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
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Use 12 point Times Roman font for the text.
Footnotes should be in 10 point Times Roman.
Margins should be 1” on the top and bottom, and 1.25” on the left and right.
Indent the first line of each new paragraph by ½ inch.
Double-space the text. Skip an extra line between sections.
Bold section titles.
Section titles are:
 Abstract
 Background
 Model
 Results
 Conclusion
An Economic Analysis of the Effects of Campaign Finance
Reform on the Presidential Election Process
Use 16 point Times Roman for
the title page.
Patrick Manchester
Duquesne University
December 2005
Typical grammatical errors to avoid
Disagreement among subject, verb, and pronouns
Incorrect: The candidate will expend effort on their campaign.
Correct (singular): The candidate will expend effort on his campaign.
Correct (plural): The candidates will expend effort on their campaigns.
Passive voice
Incorrect: The objective function was maximized with respect to campaign effort.
Correct: I maximized the objective function with respect to campaign effort.
Unnecessary future tense
Incorrect: This model will demonstrate the impact of campaign finance reform.
Correct: This model demonstrates the impact of campaign finance reform.
The abstract provides (1) a brief (one or two sentence) introduction to your topic, (2) an
overview of what you did, and (3) a summary of your results.
The purpose of the abstract is to allow other researchers to determine whether or not your work
is relevant to their research without their having to read your paper.
The abstract appears alone on the page and should not exceed 150 words.
The purpose of this analysis is to model the election process by modeling the
Brief
overview
of the
purpose of
the
analysis.
number of electoral votes a candidate can expect to garner as a function of his total
Throughout
this sample
paper,
phrases that
are typical
for journal
articles are
shown in
red. Make
sure to use
these
phrases. (Of
course,
don’t make
them red.)
campaign effort. The model shows each candidate’s optimal campaign effort in a given
state as a function of that state’s electoral value. My model shows electoral gains
Brief
summary
of
findings.
When you
begin your
paper, you
won’t have
findings.
Leave this
blank and
fill it in
later.
accruing from two sources: campaign efforts, and candidate-specific factors such as
political views and popularity. The model suggests that, while campaign finance reform
can be used to equalize the gains from campaign effort, it may or may not substantially
increase a candidate’s probability of victory as it does not affect candidate-specific
factors.
Number pages at the lower right starting with page
2. Do not put a page number on the cover page.
2
I. Background
Start this section on a new page. Do not call it “Introduction” – the abstract is the
introduction. This section is a detailed version of the abstract. Usually, there is no
mathematics presented here. The point of this section is to communicate the model in
English so that, in the next section, you can focus on the mathematics. Because abstracts
are intended as a synopsis of the paper, your paper officially starts with this section. Begin
as you would had the reader not read the abstract.
In this paper, I propose a model that depicts presidential candidates using various
resources to increase their chances of winning the electoral votes of a particular state. The
The abstract
does not get
a section
number. The
background
is section 1.
model assumes that two candidates, a Republican and a Democrat, are running for the
office of President of the United States, and that each candidate determines the states in
which he will focus his campaign based on the electoral value derived from a particular
state. I define the electoral value of a given state as the number of electoral votes the
candidate expects to gain from that state. I assume that each state will have the following
attributes: a definite number of electoral votes, a percentage of likely Republican voters,
and a percentage of likely Democratic voters.
Each candidate chooses how much campaign effort to expend, where campaign
effort can be interpreted as visiting a particular state, running political ads in the state,
Indent the
first line of
new
paragraphs
½ inch.
employing campaign labor and materials in the state, etc. Campaign effort increases the
candidate’s chances of winning a given state. Therefore, the electoral value of a state is a
positive function the candidate’s campaign effort. Each candidate’s campaign effort is
limited by the amount of funds and other resources that the candidate can use to finance
the effort. A candidate’s budget includes the total amount of contributions he receives
from outside parties, and additional financing obtained through personal assets and
fundraising. The only cost to the candidate is the cost of the effort that he expends in a
given state.
