Destination: Cambodia
Course: Corporate communication, Author: Stine Josefine Hedemann Hansen,
Supervisor: Steen Michael Hejndorf, Exam number: 288499, Institut for
Language and business communication, year 2011,
Units: 175000 = 79,54 standard pages
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Table of contents
Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………….4
1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………6
1.1 Problem statement……………………………………………………………………………………..9
1.2 Reading guide……………………………………………………………………………………………..10
1.3 Delimitation………………………………………………………………………………………………..12
1.4 Scientific choice of method………………………………………………………………………….13
2 Theoretical fundament………………………………………………………………17
2.1 choice of theory…………………………………………………………………………………………17
2.2 Society & tourist motivation……………………………………………………………………..21
2.2.1 Tourism in contemporary society…………………………………………………………..21
2.2.2 Tourist motivations……………………………………………………………………………….21
2.3 Adaptation and cultural differences………………………………………………………..24
2.4 From motivation to choice of travel destination………………………………………27
2.5 Destination branding…………………………………………………………………………………..28
2.5.1 A definition on Destination Branding……………………………………………………..28
2.5.2 Corporate branding vs. destination branding………………………………………….29
2.5.3 The destination’s stakeholders……………………………………………………………..31
2.5.4 The destination branding process……………………………………………………………32
3 Methodological fundament………………………………………………………..44
3.1 Choice of practical method…………………………………………………………………….44
2
3.2 Method in praxis………………………………………………………………………………………..45
3.3 Analytical approach………………………………………………………………………………..53
3.4 Transcription method…………………………………………………………………………………53
4 Analytical fundament………………………………………………………………..55
4.1 The identity of Cambodia………………………………………………………………………..56
4.2 The potential of Cambodia in relation to the Danish tourists………………….64
4.3 Cambodia’s image among the Danish tourists…………………………………………..71
4.4 Summary: Juxtaposing of the analyses…………………………………………………..82
5 Brand strategy…………………………………………………………………………88
5.1 The brand identity………………………………………………………………………………………89
5.2 Implementation of the Brand identity…………………………………………………….91
6 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………..94
7 Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………..98
8 Appendix
(in a separate folder)
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Abstract
As a consequence of the growing substitutability tourist destinations of today suffer
from, this thesis seeks to find out how it is possible to market Cambodia as an
appealing and distinctive tourist destination towards the Danish tourists. The reason
for having chosen the Danish market only is a belief in the necessity of adapting
branding and advertising strategies to local habits and consumer motives, instead of
standardizing them. Furthermore Cambodia is not among the tourist destinations
preferred by the Danish tourists.
The thesis begins by employing two theoretical frameworks.
Firstly, sociological theories of the contemporary western society are applied. The
purpose of this is to shed a light on possible factors within contemporary society that
influence tourism and the reasons why people travel. In continuation hereof the thesis
takes a look at generally considered tourist motivations that are often the results of
people’s home societies, as well as the importance for destination marketers to
understand tourist motivations. Also the need for adapting one’s marketing to local
habits and consumer motives are looked upon and Hofsted’s five cultural dimensions
are introduced.
After having applied the sociological framework, the thesis moves on to the second
theoretical framework: the field of destination branding. The purpose of this
framework is to achieve knowledge upon how destinations successfully can work with
branding.
Among other things, Seppo Rainisto & Teemu Moilanen’s destination branding process
is being applied. Within this, four steps are being highlighted: To establish the
organizational identity, to establish the tourists’ present image of the destination, to
develop the brand identity, and to implement the brand identity.
In relation to the second step, Echtner and Ritchie’s model of destination image
measurement is introduced: a model that measures both the common components of
a destination’s image as well as its unique components. The last mentioned
components being the ones that indicate whether a destination is differentiated or
not. During the third and fourth step, several recommendations for the development
as well as implementation of an appealing and distinctive brand identity are proposed.
After the theoretical fundament the more practical part of the thesis follows. With
inspiration from the theoretical fundament, the investigation is focused around three
areas: the identity of Cambodia, the motivations and travel habits of the Danish
tourists and the Danish tourists’ present image of Cambodia. The thesis furthermore
takes a qualitative empirical approach by making four focus group interviews with a
selection of Cambodian and Danish people, respectively.
