Topic 1 Lesson 4
The Meiji Restoration: Social and Political Changes
In Autumn 1868 the name Meiji was proclaimed, Edo was renamed Tokyo, and the Emperor moved
into the former Edo castle. The Meiji era was to last until 1912.
Although the Meiji restoration officially restored power to the Emperor he was in fact a callow youth, a
figurehead, while real power was concentrated in the hands of the small clique of court aristocrats who
had engineered the takeover. Iwakuri Tomomi, Saigo Takomori from Satsuma, Ito Hirobumi and
Inoue Kaoru from Choshu, and others, while former Han leaders such as Shimazu Hisamitsu from
Satsuma also regarded himself as important even though he was not involved in the original
conspiracy. In these men “Japan, it would seem, was endowed with a rather considerable number of
very capable and far-sighted men who, despite their many faults, could certainly be labeled as
statesmen. These men may have had to fight for their power, but essentially, they were patriotic
individuals possessed of a strong sense of public responsibility, dedication, energy and vision. Their
leadership was collective, that is, no single man emerged as a strong man, and they ruled in accordance
with the time honored tradition of collective leadership and consensus politics.” 84
They had a stupendous task and feared British and French intervention if a civil war occurred. The
power of the Western man of war had been more then demonstrated in their bombarding of Choshu and
Satsuma. They had been forced to grant the Westerners most-favored-nation status and
extraterritoriality but were offered nothing similar in return.
They knew Western powers viewed Japan as a backward power and “Consequently, they set as their
primary task the development of military and economic power so as to protect Japan from becoming
victim to any external menace. They wanted to join the community of nations as an equal member and
thus be eligible to participate in the game of international power politics.” 85
First they faced resistance in Northern Japan – particularly in Aizu Han – while in Edo 2,000-3,000
Samurai known as the Shogitai resisted their power until crushed, while in Hokkaido the Shogunate's
Naval commissioner established a republic until he too was crushed in 1869.
The biggest threat to their power though came from the 270 daimyo who were still entrenched in power
across Japan. The caste like system of Japan had to be eliminated while to create revenue for the
central government the economy had to be revolutionized and new industries, agricultural techniques,
and foreign trade had to be introduced. Railroads, telegraphs, and steamships had to be built, but
people had to be trained and educated to work in the new factories.
The country had to be modernized and Westernized. “The men who succeeded in overthrowing the
Bakufu did so by riding the crest of the wave of anti-Westernism, but once they gained power, it
became imperative that they abandon their anti-Western position, and embrace in its stead a policy of
establishing cultural and commercial relations with the West.” 86
The believers in Joi hated them and tried to assassinate them as exponents of Westernism.
This policy was proclaimed in the Charter Oath of Five articles in 1868 which declared that
1) deliberative assemblies had to be created,
2) that all classes high and low should unite in administering the affairs of state,
3) that “the common people, no less than the civil and military officials, shall be allowed to pursue
whatever calling they choose so that public apathy may not beset the land”,
4) that “ the evil customs of the past shall be abandoned and everything based on the just laws of
Heaven and Earth”, and
5) that “Knowledge shall be sought throughout the world so as to invigorate the foundations of
imperial rule.” 86
1
Later drafts of this removed the references to common people and parliamentary rule.
These changes were achieved by the officials who were to call themselves Genro – Ito Hirobumi,
Yamagata Aritomo, Inoue Kauro from Choshu, Kuroda Kiyotaka, Matsukata Masayoshi, Saigo
Tsugumichi, and Oyama Iwao from Satsuma aided by the civilization and enlightenment movement
struggling for cultural change, and the political movement for freedom and popular rights.
It was a truly revolutionary change of a scale and profoundity rarely encountered in history. 87
In 1868 a new constitution was passed creating a council of State consisting of a threefold division of
legislature, executive and judicial but the early leaders ignored these divisions. 87
In 1871 a new form of government was adopted with a Central Board running the country, a left board
meant as a legislative body which actually just offered advise, and a Right board consisting of heads of
department and their deputies. The Departments of foreign affairs, finance, war, public works,
education, justice, Shinto, and Imperial Household were created at this time. Home affairs was added
in 1873. Officially an administrative department the heads of department were in practice also
influential councilors so they also tended to make policy.
Power increasingly went to Choshu and Satsuma officials while Court officials and former Daimyo saw
their power fade away.
To destroy the Han system in March 1869 the Daimyo of Satsuma, Choshu, Tosa and Hizen appealed
to the Emperor to accept the restoration of their domains. Other Daimyo quickly followed suit not
wanting to be seen as less loyal. The government formally accepted their offer in July ordering the
remaining Daimyo who had not offered to give up their land to do so. The Daimyo were then
reappointed as hereditary han chieftains being offered one tenth of their han income as salary. Samurai
retainers were given a fraction of their former stipends as income. 88
Some Han leaders were unhappy but their power was soon completely destroyed when the central
government replaced the Han with prefectures. Bankrupt han were abolished and power was
centralized to cope with peasant and samurai resistance. The government also needed the han revenue
which equaled 30 million koku while the central government originally controlled only 8 million koku.
