq or elsewhere in the region will not be easy. But it is possible, and there are
increasing signs that it has already begun.
Bernard Lewis is Cleveland E. Dodge Professor Emeritus of Near Eastern Studies at Princeton University. This essay
is adapted from a lecture given on April 29, 2004, as part of the Robert J. Pelosky, Jr., Distinguished Speaker Series at
the Elliott School of International Affairs, George Washington University.
CHANGING PERCEPTIONS
For Muslims as for others, history is important, but they approach it with a special concern and awareness. The career
of the Prophet Muhammad, the creation and expansion of the Islamic community and state, and the formulation and
elaboration of the holy law of Islam are events in history, known from historical memory or record and narrated and
debated by historians since early times. In the Islamic Middle East, one may still find passionate arguments, even bitter
feuds, about events that occurred centuries or sometimes millennia ago -- about what happened, its significance, and its
current relevance. This historical awareness has acquired new dimensions in the modern period, as Muslims -particularly those in the Middle East -- have suffered new experiences that have transformed their vision of themselves
and the world and reshaped the language in which they discuss it.
In 1798, the French Revolution arrived in Egypt in the form of a small expeditionary force commanded by a young
general called Napoleon Bonaparte. The force invaded, conquered, and ruled Egypt without difficulty for several years.
General Bonaparte proudly announced that he had come "in the name of the French Republic, founded on the principles
of liberty and equality." This was, of course, published in French and also in Arabic translation. Bonaparte brought his
Arabic translators with him, a precaution that some later visitors to the region seem to have overlooked.
The reference to equality was no problem: Egyptians, like other Muslims, understood it very well. Equality among
believers was a basic principle of Islam from its foundation in the seventh century, in marked contrast to both the caste
system of India to the east and the privileged aristocracies of the Christian world to the west. Islam really did insist on
equality and achieved a high measure of success in enforcing it. Obviously, the facts of life created inequalities -primarily social and economic, sometimes also ethnic and racial -- but these were in defiance of Islamic principles and
never reached the levels of the Western world. Three exceptions to the Islamic rule of equality were enshrined in the
holy law: the inferiority of slaves, women, and unbelievers. But these exceptions were not so remarkable; for a long
time in the United States, in practice if not in principle, only white male Protestants were "born free and equal." The
record would seem to indicate that as late as the nineteenth or even the early twentieth century, a poor man of humble
origins had a better chance of rising to the top in the Muslim Middle East than anywhere in Christendom, including
post-revolutionary France and the United States.
Equality, then, was a well-understood principle, but what about the other word Bonaparte mentioned -- "liberty," or
freedom? This term caused some puzzlement among the Egyptians. In Arabic usage at that time and for some time
after, the word "freedom" -- hurriyya -- was in no sense a political term. It was a legal term. One was free if one was not
a slave. To be liberated, or freed, meant to be manumitted, and in the Islamic world, unlike in the Western world,
"slavery" and "freedom" were not until recently used as metaphors for bad and good government.
The puzzlement continued until a very remarkable Egyptian scholar found the answer. Sheikh Rifa'a Rafi' al-Tahtawi
was a professor at the still unmodernized al-Azhar University of the early nineteenth century. The ruler of Egypt had
decided it was time to try and catch up with the West, and in 1826 he sent a first mission of 44 Egyptian students to
Paris. Sheikh Tahtawi accompanied them and stayed in Paris until 1831. He was what might be called a chaplain, there
to look after the students' spiritual welfare and to see that they did not go astray -- no mean task in Paris at that time.
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During his stay, he seems to have learned more than any of his wards, and he wrote a truly fascinating book giving
his impressions of post-revolutionary France. The book was published in Cairo in Arabic in 1834 and in a Turkish
translation in 1839. It remained for decades the only description of a modern European country available to the Middle
Eastern Muslim reader. Sheikh Tahtawi devotes a chapter to French government, and in it he mentions how the French
kept talking about freedom. He obviously at first shared the general perplexity about what the status of not being a slave
had to do with politics. And then he understood and explained. When the French talk about freedom, he says, what they
mean is what we Muslims call justice. And that was exactly right. Just as the French, and more generally Westerners,
thought of good government and bad government as freedom and slavery, so Muslims conceived of them as justice and
injustice. These contrasting perceptions help shed light on the political debate that began in the Muslim world with the
1798 French expedition and that has been going on ever since, in a remarkable variety of forms.
JUSTICE FOR ALL
As Sheikh Tahtawi rightly said, the traditional Islamic ideal of good government is expressed in the term "justice." This
is represented by several different words in Arabic and other Islamic languages. The most usual, adl, means "justice
according to the law" (with "law" defined as God's law, the sharia, as revealed to the Prophet and to the Muslim
community). But what is the converse of justice? What is a regime that does not meet the standards of justice? If a ruler
is to qualify as just, as defined in the traditional Islamic system of rules and ideas, he must meet two requirements: he
must have acquired power rightfully, and he must exercise it rightfully. In other words, he must be neither a usurper nor
a tyrant. It is of course possible to be either one without the other, although the normal experience was to be both at the
same time.
The Islamic notion of justice is well documented and goes back to the time of the Prophet. The life of the Prophet
Muhammad, as related in his biography and reflected in revelation and tradition, falls into two main phases. In the first
phase he is still living in his native town of Mecca and opposing its regime. He is preaching a new religion, a new
doctrine that challenges the pagan oligarchy that rules Mecca. The verses in the Koran, and also relevant passages in the
prophetic traditions and biography, dating from the Meccan period, carry a message of opposition -- of rebellion, one
might even say of revolution, against the existing order.