The purpose of this paper is to model the effects of campaign finance reform on
candidates’ efforts to maximize their electoral vote counts. The model allows one to
examine the effect of campaign contribution restrictions, caps on the amount of
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fundraising that can be carried out by a candidate, and limits on the amount of personal
assets a candidate can use to finance their campaign. The model also allows us to
examine the effect of the federal government matching a candidate’s fundraising.
Define variables as you use them. All variables should appear in
italics. Do not italicize numbers or mathematical symbols.
II. Model
Let PRn and PDn be the number of voters in state n that are expected to cast their
votes for the Republican and Democratic candidates, respectively. Let Pn be the number
of registered voters in state n. Let the number of electoral votes in the nth state be En. The
probabilities of the Republican and Democratic candidates winning the election in state n
are Rn and Dn, respectively, where:
Center the equations.
Use Microsoft’s Equation
Editor or Math Type.
Rn 
PRn
Pn
Dn 
PDn
Pn
Number each equation.
Numbers should be
flush with the right
margin.
(1.1)
(1.2)
Let δR and δD be the absolute campaign effort expended by the Republican and
Democratic candidates, respectively. I argue that what influences the election is not the
absolute campaign effort, but the relative campaign effort, and define the relative
campaign efforts for the two candidates, γR and γD, as:
R 
D 
R
R  D
D
D  R
(1.3)
(1.4)
If En is the number of electoral votes carried by state n, then the expected values of state
n’s election to the two candidates, ΩR and ΩD, are:
Choosing variable names:
Choose variable names (and sub- and super-scripts) that make it easy for the reader to follow your
reasoning. For example, a good choice of variable names for the quantities supplied and demanded by
A
B
firms A and B are AS, BS, AD, and BD, or QD , QS , etc. A poor choice of variable names is W, X, Y, and Z.
Do not use multiple letters to represent a single variable (e.g., TR for total revenue).
4
Notice that
the words tie
the
equations
together.
Detailed
explanation
is not
necessary
because the
model’s
details were
covered in
the first
section. In
this section,
you can
assume that
the reader
understands
the topic.
Do not use redundant parentheses.
For example,   PQ  wL , not
   P   Q    w  L 
 R  En
 R Rn
 R Rn   D Dn
(1.5)
 D  EN
 D Dn
 D Dn   R Rn
(1.6)
The candidates will allocate their campaign efforts so as to attempt to maximize the
expected values of state n (for each n).
The candidates obtain campaign financing from personal assets (I), monies
donated (C), and the net revenue generated through campaign fundraising (F). Let Pδ be
the price per unit of campaign effort. The candidates’ budget constraints are:
At the least, you should show (1) the objective
function(s) and (2) the constraint(s). Show any
equations that are necessary to understanding
the objective function(s) and constraint(s). Do
not show work – assume that the reader can
perform the calculus himself.
I R  CR  FR   R P
(1.7)
I D  CD  FD   D P
(1.8)
Campaign finance reform imposed on the candidates limits the amount of
A variable
with a
subscript,
superscript,
or diacritical
mark is not
the same
as a
variable
without. For
example,
CR, C , and
C are three
different
variables,
each
requiring a
distinct
definition.
personal, donated, and fundraised financing that each candidate can use toward his
campaign effort (defined by I , C , and F , respectively). Federal matching funds, Fm,
leave the candidate with total financing via fundraising of 2F .
Skip a line between sections.
III. Solution
Terminology: An
equation or function
contains an equals
sign. An expression
does not.
Maximizing (1.5) and (1.6) subject to the constraints (1.7) and (1.8) yields the optimal
campaign efforts:
R 
I R  CR  FR
P
(1.9)
D 
I D  CD  FD
P
(1.10)
Show the solution. If you employed some procedure to arrive at the
solution that is not obvious, show that as well. Do not show work –
assume that the reader is familiar with optimization techniques and can
perform the calculus himself.
