Biology 100 Study Guide: Exam 1
Introduction, Anatomical Orientation
1. Distinguish between the fields of anatomy and physiology.
2. List the structural levels of organization as presented in lecture. Which levels include living
material? Which levels are of particular importance to the study of anatomy and physiology?
3. Properly describe the position of various structures as they occur on a body in anatomical position
using the following terms: superior, inferior, anterior, posterior, ventral, dorsal, medial, lateral,
proximal, distal, superficial, deep.
4. Describe the following planes of sectioning in terms of where the cut is made and the orientation
of the remaining portions: mid-sagittal, parasagittal, transverse, frontal.
5. Name and locate the two general types of body cavities. Name and locate the specific body
cavities within these general body cavities. Identify the major organs associated with each of the
specific body cavities.
6. Name and locate the nine abdominal regions as named by anatomists. Identify specific organs
associated with each region.
7. Name and locate the four quadrants of the abdomen as named by medical personnel. Identify
specific organs associated with each region.
8. Give the correct anatomical term for the following specific regions of the body: head, neck, chest,
arm, wrist, fingers, thigh, leg, and foot.
9. Explain what is meant by the term homeostasis. Explain how the components of the homeostasis
model (stimulus, sensor, afferent pathway, control center, efferent pathway, effector, response)
operate in a negative feedback loop to control body temperature.
Cells and Tissues
1. State the three components of modern cell theory.
2. Describe the molecular construction of the cell (plasma) membrane and explain how its physical
construction helps it fulfill its function as a selectively permeable membrane.
3. Describe the physical construction and the major functions of the following cell organelles:
ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum (both rough and smooth), Golgi apparatus, mitochondria,
lysosomes and centrioles.
4. Compare and contrast passive and active movement of materials across cell membranes.
5. Define the term diffusion. Describe the movement of glucose and sugar molecules across a semipermeable membrane that separates a 10% glucose solution from a 20% glucose solution. What
are these solutions like at equilibrium?
6. Define the term osmosis. Describe the movement of water and albumin protein molecules across a
semi-permeable membrane that separates a 5% albumin solution from a 10% albumin solution.
What are the solutions like at equilibrium?
7. Explain the basic steps that occur at an ion pump that moves sodium (Na +) and potassium (K+)
ions against their concentration gradient.
8. Describe the basic structure of the DNA molecule. What is it about this structure that allows DNA
to carry all of our genes?
9. What are the steps of mitosis and what are the significant events that occur at each stage? Use
illustrations to help explain your answer.
10. What are the general functions of epithelial tissue? Classify all the types of epithelial tissue based
on cell shape, arrangement and accessory structures (if applicable). Give an example of a location
in the body where each type of epithelial tissue may be found.
11. Describe the general make-up of connective tissues. Describe the differences among the following
specific connective tissue types: areolar (loose), adipose, fibrous (both regular and irregular),
bone, cartilage, blood. Give a location in the body where each type of connective tissue may be
found.
12. Describe the function of muscle tissue. Compare and contrast the three types of muscle tissue in
terms of location in the body, physical appearance of the cells, and the number and location of the
nuclei within the cells.
13. Describe the function of nervous tissue. What are the two types of cells that make up nervous
tissue? Describe the general structure of a neuron.
Body Membranes and the Integumentary System
1. Define the term membrane in terms of its structure and functions.
2. What is an epithelial membrane? What are the three types of epithelial membranes found in the
body? Describe the structure of each type, its function, and give an example of a location in the
body where each can be found.
3. What organs make up the integumentary system? What are the three functions of the
integumentary system as discussed in class?
4. What are the correct terms for the superficial and deep layers of the skin? What is the specific
tissue type that makes up the superficial layer? Name the four strata of the superficial layer and
describe their structure and function.
5. Describe the structure of the deep layer of the skin in terms of its dominant tissue type and other
relevant physical characteristics.