Then comes the famous migration, the hijra from Mecca to Medina, where Muhammad becomes a wielder, not a
victim, of authority. Muhammad, during his lifetime, becomes a head of state and does what heads of state do. He
promulgates and enforces laws, he raises taxes, he makes war, he makes peace; in a word, he governs. The political
tradition, the political maxims, and the political guidance of this period do not focus on how to resist or oppose the
government, as in the Meccan period, but on how to conduct government. So from the very beginning of Muslim
scripture, jurisprudence, and political culture, there have been two distinct traditions: one, dating from the Meccan
period, might be called activist; the other, dating from the Medina period, quietist.
The Koran, for example, makes it clear that there is a duty of obedience: "Obey God, obey the Prophet, obey those who
hold authority over you." And this is elaborated in a number of sayings attributed to Muhammad. But there are also
sayings that put strict limits on the duty of obedience. Two dicta attributed to the Prophet and universally accepted as
authentic are indicative. One says, "there is no obedience in sin"; in other words, if the ruler orders something contrary
to the divine law, not only is there no duty of obedience, but there is a duty of disobedience. This is more than the right
of revolution that appears in Western political thought. It is a duty of revolution, or at least of disobedience and
opposition to authority. The other pronouncement, "do not obey a creature against his creator," again clearly limits the
authority of the ruler, whatever form of ruler that may be.
These two traditions, the one quietist and the other activist, continue right through the recorded history of Islamic states
and Islamic political thought and practice. Muslims have been interested from the very beginning in the problems of
politics and government: the acquisition and exercise of power, succession, legitimacy, and -- especially relevant here -the limits of authority.
All this is well recorded in a rich and varied literature on politics. There is the theological literature; the legal literature,
which could be called the constitutional law of Islam; the practical literature -- handbooks written by civil servants for
civil servants on how to conduct the day-to-day business of government; and, of course, there is the philosophical
236
literature, which draws heavily on the ancient Greeks, whose work was elaborated in translations and adaptations,
creating distinctly Islamic versions of Plato's Republic and Aristotle's Politics.
In the course of time, the quietist, or authoritarian, trend grew stronger, and it became more difficult to maintain those
limitations on the autocracy of the ruler that had been prescribed by holy scripture and holy law. And so the literature
places increasing stress on the need for order. A word used very frequently in the discussions is fitna, an Arabic term
that can be translated as "sedition," "disorder," "disturbance," and even "anarchy" in certain contexts. The point is made
again and again, with obvious anguish and urgency: tyranny is better than anarchy. Some writers even go so far as to
say that an hour -- or even a moment -- of anarchy is worse than a hundred years of tyranny. That is one point of view -but not the only one. In some times and places within the Muslim world, it has been dominant; in other times and
places, it has been emphatically rejected.
THEORY VERSUS HISTORY
The Islamic tradition insists very strongly on two points concerning the conduct of government by the ruler. One is the
need for consultation. This is explicitly recommended in the Koran. It is also mentioned very frequently in the traditions
of the Prophet. The converse is despotism; in Arabic istibdad, "despotism" is a technical term with very negative
connotations. It is regarded as something evil and sinful, and to accuse a ruler of istibdad is practically a call to depose
him.
With whom should the ruler consult? In practice, with certain established interests in society. In the earliest times,
consulting with the tribal chiefs was important, and it remains so in some places -- for example, in Saudi Arabia and in
parts of Iraq (but less so in urbanized countries such as Egypt or Syria). Rulers also consulted with the countryside's
rural gentry, a very powerful group, and with various groups in the city: the bazaar merchants, the scribes (the
nonreligious literate classes, mainly civil servants), the religious hierarchy, and the military establishment, including
long-established regimental groups such as the janissaries of the Ottoman Empire. The importance of these groups was,
first of all, that they did have real power. They could and sometimes did make trouble for the ruler, even deposing him.
Also, the groups' leaders -- tribal chiefs, country notables, religious leaders, heads of guilds, or commanders of the
armed forces -- were not nominated by the ruler, but came from within the groups.
Consultation is a central part of the traditional Islamic order, but it is not the only element that can check the ruler's
authority. The traditional system of Islamic government is both consensual and contractual. The manuals of holy law
generally assert that the new caliph -- the head of the Islamic community and state -- is to be "chosen." The Arabic term
used is sometimes translated as "elected," but it does not connote a general or even sectional election. Rather, it refers to
a small group of suitable, competent people choosing the ruler's successor. In principle, hereditary succession is
rejected by the juristic tradition. Yet in practice, succession was always hereditary, except when broken by insurrection
or civil war; it was -- and in most places still is -- common for a ruler, royal or otherwise, to designate his successor.
But the element of consent is still important. In theory, at times even in practice, the ruler's power -- both gaining it and
maintaining it -- depends on the consent of the ruled. The basis of the ruler's authority is described in the classical texts
by the Arabic word bay'a, a term usually translated as "homage," as in the subjects paying homage to their new ruler.
But a more accurate translation of bay'a -- which comes from a verb meaning "to buy and to sell" -- would be "deal," in
other words, a contract between the ruler and the ruled in which both have obligations.
Some critics may point out that regardless of theory, in reality a pattern of arbitrary, tyrannical, despotic government
marks the entire Middle East and other parts of the Islamic world. Some go further, saying, "That is how Muslims are,
that is how Muslims have always been, and there is nothing the West can do about it." That is a misreading of history.