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As a consequence of the focus on the above-mentioned three areas, the thesis
contains three different analyses investigating these.
In the identity analysis the thesis chooses to use the image measurement model by
Echtner & Ritchie’ to measure the unique holistic components of the identity. Here it is
revealed that Cambodia has several unique holistic components. These are: a laidback atmosphere, the offering of “Robinson Crusoe experiences”, the Angkar temples
and a diversity of travel activities. Among the more common components of the
Cambodian identity are: a beautiful nature, a friendly and hospitable people, and a
general travel safety.
In the second analysis the thesis discovers that the Danish tourists in general are
motivated by and interested in the same assets and activities that Cambodia has to
offer. On basis of this, the thesis’ concludes that Cambodia has a great potential in
relation to the Danish tourists. However, the third analysis shows that the present
image of Cambodia is very poor due to a limited knowledge of Cambodia and what it
has to offer.
As a result of this, a brand strategy for Cambodia is made with the purpose of
changing the present image of Cambodia among the Danish tourists into an appealing
and distinctive one. This is done by firstly incorporating the Cambodian characteristics
into the brand identity. Because they fit the travel motivations and habits of the
Danish tourists it is argued that the image will be appealing. Furthermore it is argued
that especially the promotion of Cambodia’s many unique characteristics will make the
image distinctive as well.
Even more, the brand identity is developed in such a way that it creates associations
of the lifestyle experiences people can look forward to when choosing Cambodia as a
travel destination. A strategy that in the theory is recommended as an effective way
to make the brand identity distinctive and appealing. Furthermore this choice of
strategy fits several findings of the thesis.
To capture the essence of the brand identity, two strategic suggestions were made:
1) A lifestyle campaign that reflects the diversity of Cambodia via the following
lifestyle categories: ‘Nature-adventure lifestyle’, ‘Relaxing in the sun lifestyle’, ‘Party
like an animal lifestyle’, ‘Big city lifestyle’, ‘Cultural lifestyle’
2) Small viral movie clips filmed by satisfied Danish tourists enjoying different lifestyle
experiences in Cambodia.
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1 Introduction
Over the past six decades tourism has continued to expand and is according to the
World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) now one of the largest and fastest growing
economic sectors in the world with an estimated number of 880 million international
tourist arrivals as of 2010 (Appendix, 14).
Along with the huge and steadily rising number of international tourist arrivals, more
and more areas of the world are developed for tourism, which means destination
choices available for tourists are continually expanding. The result is a fierce
competition where about 194 nations are “clamoring for a share of the tourist’s heart,
mind and wallet” (Balakrishan, 2009: 611).
This competition has led to severe problems for destination marketers since most
destinations of today are so developed that it has become difficult to differentiate
them:
“Today most destinations have superb five-star resorts, hotels and attractions, every
country claims a unique culture and heritage, each place describes itself as having the
friendliest people and the most customer-focused tourism industry, and service and
facilities are no longer differentiators” (Morgan et al 2002: 335).
To overcome this substitutability, one of the challenges for destinations has become to
create a unique identity and find a niche that stands out from the competitors
(Morgan et al 2002: 336).
Some destinations have already succeeded in this, whereas others have failed hard.
Among the more successful ones is New Zealand with its campaign ‘100 % Pure New
Zealand’ from 1999, which created what is considered to be one of the most
successful and effective destination brands in the world1. Among the destination
campaigns that are considered to be pure disasters is for example the Philippines’
‘Philipinas Kay Ganda’ campaign from 2010.
Often, however, the situation is not black or white. A lot of destinations fall in a
category somewhere in between, meaning that they may have succeeded in attracting
a lot of tourists compared to previously (through destination branding or not), but
that there is still room for a lot more, both literally as well as if one compares the
destination with more successful but similar tourist destinations.
An example of this is Cambodia:
After almost three decades of war and genocide peace has finally arrived to this lovely
country. The result being that the Cambodian people have opened up their arms to
http://www.tourismindustryblog.co.nz/2010/04/100-pure-new-zealand-brand-is-it-time-to-change/
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the world, and tourism has taken well off. As of today, tourism can be said to have
brought many benefits to Cambodia. To mention just a few it has provided
opportunities and employment for a whole new generation of Khmers (the Cambodian
people) and has brought a renewed sense of optimism and pride to the country (Ray,
2010:12-13). However, despite the increase in tourists, Cambodia is still in a
desperate need for even more tourists if it is going to boost its economy and reduce
its poverty2. Furthermore, when compared to its wealthier and more popular
neighboring countries of Thailand and Vietnam, there is still a long way for Cambodia
to reach the same numbers of tourist arrivals3.