5
Taking into account the potential campaign finance reform measures that could be
implemented by the government, the candidates’ choice variable functions would be
transformed as follows:

I  C  2F
P
(1.11)
Assuming that both candidates spend to their limits, we have:
R  D 
I  C  2F
P
(1.12)
which, in turn, implies, from (1.3) and (1.4), that the optimal campaign effort is the same
for the two candidates:
R D 
1
2
(1.13)
and that the expected value of the state to the candidate is solely a function of the number
of voters affiliated with each party.
When appropriate, plug the solution back
into the objective function(s) and/or
constraint(s) to show the implications of
solution.
 R  En
Rn
Rn  Dn
Dn
 D  En
Rn  Dn
(1.14)
The relationship between the value of the state to the candidate and the number of voters
affiliated with the candidate’s party is shown in Figure 1.
6
Identify
implications
of the
solution, but
leave
detailed
discussion
of the
solution for
the
conclusion.
Left-justify the figure.
The figure and the caption,
together, should contain all
the information necessary for
the reader to understand the
figure.
100%
90%
Value of the State, ΩR
80%
70%
60%
The caption should explain,
in a single sentence, what the
figure shows.
50%
Format the
numbers
appropriately.
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Label the axes.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
Use hanging
indent, and single
space the caption.
Number of Votes, Rn
Figure 1. The value of the state to the candidate rises is a positive function of the number of voters
affiliated with the candidate's party.
IV. Conclusion
Use the
conclusion to
flesh out the
implications
of your
solution(s).
Usually,
there is no
mathematics
presented in
the
conclusion.
Captions go below the figures. They
are labeled “Figure” not “Graph” or
“Chart”.
The purpose of this analysis was to model the effects of campaign finance reform.
The model demonstrates that campaign finance reform imposes a ceiling on a given
candidate’s total campaign effort. Assuming that each candidate reaches this ceiling, the
effect of campaign finance reform on the objective function would be to equalize the
relative campaign efforts, γR and γD. This implies that while campaign finance reform
levels the playing field in terms of each candidate’s campaign effort, it eliminates the
value of campaigning as, in the end, the electoral value of the state becomes a function of
the number of voters affiliated with each party. In short, the model results suggest that
campaign finance reform serves only to eliminate the value of campaigning in terms of
influencing voters. This conclusion implies a role for the marketplace in influencing
voters via giving money to candidates’ campaigns.
7
Give a one
or two
sentence
reminder of
the purpose
of the
analysis.
Know the Definitions of the Words You Use
For example, students frequently use (incorrectly) “state,” “claim,” “find,” and “prove”
interchangeably. The words mean very different things.
State: To say something.
Claim: To say that something is true.
Find: To uncover evidence that something is true.
Prove: To demonstrate that something must be true.
Avoid Unnecessary Claims
Avoid making claims that are irrelevant to your paper. You will invite the reader to argue with you on
a point that has nothing to do with your research. If you lose the argument, you cast doubt on every
other claim you have made in the paper.
Example
Bonham and Cohen (1995) were the first to attempt to measure forecaster uncertainty in a panel
data context.
It is irrelevant to your paper whether Bonham and Cohen were the first or not, yet it is very easy for
the reader to attempt to refute your claim. If the reader successfully refutes your claim, the reader
will tend not to accept any other claim you make in the paper – some of which will be important to
your research.
Tighten Your Writing
In general, you should say what you need to say in as few words as possible (periphrasism). Here
are some examples of how writing can be tightened.
No:
Yes:
The consumer’s utility function is as follows:
The consumer’s utility function is:
No:
Yes:
The output of the firm…
The firm’s output…
No:
Yes:
The price of the good is P. The quantity sold of the good is Q.
The price and quantity sold of the good are P and Q, respectively.