One has to look back a little way to see how Middle Eastern government arrived at its current state.
The change took place in two phases. Phase one began with Bonaparte's incursion and continued through the nineteenth
and twentieth centuries when Middle Eastern rulers, painfully aware of the need to catch up with the modern world,
tried to modernize their societies, beginning with their governments. These transformations were mostly carried out not
by imperialist rulers, who tended to be cautiously conservative, but by local rulers -- the sultans of Turkey, the pashas
and khedives of Egypt, the shahs of Persia -- with the best of intentions but with disastrous results.
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Modernizing meant introducing Western systems of communication, warfare, and rule, inevitably including the
tools of domination and repression. The authority of the state vastly increased with the adoption of instruments of
control, surveillance, and enforcement far beyond the capabilities of earlier leaders, so that by the end of the twentieth
century any tin-pot ruler of a petty state or even of a quasi state had vastly greater powers than were ever enjoyed by the
mighty caliphs and sultans of the past.
But perhaps an even worse result of modernization was the abrogation of the intermediate powers in society -- the
landed gentry, the city merchants, the tribal chiefs, and others -- which in the traditional order had effectively limited
the authority of the state. These intermediate powers were gradually weakened and mostly eliminated, so that on the
one hand the state was getting stronger and more pervasive, and on the other hand the limitations and controls were
being whittled away.
This process is described and characterized by one of the best nineteenth-century writers on the Middle East, the British
naval officer Adolphus Slade, who was attached as an adviser to the Turkish fleet and spent much of his professional
life there. He vividly portrays this process of change. He discusses what he calls the old nobility, primarily the landed
gentry and the city bourgeoisie, and the new nobility, those who are part of the state and derive their authority from the
ruler, not from their own people. "The old nobility lived on their estates," he concludes. "The state is the estate of the
new nobility." This is a profound truth and, in the light of subsequent and current developments, a remarkably prescient
formulation.
The second stage of political upheaval in the Middle East can be dated with precision. In 1940, the government of
France surrendered to Nazi Germany. A new collaborationist government was formed and established in a watering
place called Vichy, and General Charles de Gaulle moved to London and set up a Free French committee. The French
empire was beyond the reach of the Germans at that point, and the governors of the French colonies and dependencies
were free to decide: they could stay with Vichy or rally to de Gaulle. Vichy was the choice of most of them, and in
particular the rulers of the French-mandated territory of Syria-Lebanon, in the heart of the Arab East. This meant that
Syria-Lebanon was wide open to the Nazis, who moved in and made it the main base of their propaganda and activity in
the Arab world.
It was at that time that the ideological foundations of what later became the Baath Party were laid, with the adaptation
of Nazi ideas and methods to the Middle Eastern situation. The nascent party's ideology emphasized pan-Arabism,
nationalism, and a form of socialism. The party was not officially founded until April 1947, but memoirs of the time
and other sources show that the Nazi interlude is where it began. From Syria, the Germans and the proto-Baathists also
set up a pro-Nazi regime in Iraq, led by the famous, and notorious, Rashid Ali al-Gailani.
The Rashid Ali regime in Iraq was overthrown by the British after a brief military campaign in May-June 1941. Rashid
Ali went to Berlin, where he spent the rest of the war as Hitler's guest with his friend the mufti of Jerusalem, Haj Amin
al-Husseini. British and Free French forces then moved into Syria, transferring it to Gaullist control. In the years that
followed the end of World War II, the British and the French departed, and after a brief interval the Soviets moved in.
The leaders of the Baath Party easily switched from the Nazi model to the communist model, needing only minor
adjustments. This was a party not in the Western sense of an organization built to win elections and votes. It was a party
in the Nazi and Communist sense, part of the government apparatus particularly concerned with indoctrination,
surveillance, and repression. The Baath Party in Syria and the separate Baath Party in Iraq continued to function along
these lines.
Since 1940 and again after the arrival of the Soviets, the Middle East has basically imported European models of rule:
fascist, Nazi, and communist. But to speak of dictatorship as being the immemorial way of doing things in that part of
the world is simply untrue. It shows ignorance of the Arab past, contempt for the Arab present, and unconcern for the
Arab future. The type of regime that was maintained by Saddam Hussein -- and that continues to be maintained by
some other rulers in the Muslim world -- is modern, indeed recent, and very alien to the foundations of Islamic
civilization. There are older rules and traditions on which the peoples of the Middle East can build.
CHUTES AND LADDERS
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There are, of course, several obvious hindrances to the development of democratic institutions in the Middle East.
The first and most obvious is the pattern of autocratic and despotic rule currently embedded there. Such rule is alien,
with no roots in either the classical Arab or the Islamic past, but it is by now a couple of centuries old and is well
entrenched, constituting a serious obstacle.
Another, more traditional hurdle is the absence in classical Islamic political thought and practice of the notion of
citizenship, in the sense of being a free and participating member of a civic entity. This notion, with roots going back to
the Greek polites, a member of the polis, has been central in Western civilization from antiquity to the present day. It,
and the idea of the people participating not just in the choice of a ruler but in the conduct of government, is not part of
traditional Islam. In the great days of the caliphate, there were mighty, flourishing cities, but they had no formal status
as such, nor anything that one might recognize as civic government. Towns consisted of agglomerations of
neighborhoods, which in themselves constituted an important focus of identity and loyalty. Often, these neighborhoods
were based on ethnic, tribal, religious, sectarian, or even occupational allegiances. To this day, there is no word in
Arabic corresponding to "citizen." The word normally used on passports and other documents is muwatin, the literal
meaning of which is "compatriot." With a lack of citizenship went a lack of civic representation. Although different
social groups did choose their own leaders during the classical period, the concept of choosing individuals to represent
the citizenry in a corporate body or assembly was alien to Muslims' experience and practice.