6. Describe the structure of hair and the hair follicle and explain how hair grows.
7. Name and identify the locations of the two touch receptors discussed in class. How do these two
receptors differ in function?
8. Describe the structure of nails and explain how they grow.
9. What are the correct anatomical terms for the two types of skin glands studied in class? Which
one is also called a sweat gland and which is an oil gland? Name the two types of sweat glands
and describe their secretions.
10. Describe the damage to tissues for 1st, 2nd and 3rddegree burns. What are the dangers of a severe
burn? What is the Rule of Nines, and what information does it provide?
Biology 100 Study Guide: Exam 2
Skeletal System
1. What are the functions of the skeletal system?
2. What are the four different types of bones? Name several specific examples of each
type.
3. In detail, sketch and label the anatomy of a long bone including structures such as
diaphysis, epiphysis, medullary cavity, periosteum, endosteum, articular cartilage,
etc.
4. Compare and contrast the microscopic structure of compact bone, spongy bone and
cartilage. Where can each of these types of tissue be found in a long bone?
5. Describe the steps of endochondral ossification in the formation and growth of a long
bone. What are the roles of osteoblasts and osteoclasts in this process? How can you
tell a bone is finished growing?
6. What are the divisions of the skeleton? What are the names of the major bones that
make up each division? Be able to locate these bones on a diagram of the skeleton.
7. Name the five regions of the vertebral column. How many vertebrae are found in
each region? What is the significance of the atlas and axis bones?
8. What is the difference between the true, false, and floating ribs? Typically, how
many of each type are there in the human rib cage?
9. Describe the anatomical differences between the male and female pelvis. What is the
significance of these differences?
10. Classify the types of joints found in the body on the basis of how much movement
they allow between the bones. Name locations in the body where these types of
joints can be found.
11. Sketch and describe the anatomy of a synovial joint including the following
structures: joint capsule, joint cavity, articular cartilage, synovial membrane, and
ligaments. Name and give examples of the six types of synovial joints found in the
body.
Muscular System
1. Distinguish between the three types of muscle tissue in terms of their physical
appearance, level of conscious control, and location in the body.
2. Sketch and label the macroscopic anatomy of a skeletal muscle. Including the
following structures: muscle, tendons, tendon sheath, bursa, origin, insertion, and
bones. What function do the tendon sheath and bursa provide?
3. What is the sarcomere? What are the components of a sarcomere and how are they
related to the striations visible on a skeletal muscle cell? Describe what happens in a
sarcomere during a muscle contraction.
4. What are the functions of skeletal muscle? Define the following: prime mover,
antagonist, synergist, and fixator.
5. What is muscle fatigue and what causes it? What is the difference between slow
twitch and fast twitch fibers?
6. What is a motor unit? What is summation of motor units? What is the difference
between spatial summation and temporal summation?
7. Describe the four types of skeletal muscle contraction in terms of the type of motion
they produce.
8. Name the different types of movements produced by skeletal muscle contractions as
discussed in class, and give a location in the body where this type of movement
occurs.
9. Name and describe the function of the muscles indicated on figure 6-6 and table 6-1
of the text. Be able to identify the location of these muscles on a figure of the body.
10. Compare and contrast the effects of aerobic vs. anaerobic exercise on skeletal
muscles.
Nervous System
1. Compare and contrast the two main control/communication systems of the body.
2. Name the anatomical divisions of the nervous system and list the organs/structures
that make up each division.
3. Name the functional divisions of the nervous system and describe which aspects of
the body they affect?
4. Describe the structure of a neuron. What are Schwann cells and what roles do they
play in the function of a neuron?
5. What are the three functional types of neurons? Explain how these neurons function
in a reflex arc.
6. Name the three types of neuroglial cells found in the CNS and describe their
functions.
7. What is a nerve action potential (NAP)? How is a NAP generated in the axon of a
neuron? Describe the difference in speed of a NAP in a myelinated vs. an unmyelinated axon.