To cope with resistance a central army was formed consisting of the warriors of Satsuma, Choshu and
Tosa. In 1871 the Han were abolished and the former Daimyo now received one tenth of their former
income with none of the expenses. They were happy but their retainers were in a difficult position.
Meiji leaders now sent a mission abroad to try to revise the treaties with the West. At the end of 1871
key officials such as Okuba, Kido, Ito and Inoue set off to the United States and Europe on a mission
that was also seen as educational.
The Iwakura mission was of prime importance and while these officials were away key changes were
made in the Courts, the schools, land tax, the military, the postal system, and the calender. The
members of this mission failed in their primary task but they were very impressed with the industries
they saw and with the political life of Bismark Germany.
A uniform system of family, town and district assemblies was created. Han were made into prefectures
regardless of their size eventually being combined and redivided into three fu (metropolitan
prefectures) and 43 rural prefectures (ken).
A new class system was established. Former Daimyo and court officials became peers, upper class
Samurai as shizoku, lower class samurai as sotsu, while in 1870 common people, the heimin, were
allowed to adopt family names. In 1871 marriage between lower and upper classes was allowed. In
1871 the special hair cuts and right to wear swords of samurai was made optional, to be abolished in
1876. also in 1871 the Samurai right to cut down disrespectful commoners with impunity was also
abolished. Peers and upper class samurai were also now allowed to become farmers, merchants and
artisans. In 1872 the lower class samurai were reclassified as heimin leaving only 3 classes. The
lowest class, the outcasts, forming some 1% of the population (400,000) people were uplifted by the
2
fact that the government abolished legal bias “but in reality social and economic discrimination against
the outcasts did not cease, and, in fact, continues to the present.” 92
Everyone was meant to be equal but peers and upper class samurai could still pay fines instead of
facing imprisonment for minor crimes. They were not threatened with hard labor as were commoners,
although commoners who became government members were granted the same rights as shizoku. A
new privileged class was created.
In 1872 slavery was banned although “voluntary” servitude in houses of prostitution were continued to
allow to exist.
A huge amount was paid in pensions with one third of government revenue to former Daimyo and
samurai while the government also assumed han debts.
To ease this burden in 1876 the government decided to commute the pensions changing them to interest
bearing government bonds, with 476 kazoku receiving one third of the allocated money while 320,000
shizoku sharing the remaining two thirds of the allocated money. The income of the kazuko dropped to
45% of what they had received before. Many invested their money in land, business, and banks.
Upper class samurai saw their income crop 47 to 74% while lower class samurai received a drop of 8898% drop in income. Their average income fell to 28 yen, the same as that of an ordinary soldier, but
they received free board, room and clothing. 93
The former samurai became very rebellious and only 10% of them gained government positions. Some
went in to teaching, the army and the police but others had to work in jobs totally alien to their
background and aptitude such as agriculture, commerce, and handicraft. Some were so impoverished
that they had to sell their daughters to houses of prostitution. 93
To pay for this money the land tax system was reformed placing a serious burden on farmers. In 1871
the right to export rice was granted, while in 1872 farmers could grow whatever they wanted while
finally in 1872 private ownership of land was recognized by title deeds with farmers being granted the
right to buy and sell land in 1872.
Rice had been collected at the level set by their former daimyo but in 1873 farmers were required to
pay taxes in money to the level of 3% of the assessed value of their land while local taxes were fixed at
one third of the national tax. But the real level of tax remained the same – approximately 33% of the
annual yield which was 2-7 times the amount being paid in Europe while some farmers had to pay
more under the Meiji era than in the Tokugawa era because tax collection was implemented much more
stringently.
Moreover farmers were not allowed to use the woods and meadows of the han as they had before for
firewood and fodder. In 1876 the land tax was lowered to 2.5% but the rural sector paid for the
industrialization and modernization of the country with 80.5% of government revenue between 1875
and 1879 coming from land tax. Nor were their any deductions for wages paid. Urban workers did not
pay any tax at this time. The only real improvement was that they no longer had community
responsibilities.
Another problem was land tenancy with a third of land being rented to tenants. Tenant farmers paid
60% of their crop to the land owner, who in turn paid 50% of this in land tax, keeping 50% for
themselves. Land tenants kept only 32% of the yield compared with 39% in Tokugawa times.
Farmers were also at the mercy of the newly fluctuating price of rice and silk.
Cheap western manufactured goods and factory production threatened the existence of rural household
industries.
Universal conscription and education increased the burden on agricultural families, with many farmers
being dispossessed of their land. Peasant disturbances increased and local leaders became active in the
popular rights movement as they tried to improve rural conditions. 94
3