Yet, other positive elements of Islamic history and thought could help in the development of democracy. Notably, the
idea of consensual, contractual, and limited government is again becoming an issue today. The traditional rejection of
despotism, of istibdad, has gained a new force and a new urgency: Europe may have disseminated the ideology of
dictatorship, but it also spread a corresponding ideology of popular revolt against dictatorship.
The rejection of despotism, familiar in both traditional and, increasingly, modern writings, is already having a powerful
impact. Muslims are again raising -- and in some cases practicing -- the related idea of consultation. For the pious, these
developments are based on holy law and tradition, with an impressive series of precedents in the Islamic past. One sees
this revival particularly in Afghanistan, whose people underwent rather less modernization and are therefore finding it
easier to resurrect the better traditions of the past, notably consultation by the government with various entrenched
interests and loyalty groups. This is the purpose of the Loya Jirga, the "grand council" that consists of a wide range of
different groups -- ethnic, tribal, religious, regional, professional, and others. There are signs of a tentative movement
toward inclusiveness in the Middle East as well.
There are also other positive influences at work, sometimes in surprising forms. Perhaps the single most important
development is the adoption of modern communications. The printing press and the newspaper, the telegraph, the radio,
and the television have all transformed the Middle East. Initially, communications technology was an instrument of
tyranny, giving the state an effective new weapon for propaganda and control.
But this trend could not last indefinitely. More recently, particularly with the rise of the Internet, television satellites,
and cell phones, communications technology has begun to have the opposite effect. It is becoming increasingly clear
that one of the main reasons for the collapse of the Soviet Union was the information revolution. The old Soviet system
depended in large measure on control of the production, distribution, and exchange of information and ideas; as modern
communications developed, this became no longer possible. The information revolution posed the same dilemma for
the Soviet Union as the Industrial Revolution did for the Ottoman and other Islamic empires: either accept it and cease
to exist in the same manner or reject it and fall increasingly behind the rest of the world. The Soviets tried and failed to
resolve this dilemma, and the Russians are still struggling with the consequences.
A parallel process is already beginning in the Islamic countries of the Middle East. Even some of the intensely and
unscrupulously propagandist television programs that now infest the airwaves contribute to this process, indirectly and
unintentionally, by offering a diversity of lies that arouse suspicion and questioning. Television also brings to the
peoples of the Middle East a previously unknown spectacle -- that of lively and vigorous public disagreement and
debate. In some places, young people even watch Israeli television. In addition to seeing well-known Israeli public
figures "banging the table and screaming at each other" (as one Arab viewer described it with wonderment), they
sometimes see even Israeli Arabs arguing in the Knesset, denouncing Israeli ministers and policies -- on Israeli
television. The spectacle of a lively, vibrant, rowdy democracy at work, notably the unfamiliar sight of unconstrained,
uninhibited, but orderly argument between conflicting ideas and interests, is having an impact.
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Modern communications have also had another effect, in making Middle Eastern Muslims more painfully aware of
how badly things have gone wrong. In the past, they were not really conscious of the differences between their world
and the rest. They did not realize how far they were falling behind not only the advanced West, but also the advancing
East -- first Japan, then China, India, South Korea, and Southeast Asia -- and practically everywhere else in terms of
standard of living, achievement, and, more generally, human and cultural development. Even more painful than these
differences are the disparities between groups of people in the Middle East itself.
Right now, the question of democracy is more pertinent to Iraq than perhaps to any other Middle Eastern country. In
addition to the general factors, Iraq may benefit from two characteristics specific to its circumstances. One relates to
infrastructure and education. Of all the countries profiting from oil revenues in the past decades, pre-Saddam Iraq
probably made the best use of its revenues. Its leaders developed the country's roads, bridges, and utilities, and
particularly a network of schools and universities of a higher standard than in most other places in the region. These,
like everything else in Iraq, were devastated by Saddam's rule. But even in the worst of conditions, an educated middle
class will somehow contrive to educate its children, and the results of this can be seen in the Iraqi people today.
The other advantage is the position of women, which is far better than in most places in the Islamic world. They do not
enjoy greater rights -- "rights" being a word without meaning in that context -- but rather access and opportunity. Under
Saddam's predecessors, women had access to education, including higher education, and therefore to careers, with few
parallels in the Muslim world. In the West, women's relative freedom has been a major reason for the advance of the
greater society; women would certainly be an important, indeed essential, part of a democratic future in the Middle
East.
FUNDAMENTAL DANGERS
The main threat to the development of democracy in Iraq and ultimately in other Arab and Muslim countries lies not in
any inherent social quality or characteristic, but in the very determined efforts that are being made to ensure
democracy's failure. The opponents of democracy in the Muslim world come from very different sources, with sharply
contrasting ideologies. An alliance of expediency exists between different groups with divergent interests.
One such group combines the two interests most immediately affected by the inroads of democracy -- the tyranny of
Saddam in Iraq and other endangered tyrannies in the region -- and, pursuing these parallel concerns, is attempting to
restore the former and preserve the latter. In this the group also enjoys some at least tacit support from outside forces -governmental, commercial, ideological, and other -- in Europe, Asia, and elsewhere, with a practical or emotional
interest in its success.