No:
Yes:
P1 = α + β Q1, P2 = α + β Q2
Pi = α + β Qi, i = {1,2}
No:
Yes:
Goods that the firm sells are taxed by the government.
The government taxes the firm’s sales.
No:
Yes:
Moreover, therefore, however, in conclusion, in summary, …
[silence]
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Avoid Fluff
The obvious. Stating the obvious is fluff. Assume that the reader’s knowledge of economics is at least on
par with yours. For example, “Profit is total revenue minus cost.”
The test: If an economist would respond, “duh”, it’s fluff.
Vague terms or phrases. Using vague terms or phrases such as, “several factors exist” can indicate fluff.
The test: If you can’t quickly name three factors, then it’s fluff.
Smart-sounding terms or phrases. Using smart-sounding terms or phrases such as, “macroeconomic
and financial stimuli” can indicate fluff.
The test: If you can’t clearly define and/or explain the phrase, then it’s fluff.
Sentences that communicate no useful information. Using sentences that communicate no useful
information such as, “The Brazilian economy moves inexorably forward throughout history,” can indicate
fluff.
The test: If you can remove the sentence and still communicate your thesis, then the sentence is
fluff.
Another test: If “duh” is an appropriate response to the sentence, then the sentence is fluff.
Misused multi-syllabic words. Using big words incorrectly such as in, “financial sector growth
manufactured by declining interest rates” can indicate fluff (hint: interest rates do not “manufacture”
financial growth).
The test: If you can’t define each word, then it’s fluff.
Useless modifiers. Using adjectives/adverbs that contribute no useful meaning such as, “national
economic conditions invariably change” can indicate fluff (hint: “national” and “invariably” are the fluff
words).
The test: If you can remove the adjective/adverb and the sentence retains its original meaning, then
it’s fluff.
Things you should never say:
“I couldn’t find a solution.”
It is your job to find the solution. If the solution does not exist or is otherwise unattainable, it is your job to
demonstrate that this is so.
“It was too hard to…”
It is your job to overcome the difficulties inherent in analysis. You get points for finding creative ways
around difficult problems, not for failing.
9
Other errors to avoid
Do not refer to yourself in the third person. It sounds pompous.
Do not use slang. It is unprofessional.
Do not use flowery prose. It causes the reader to wonder what you’re hiding. Your goal is to say as
much as you can in as few words as possible.
Do not repeat yourself. Repetition is only necessary when you didn’t say something effectively the first
time. The better solution is to say it effectively the first time. Corollary: You should never say, “As
mentioned earlier…”, “As I said…”, etc.
Use possessive nouns correctly
‘s usually indicates possession by one possessor.
s' usually indicates possession by multiple possessors.
Plagiarism
Copying material verbatim (or even reasonably close to verbatim), even if only a single sentence, is
considered plagiarism if you do not put the material in quotation marks (or italicized indentation) and
include a footnote indicating the source of the quote.
Plagiarism, of any kind, is punishable by failure.
10
Definitions of Comments I Make on Your Writing
Grammar*
What you wrote is grammatically incorrect.
Spelling*
You have spelled something incorrectly.
WIW (water is wet)
You have said something that is obvious to the reader. Don’t state the obvious.
Mud
Your writing might be grammatically correct but is so convoluted as to obscure your intended meaning.
TMW (too many words)
Your word-to-idea ratio is too high. TMW is different from “fluff” in that the words you are using convey
useful information. You are simply using more words than are necessary.
Fluff
The words you have written contain no useful information. See the definition for fluff on the previous
pages.
Passive
You are using passive voice. Stop it.
Repeat
You are repeating something you already said. Say it well the first time and you won’t need to repeat it.
STSG (see the style guide)
The style guide gives you precise details how to format your paper. Follow them.
*These errors are inexcusable in college papers. If I encounter more of these errors than what one
would expect from random chance, I will return your paper unread.
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