8. What is a synapse? How is a nerve impulse transmitted across a synapse?
9. What are neurotransmitters? Give specific examples of neurotransmitters and
describe the roles they play in the body.
10. Name and describe the functions of the following divisions and structures of the
brain: Brain stem (medulla oblongata, pons, mid brain), Diencephalon
(hypothalamus, thalamus), Cerebellum, Cerebral cortex (Pre-central gyrus, pre-motor
area, pre-frontal area, post-central gyrus, somatic sensory association center, visual
association area, visual cortex)
11. Describe the anatomy of the spinal cord including the meninges (dura mater,
arachnoid, pia mater), white matter and gray matter, spinal ganglia. Describe the
anatomy of a nerve. What is the difference between a nerve and a tract?
12. Describe the divisions of the Autonomic nervous system in terms of their anatomy,
neurotransmitters, and the effects they have on body systems.
Special Senses
1. Distinguish between general senses and special senses.
2. What is transduction and why is it important?
3. Name, locate and describe the general sense receptors listed in table 8-1 of the
textbook.
4. Identify the location and describe the function of the following structures of the eye:
sclera, choroid, retina, iris, pupil, lens, cornea aqueus humor, vitreous humor, optic
nerve.
5. What is happening in myopia and hyperopia? How can these conditions be
corrected?
6. Describe the pathway sound travels from the outer ear to the auditory receptors
naming all of the structures.
7. What is the function of the vestibule and semicircular canals of the inner ear?
Biology 100 Study Guide: Exam 3
Endocrine System
1. Compare and contrast an endocrine versus an exocrine gland.
2. What is meant by the messenger hypothesis as it relates to hormones?
3. What are prostoglandins and what roles do they play in the body?
4. Name the target and the general effect of the following pituitary hormones: thyroid
hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone, follicle stimulating hormone, leutinizing
hormone, growth hormone, prolactin, melanocyte stimulating hormone, antiduretic
hormone, oxytocin.
5. What is the general effect of thyroxine(T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) on the body? What
is the crucial element necessary to manufacture these hormones? What can happen when
there is not enough of this crucial element?
6. Describe in detail how calcitonin and parathyroid hormone regulate blood calcium.
7. What are the effects of aldosterone, cortisol, and epinephrine on the body? Where do
these hormones come from? (Be specific)
8. Describe in detail how insulin and glucagons regulate blood sugar levels.
9. Name the hormones produced by the following glands and their general effects on the
body: Thymus, Pineal Gland, Ovaries, Testes.
Blood
1. What is the overall function of blood?
2. What are the two main components of blood after it has been centrifuged?
3. What are the important constituents of blood plasma? How is plasma different from
serum?
4. Describe the structure of a red blood cell (RBC). How is this structure related to its
function?
5. What are the types and general functions of white blood cells discussed in class?
6. What are platelets and why are they important? Under what circumstances can platelets
cause bad things to happen? What are those bad things?
7. Describe the ABO system of blood typing. What is the difference between an antigen
and an antibody? What types of blood are considered to be the universal donor and the
universal recipient? Explain why.
8. What is the Rh factor? Explain the relevance of the Rh factor to pregnancy.
Circulatory System
1. What is the main function of the circulatory system?
2. Describe the anatomy of the heart in terms of its size, position in the chest cavity, and the
layers that make up the heart wall.
3. Trace the path of a drop of blood starting at the left atrium and passing through both the
systemic and pulmonary loops. Identify all major heart chambers, valves and blood
vessels encountered along the way. Also indicate the oxygen content of the blood in each
part of the system.
4. Describe in general terms coronary circulation. How does heart disease progress and
how can it be treated?
5. Describe in detail the correct sequence of the cardiac cycle. Describe the conduction
system of the heart and explain how it regulates the cardiac cycle? Draw a normal ECG.
What does each wave represent?
6. Describe the anatomy of arteries and veins. How are arteries different in construction
from veins?