Most dangerous are the so-called Islamic fundamentalists, those for whom democracy is part of the greater evil
emanating from the West, whether in the old-fashioned form of imperial domination or in the more modern form of
cultural penetration. Satan, in the Koran, is "the insidious tempter who whispers in men's hearts." The modernizers,
with their appeal to women and more generally to the young, are seen to strike at the very heart of the Islamic order -the state, the schoolroom, the market, and even the family. The fundamentalists view the Westerners and their dupes
and disciples, the Westernizers, as not only impeding the predestined advance of Islam to final triumph in the world, but
even endangering it in its homelands. Unlike reformers, fundamentalists perceive the problem of the Muslim world to
be not insufficient modernization, but an excess of modernization -- and even modernization itself. For them,
democracy is an alien and infidel intrusion, part of the larger and more pernicious influence of the Great Satan and his
cohorts.
The fundamentalist response to Western rule and still more to Western social and cultural influence has been gathering
force for a long time. It has found expression in an increasingly influential literature and in a series of activist
movements, the most notable of which is the Muslim Brotherhood, founded in Egypt in 1928. Political Islam first
became a major international factor with the Iranian Revolution of 1979. The word "revolution" has been much misused
in the Middle East and has served to designate and justify almost any violent transfer of power at the top. But what
happened in Iran was a genuine revolution, a major change with a very significant ideological challenge, a shift in the
basis of society that had an immense impact on the whole Islamic world, intellectually, morally, and politically. The
process that began in Iran in 1979 was a revolution in the same sense as the French and the Russian revolutions were.
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Like its predecessors, the Iranian Revolution has gone through various stages of inner and outer conflict and change
and now seems to be entering the Napoleonic or, perhaps more accurately, the Stalinist phase.
The theocratic regime in Iran swept to power on a wave of popular support nourished by resentment against the old
regime, its policies, and its associations. Since then, the regime has become increasingly unpopular as the ruling
mullahs have shown themselves to be just as corrupt and oppressive as the ruling cliques in other countries in the
region. There are many indications in Iran of a rising tide of discontent. Some seek radical change in the form of a
return to the past; others, by far the larger number, place their hopes in the coming of true democracy. The rulers of Iran
are thus very apprehensive of democratic change in Iraq, the more so as a majority of Iraqis are Shiites, like the
Iranians. By its mere existence, a Shiite democracy on Iran's western frontier would pose a challenge, indeed a mortal
threat, to the regime of the mullahs, so they are doing what they can to prevent or deflect it.
Of far greater importance at the present are the Sunni fundamentalists. An important element in the Sunni holy war is
the rise and spread -- and in some areas dominance -- of Wahhabism. Wahhabism is a school of Islam that arose in
Nejd, in central Arabia, in the eighteenth century. It caused some trouble to the rulers of the Muslim world at the time
but was eventually repressed and contained. It reappeared in the twentieth century and acquired new importance when
the House of Saud, the local tribal chiefs committed to Wahhabism, conquered the holy cities of Mecca and Medina and
created the Saudi monarchy. This brought together two factors of the highest importance. One, the Wahhabi Saudis now
ruled the holy cities and therefore controlled the annual Muslim pilgrimage, which gave them immense prestige and
influence in the Islamic world. Two, the discovery and exploitation of oil placed immense wealth at their disposal.
What would otherwise have been an extremist fringe in a marginal country thus had a worldwide impact. Now the
forces that were nourished, nurtured, and unleashed threaten even the House of Saud itself.
The first great triumph of the Sunni fundamentalists was the collapse of the Soviet Union, which they saw -- not
unreasonably -- as their victory. For them the Soviet Union was defeated not in the Cold War waged by the West, but in
the Islamic jihad waged by the guerrilla fighters in Afghanistan. As Osama bin Laden and his cohorts have put it, they
destroyed one of the two last great infidel superpowers -- the more difficult and the more dangerous of the two. Dealing
with the pampered and degenerate Americans would, so they believed, be much easier. American actions and discourse
have at times weakened and at times strengthened this belief.
In a genuinely free election, fundamentalists would have several substantial advantages over moderates and reformers.
One is that they speak a language familiar to Muslims. Democratic parties promote an ideology and use a terminology
mostly strange to the "Muslim street." The fundamentalist parties, on the other hand, employ familiar words and evoke
familiar values both to criticize the existing secularist, authoritarian order and to offer an alternative. To broadcast this
message, the fundamentalists utilize an enormously effective network that meets and communicates in the mosque and
speaks from the pulpit. None of the secular parties has access to anything comparable. Religious revolutionaries, and
even terrorists, also gain support because of their frequently genuine efforts to alleviate the suffering of the common
people. This concern often stands in marked contrast with the callous and greedy unconcern of the current wielders of
power and influence in the Middle East. The example of the Iranian Revolution would seem to indicate that once in
power these religious militants are no better, and are sometimes even worse, than those they overthrow and replace. But
until then, both the current perceptions and the future hopes of the people can work in their favor.
Finally, perhaps most important of all, democratic parties are ideologically bound to allow fundamentalists freedom of
action. The fundamentalists suffer from no such disability; on the contrary, it is their mission when in power to suppress
sedition and unbelief.
Despite these difficulties, there are signs of hope, notably the Iraqi general election in January. Millions of Iraqis went
to polling stations, stood in line, and cast their votes, knowing that they were risking their lives at every moment of the
process. It was a truly momentous achievement, and its impact can already be seen in neighboring Arab and other
countries. Arab democracy has won a battle, not a war, and still faces many dangers, both from ruthless and resolute
enemies and from hesitant and unreliable friends. But it was a major battle, and the Iraqi election may prove a turning
point in Middle Eastern history no less important than the arrival of General Bonaparte and the French Revolution in
Egypt more than two centuries ago.
FEAR ITSELF
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The creation of a democratic political and social order in Iraq or elsewhere in the Middle East will not be easy. But
it is possible, and there are increasing signs that it has already begun. At the present time there are two fears concerning
the possibility of establishing a democracy in Iraq. One is the fear that it will not work, a fear expressed by many in the
United States and one that is almost a dogma in Europe; the other fear, much more urgent in ruling circles in the Middle
East, is that it will work. Clearly, a genuinely free society in Iraq would constitute a mortal threat to many of the
governments of the region, including both Washington's enemies and some of those seen as Washington's allies.
The end of World War II opened the way for democracy in the former Axis powers. The end of the Cold War brought a
measure of freedom and a movement toward democracy in much of the former Soviet domains. With steadfastness and
patience, it may now be possible at last to bring both justice and freedom to the long-tormented peoples of the Middle
East.
Copyright 2002--2008 by the Council on Foreign Relations. All rights reserved.
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Unit XVI Discussion Reading
The Growth of Palestinian Arab Identity
The growth of Palestinian Arab national identity began relatively late and was in large part a response to the
challenge posed by Zionism, as noted by Rashid Khalidy1. Palestine was the name given to the country by the
Romans, and later adopted by Arab conquerors for a time. The Ottoman Turks broke Palestine up into several
districts, some of which overlap modern Lebanon, Jordan and Syria. The name Filastin was not used by the Arabs of
the country until relatively late, and the usage was probably borrowed from Europeans as much as revived from
earlier Arab usage. Beshara Doumany observed:
"It is doubtful whether the name Palestine was commonly used by the native population to refer to a specific
territory or nation before the late nineteenth century. In official correspondence and court cases registered in the
Nablus Islamic court up to 1865, the word appeared only once, and the context precluded a nationalist meaning.
This is not to say that the idea of Palestine as a territorial unit, once it emerged as a part of everyday political
discussion, had no local or Ottoman roots.2
Beginning in 1911, there was an Arab Palestinian newspaper called Filastin, published in Haifa, and several
newspapers used the term Filastin. However, the recognition of a territory of Filastin did not necessarily imply
recognition of a separate Palestinian people. During mandatory times in fact, "Palestinian" referred equally to Jews
and Arabs, and before that time, Arabs of Palestine were accustomed to identify themselves with the town or
village from which they came, saying "I am a Nabulsi" (from Nablus) or "I am a Rantissi" (from Rantis) or "I am
an Arab from Nablus" in reply to a question about "where are you from? or "Who are you?" The evolution of the
identity of the Palestinian people was a somewhat separate process.
From time to time, different native rulers around Acre and Jerusalem areas of the Ottoman empire set up feudal
semi-autonomous areas, thanks to the weakness of the government and the desire of inhabitants to protect
themselves against the Ottoman tax collector. The first of these was Fakhr al-Din's ministate in the North, between
Haifa in the West and Beisan (Beit-Shean) in the South East, and reaching to Beirut. It was flourished in the early
1600s and was finally put down in 1633 by the Pasha of Damascus. A second, smaller fiefdom was carved out in
the north by Dahir al-Umar, a Bedouin of the Beni Zaidan, beginning in 1749. It stretched only to the border of
modern Israel in the north, approximately, and south to Haifa and Beisan, and was suppressed about 1775 by the
central government. Both the rule of Fakhr al-Din and that of Dahir al-Umar were well remembered as times of
relative security and protection of minorities. Fakhr al-Din, in particular, invited Hayim Abulafia of Smyrna to
rebuild the Jewish community of Tiberias.
In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century, the Ottoman Turkish empire fell into a deep crisis, complicated
by Napoleon's invasion of Egypt and Palestine. Palestine suffered from rapacious, negligent and corrupt
government, and several small revolts took place.
From 1831 to about 1841, Syria and Palestine were wrested from Turkey by the Egyptian ruler, a former vassal of
the Ottomans, Muhammed 'Ali and his son Ibrahim Pasha, the commander-in-chief of the Egyptian army. They
followed a repressive policy of conscription and taxation, leading to a revolt of Palestinian Arabs. On May 19,
1834 a group of important families and sheiks from Nablus, Jerusalem and Hebron, led by Qasim al-Ahmad, chief
of Jamma'in subdistrict of Jabal Nablus, informed the Egyptian military governor that they could no longer supply
their quotas of conscripts for military service, because the peasants had fled from the villages into the mountainous
area which were difficult to reach.