7. What is portal circulation? Describe the anatomy of the hepatic portal system.
8. Discuss the importance of blood pressure. What are the four primary factors that
influence blood pressure? How does the body respond to increases and decreases in
blood pressure?
Lymphatic and Immune System
1. What is lymph and where does it come from? What causes lymph to flow in lymphatic
vessels?
2. Describe the pathway that lymph takes from each extremity back to circulation. What is
the location of the lymphatic duct and the cisterna chyli?
3. What are lymph nodes and what is their function?
4. Name the specific organs of the immune system.
5. Distinguish between non-specific and specific immunity. Describe the general sequence
of events in a specific immune response.
6. Distinguish among natural, artificial, active and passive immunities.
7. Describe how antibodies and compliment function to protect your body.
8. Describe the roles of the following immune cells: phagocytes, Plasma cells, memory Blymphocytes, Helper T-lymphocyte, Cytotoxic T-lymphocytes.
Root Vocabulary for Exam 3
Adeno- : a gland
Anti- : against, opposite
Atrium : vestibule, entrance
Corpus : a body
Cortico : the bark, shell
Embolim : something placed between
Erythr- : red
Humor- : moisture, fluid
Iodo- : containing iodine
Leuco : white
Lymph : water
Myel- : marrow
Oxy- : oxygen
Sclero- : hard
Thromb- : a clot, a lump
Ventro- : the underside
Biology 100 Study Guide: Exam 4
The Respiratory System
1. What are the functions of the respiratory system?
2. List the structures, in order, of the upper and lower respiratory tracts. Describe the
functions of the following structures: nostrils, nasal cavity, nasal conchae, nasopharynx,
oropharynx, laryngopharynx, glottis, epiglottis, larynx, uvula, trachea, bronchi,
bronchioles, alveoli.
3. Describe the anatomy of the lungs by following the path of an oxygen molecule from the
trachea to the alveoli. Also describe the gross anatomy of the lungs including the lobes
and the serous membranes that surround the lungs.
4. Describe the medical disorders that can occur when fluids enter the pleural cavity.
5. What is the functional unit of the lungs? How is the shape of alveoli maintained? What
are the layers of the respiratory membrane?
6. Describe the mechanism for pulmonary ventilation. Which muscles are involved in quiet
breathing? Which muscles are involved in forced breathing?
7. Distinguish between external and internal respiration. Describe the differences in O2 and
CO2 concentrations for each type of respiration.
8. Define the following terms: tidal volume, inspiratory reserve capacity, expiratory reserve
capacity, vital capacity, residual volume, dead air space. How do changes in these factors
affect breathing?
9. What are the components of the nervous system that regulate breathing and how do they
work? What are the different receptors that regulate breathing and how do they work?
10. Define the different types of breathing: eupnea, apnea, dyspnea, hyperventilation,
hypoventilation.
The Digestive System
1. What are the functions of the digestive system?
2. Define macromolecule, polymer, and monomer. Give examples of each.
3. Distinguish chemical from mechanical digestion.
4. What are the four different phases of digestion? Where are the following forms of
digested food found in the body: bolus, chime, feces.
5. Define and describe peristalsis. What type of muscle tissue is involved and how is it
arranged?
6. What are the names of the salivary glands and where are they located? What is the
function of salivary amylase?
7. What substances are in the gastric juices? What is the role of each of these components?
8. What is a sphincter? Name the two sphincters associated with the stomach. What are
rugae?
9. What are the regions of the small intestine? What type(s) of digestion occur in the small
intestine? In which region does digestion take place in the small intestine? In which
regions does absorption of monomers take place? How is the small intestine constructed
so as to maximize nutrient absorption?
10. Across which structures does nutrient absorption take place? Describe the process of
nutrient absorption, explaining how each type of nutrient is moved across the
intestinal epithelium.
11. What is bile? Where is it produced and stored? How is bile involved in digestion?
12. Describe the stimulus, source, target and effect of the tissue hormone CCK.
13. Why is the pancreas described as a dual organ? Name the digestive enzymes produced
by the pancreas.
14. What is the role of the colon (large intestine)? How are bacteria such as E. coli involved
in colon function?
Nutrition and Metabolism
1. Distinguish between catabolism and anabolism. Give examples of each.
2. Write the chemical equation for aerobic cellular respiration. What are the three stages of
this process?
3. Where does glycolysis take place in a cell? What molecules are produced from the
original glucose molecule? How many ATP molecules are produced from this stage?
Does this stage require oxygen?
4. Where does the Kreb’s cycle take place in a cell? What are the main inputs and outputs
of this cycle? What is the main purpose for this cycle? How many ATP molecules are
produced from this stage? Does this stage require oxygen?
5. Specifically, where is the electron transport system found in a cell? What is the main
purpose of the ETS? How many ATP molecules are produced from this stage? Does this
stage require oxygen?
6. What is it about fat molecules that make them so energy rich compared to carbohydrates?
Under what conditions does your body catabolize fat?
7. What is the problem with catabolizing amino acids? Under what circumstances does this
occur?
8. Define basal metabolic rate (BMR) and total metabolic rate (TMR). Under what
conditions should a person’s basal metabolic rate be measured?
Root Vocabulary for Exam 4
Alve- : a cavity
Dys : bad, malicious
Gastro- : stomach
Glycer- : sweet
Hiatus- : an opening
Hydro - : water
Laryngo - : the larynx
Lingu : the tongue
Mono- : one
Naso- : the nose
Oro- : the mouth
Pharyn- : the throat
Pneumo- : air
Poly- : many
Pulmon- : a lung
Pylo- : a gate
Sacchar- : sugar
Trache- : the windpipe
Tri- : three
Villi : shaggy hair
Biology 100 Study Guide: Exam 5
The Urinary System
1. Describe the gross anatomy of the kidney and the rest of the urinary system.
2. What is a nephron and what are its specific structures?
3. Describe the following stages of urine formation: filtration, reabsorption, and secretion –
include the specific molecules or ions involved and the specific nephron structures
involved.
4. Describe the process of micturation.
Fluid and Electrolyte Balance
1. Describe the fluid compartments of the body. What are the important factors that affect
the movement of fluids between the fluid compartments?
2. Explain the hormonal mechanism for controlling urine volume, focusing on the roles of
ADH, ANH and aldosterone. Include such details as the stimulus, sensor, control center,
hormone source, specific target of the nephron, and the effects.
3. What are the sources of water for the body? By what means does water leave the body?
4. What are some causes and symptoms associated with overhydration and dehydration?
Acid-Base Balance
1. Define pH, acid and base. What is the relationship between pH and hydrogen ion
concentration?
2. What is normal arterial blood pH? What terms are used to describe blood pH below this
level and blood pH above this level?
3. How do buffers work to prevent large changes to blood pH? Use the sodium bicarbonate
– carbonic acid system as an example.
4. What mechanisms are associated with the homeostasis of blood pH? Which of these
mechanisms is fastest? Which is the most powerful?
5. What are the different sub-categories of acidosis and alkalosis? What are specific causes
of acidosis and alkalosis?
6. Completely describe how the lungs would compensate during metabolic acidosis
compared to metabolic alkalosis.
7. Completely describe how the kidneys would compensate during respiratory acidosis
compared to respiratory alkalosis.
The Reproductive System
1. Describe the location and function of the primary and secondary sex organs of the male
and female – including ducts, glands, internal structures and external structures.
2. What is gametogenesis? Compare and contrast sperm production and ova production.
What cells are involved in each?
3. What hormones are associated with the female menstrual cycle and how do they
function? What is a follicle? What is the corpus luteum? Which hormone stimulates the
buildup of the endometrium? Which hormone maintains the endometrial lining?