Ibrahim desperately needed more soldiers. He had after suffered heavy causalities in previous battles and was
planning another round against the Ottomans. He sent soldiers to enforce the conscription. . In the Hebron area
about 25 Egyptian soldiers who arrived to impose the conscription order were killed. From Nablus, hundreds of
rebels marched to besiege Jerusalem. The Abu Ghosh clan, which controlled the road between Jaffa and Jerusalem
as well as the surrounding villages, joined the rebel forces. On the last day of May the rebels conquered Jerusalem,
except for its citadel. Ibrahim managed to retake Jerusalem in June, but he did not quell the revolt, which spread to
Safed, Tiberias and Haifa. In July, Muhammed Ali himself arrived with a fleet and 15,000 troops. After buying off
the Abu Ghosh clan with an amnesty and other concessions, he conquered the Palestinian cities of what is now the
West Bank, sending ten thousand fellahin to Egypt as conscripts, carrying off notables into captivity, destroying
whole villages and raping large numbers of women.3
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This revolt is thought by some to be crucial in the formation of Palestinian identity. According to Shamir, this
was "the first application of the concept of territorial state... This was the inception of the modern history of
Palestine." 4
It is difficult to see the revolt as a catalyst of Palestinian collective identity, since the memory of the revolt was
virtually expunged from the collective memory of the Arabs of Palestine, and is remembered only as the "Syrian
Peasant Revolt" in Arab history. Likewise, the other semi-autonomous fiefdoms formed at different times were
forgotten and do not figure in the Palestinian national narrative. However, they may have been symptomatic of the
first stirrings of national feeling and of the influence of culture and other factors that were beginning to create a
separate Palestinian identity.
However, prior to the arrival of the British and the beginning of the British Mandate, the Arabs of Palestine
consistently demanded to be united with Syria, and usually saw themselves as part of a single united Arab country.
Palestinian identity began to crystallize during the British mandate and the Arab revolt of 1936, and more
especially upon the UN declaration of partition in 1947. Two attempts were made to form a Palestinian state after
partition of Palestine. Curiously, it seems that there was no movement after 1948 to establish a state, until Yasser
Arafat assumed leadership of the Palestine Liberation Organization after 1968. The Palestine Liberation
Organization had been founded in 1964, but it was founded under the aegis of pan-Arabist Nasserite Egypt, and its
goal was to liberate the country of Palestine originally, but not necessarily to establish an independent state there.
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Unit XVI Discussion Reading
The Making of Modern Asia
The 21st century has opened and will close with two puzzles about the rise of Asia. Today, the puzzle is why Asian
societies, long in the doldrums, are now successful. At the century's close, by contrast, historians will want to know
why Asian societies succeeded so late, taking centuries to catch up with a Europe that they had outperformed for
millenniums. Neither puzzle is or will be easy to solve.
As a child of a poor Indian immigrant family growing up in the 1950s in the British colony of Singapore, neither I nor
my classmates could have even conceived the notion that an Asian century would begin in our lifetimes. We believed
that London was the center of the universe; one friend used to tell me that the streets there were paved with gold. Both
India and China seemed doomed to eternal poverty. Today, it is clear that the Asian century has begun. What remains
unclear, however, are the factors that caused this enormous change. There was, for example, the exhaustion of the
European colonial powers after two destructive World Wars, and the consolidation of nationalist sentiments, forged in
the anticolonial struggles. There was the rise of the U.S. as the most benign power in human history, creating a new
world order that allowed potential rivals to emerge. There were the pressures of cold war competition, which forced the
U.S. to encourage the economic success of its allies, especially Japan and the four Asian tigers. Then there were
accidents with profound, if unanticipated, consequences, like the Sino-Soviet split, which drove China into the U.S.
camp and facilitated Deng Xiaoping's fateful decision to explain why China needed the "Four Modernizations," and
financial accidents, like the Plaza Accord of 1985, which caused a rush of Japanese investments into East Asia. There
was the cultural attraction of the U.S., which lured hundreds of thousands of young Asians to study there when they
returned home, these Asians provided the yeast for a new cultural confidence in their own societies. Finally, there was
globalization, which provided a tremendous boost to Asian economies, especially to China's and India's.
All of these forces for change can be thought of as benign. Yet in paradoxical ways, tragedies, too, contributed to Asia's
rise. The Korean War was painful and destructive. But it led to a strategic American decision to encourage the
rebuilding of Japan's economy and society although this sadly swept under the carpet the dreadful record of Japan's
actions in World War II. Japan's economic success in turn inspired the four tigers. The Vietnam War was equally
painful. But the U.S. decision to hold the line in Indochina allowed Southeast Asian countries to become dynamos,
rather than dominoes. The historical verdict on U.S. involvement in Vietnam is unfair: despite the ignominious retreat
by the U.S. from Saigon, Vietnam ultimately applied to join the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN).
The Vietnamese decision to invade Cambodia in December 1978 also triggered some happy, if unintended,
consequences. Apart from ending the genocide of Pol Pot, it solidified the Sino-American relationship and gave
ASEAN new political resolve. One of the least appreciated contributions to the rise of Asia has been the magic
provided by ASEAN in delivering political stability and harmony to Southeast Asia. Despite having greater ethnic,
religious, linguistic and cultural diversity than Southeast Europe, the region remained an oasis of peace in the 1990s
while the Balkans erupted into a frenzy of ethnic and religious killings. ASEAN saved Southeast Asia, especially
during the 1997 Asian financial crisis, which could have led to political havoc in the region. And it is at the heart of the
alphabet soup of regional processes that have provided the foundations for even wider regional cooperation. The firstever Asia-wide summit will be held in Kuala Lumpur in December this year, bringing together the 10 ASEAN leaders
with those of China, India, Japan, South Korea, New Zealand and Australia. It will be a truly historic meeting. ASEAN
made it possible.
Of course, other regions in the world benefited from propitious external developments. The U.S. supported allies in
other areas of the developing world for example, Egypt received as much aid as South Korea. But nowhere else has
seen the scale of success in Asia. Why is that? Here, the missing piece of the puzzle has to be the cultural fabric of
Asian societies.
Cultural confidence is a necessary but not sufficient condition for development. Centuries of European colonial rule had
progressively reduced Asian self-confidence. Future generations of Indian citizens will be wondering how 300 million
Indians including my own ancestors allowed themselves to be passively ruled by fewer than 100,000 Britons. Those as
yet unborn will not understand how deeply the myth of European cultural superiority had been embedded into the
Indian psyche. Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Indian Prime Minister, once said the defeat of Russia in 1905 by Japan first
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triggered the idea of independence for India in his mind. That was a remarkable admission; it implied that
intelligent Indians could not conceive of governing themselves before Japan, an Asian power, defeated a European one.
Japan's record in World War II was disastrous. But if Japan had not succeeded early in the 20th century, Asia's
development would have come much later. Japan inspired the rise of Asia. Even South Korea, which suffered from
brutal Japanese colonial rule, could not have taken off so fast without having Japan as a role model. Asia needs to send
Japan a big thank-you note. The tragedy, of course, is that such words of gratitude will not be delivered while Japan
remains ambivalent about its own identity, torn between Asia and the West.
Even the Chinese should thank Japan. Tokyo's continuous denials of its army's atrocities in World War II will always
complicate relations with Beijing. But China would not be where it is today if Deng had not made that fateful decision
to move from communist central planning to a free-market system. Deng took this incredibly bold leap because he had
seen how well the Overseas Chinese in Taiwan, Hong Kong and even Singapore had done. Those three tigers and the
fourth, South Korea were inspired by Japan. The stone that Japan threw into Asia-Pacific waters created ripples that
eventually benefited China, too.
What makes Asia's rise so irreversible is the simultaneous success of both China and India. Their political paths could
not be more different: India is a democracy, while China retains Communist Party rule. The acceptance of free-market
disciplines, however, provides a common economic platform. China and India today are united in their cultural
confidence, especially among their youth. Both countries have the most optimistic generation of young people they
have seen in centuries. Nothing can hold back the dynamism and vigor they will bring to their societies, and to the
whole world.
The West got the first whiff of this cultural confidence at the end of the cold war. Basking in ideological triumph, the
West prescribed that all societies should immediately become replicas of Western liberal democracies. Many happily
followed this prescription. Few succeeded. Some came to grief. The Asian states, especially China, resisted copying the
West. This is how the famous "Asian values" debate was sparked. In refusing Western prescriptions, Asians were
perceived to be promoting the superiority of their own values. In fact, they were merely arguing that they should be free
to choose their own political paths. Lest there be any misunderstanding, Asian intellectuals including those from China
agree that the ultimate political destination of all societies is democracy. The destination is not in question; only the
route and the timing are.
Sept. 11, 2001, removed all traces of political smugness in Western minds and all claims to Western ideological
superiority. It made the West aware that the new ideological challenge from Islam was far bigger than the communist
one, which future historians will see as a passing shower. Islam has been around for over 1,300 years, penetrating
deeply into the souls of 1.2 billion people. Most Islamic societies have yet to find the right balance between
modernization and their religious roots. The success of East Asia, especially its Muslim societies, could eventually
trigger the modernization of the Islamic world.
Yet questions remain about the sustainability of Asia's success. Asian countries will continue to stumble from time to
time. They cannot rely solely on favorable external developments or on Western ideas though it is these, not Asian
ones, that have driven Asia's growth. The economic principles of Asia's rise come from a Scot, Adam Smith. The
political ideologies come from Western thinkers, from John Locke to Karl Marx. The international multilateral grid that
has served Asia well including the U.N., WTO, IMF and World Bank is essentially a Western creation. Asians have
benefited enormously from being passengers on the Western globalization bus.
Soon, they will help drive it. Asians cannot be free riders forever. Yet few Asians have given thought to how they will
reshape the world order. The world is keen to learn what new responsibilities Asia will take on. So far, the region has
remained silent. On the cultural front, too, Asian passivity is surprising. Bollywood, the sole major exception, is
growing in strength. But in virtually every other field, Asians have been consumers of Western cultural products,
especially American ones. The Asian economies now produce almost 40% of global GDP, but they have only a
minority stake in the world's cultural industries, from film to TV, from books to print media. No Asian TV channel
currently can match CNN or the BBC. This distorts global perspectives. The world sees Asia through Western eyes.
Asians have yet to explain themselves in their own terms to the rest of the world.
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But history teaches us that economic growth eventually generates a cultural renaissance. It would be strange for
Asian societies, from Iran to South Korea, from China to India, not to rediscover their rich cultural heritage. The high
price paid for Asian antiques in Western auction houses is, perhaps, a first hint of this new cultural pride. But a cultural
renaissance
cannot just rediscover old glories. It has to provide directions for the future. Just as Asian economies have succeeded by
drawing on the best practices of East and West, the Asian cultural renaissance (or renaissances) will also see a fusion of
Eastern and Western civilizations, allowing the West to feel included in, not excluded from, Asia's rise.
When Asia's growth achieves a certain momentum by the end of the 21st century, Asian minds will inevitably come up
with new conundrums. Why did their ancestors take so long to succeed and modernize? Why did Europe and not Asia
trigger the Industrial Revolution? How could a few key capitals in Europe and America make decisions that determined
Asian destinies? How could London ever have been more important than Bombay, or Paris more important than
Beijing? These questions too will come.
With reporting by Kishore Mahbubani is dean of the Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy at the National University
of Singapore, and author of Beyond the Age of Innocence: Rebuilding Trust between America and the World.