This means that one or several destination branding efforts for Cambodia are highly
relevant. Except from creating a unique identity and find a niche that stands out from
the competitors, the question still remains how this is best done in relation to
Cambodia?
Before I started considering visiting Cambodia myself I did almost not have any
perceptions about the country. And among the few perceptions I did have, most of
these were not very positive, and some not even true: I had a perception about Pol
Pot and the way he and his Khmer Rouge had racked the country and performed
genocide on almost one third of its citizens about 30 years ago (true). I had a
perception of the country as very poor where it is not uncommon that parents feel
forced to prostitute their kids or even sell them to be able to make a living (true). I
had a perception that in general it was a very dangerous country to travel in - much
more dangerous than for instance its neighboring countries of Thailand and Laos (not
my present experience having now traveled in all three countries). The only positive
perception I had about Cambodia was that it was the country of the world famous,
and supposedly stunning, Angkor Temples. Besides from that, I knew absolutely
nothing about the country.
So why did I start to consider to visit the country then? There are two reasons for
this: The first one is the thesis you are holding in your hand: I wanted to write about
destination branding, as it is a subject which had occupied my mind for quite some
time, but I had not, at that time, visited any destinations which I thought had the
potential to be the object for my writing.
What I was looking for was a place that, in my opinion, has more tourism potential
than the tourist numbers show – with the purpose of figuring out how to market that
destination better than previously in order to attract more tourists.
Specifically I was on the outlook for a destination where I could see more potential for
the Danish tourists than the tourism numbers show. The latter because I figured that
it would be too big of a mouthful for me to look into and change all of the tourists on
the planet’s image of a certain destination, and since I am a Dane myself this would
be the most obvious segment to look into. Furthermore I believe in the necessity of
adapting branding and advertising strategies to local habits and consumer motives,
instead of being standardized.
As such, I was looking for a destination, preferably a country that could use some
(re-)branding in order to attain a new and better image among the Danish tourists
than previously. An image that more accurately fits the reality. The last thing was
2
3
http://www.prlog.org/10692739-cambodia-to-present-big-events-to-attract-more-tourists.html
http://www.world-tourism.org/facts/menu.html
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very important to me, since I did not wanted to write about a destination which I did
not think could live up to a potential image change.
For this reason Cambodia did, at first, not cross my mind, since I had almost only
negative perceptions about the country myself. However, one episode was about to
change this.
One day, last spring, when I was drinking coffee at a girlfriend’s place, she and I were
talking about potential subjects for both our theses. I told her about my problems
finding an interesting country to write about. Without hesitation she instantly
mentioned Cambodia! Apparently she had, to use her own words, “been dragged
there” a couple of years ago by her British ex-boyfriend. The reason why she had not
been “thrilled” to go there was the fact that she, like me, had an overall poor image of
the country. Not because she had ever met anyone who had actually been there and
told bad things about the country, but more because she had this sort of “feeling”, an
idea of the country, possibly fostered by the media, that it was a dangerous place to
be for a westerner, with no tourist attractions whatsoever apart from the famous
Angkar temples. In short: the same image of the country that I had.
But, as she told me, this changed as soon as she got there. And only changed more
and more during her three and a half week there. She absolutely loved the country
and everything it had to offer! From the stunningly beautiful beaches and paradise
islands in the south, to the bustling yet charming capital Phnom Penh in the middle, to
the wild eco-adventures awaiting in the jungles and mountains of the west and east,
and last but not least the marvelous Angkar temples in Seam Reap in the north. But
more than anything: it was the lovely hospitable Cambodian people that got her to
really fall in love with the country.
After having heard my girlfriend’s story, I started to do a bit of thinking as well as
research about the country and soon realized that Cambodia could indeed have
potential to be a great case for my thesis. Especially two things convinced me in this:
Firstly I figured that if her positive opinion about Cambodia fits the general opinions of
Cambodia among travelers who have visited the country, and both her and my
originally poor image of the country was shared among the Danish people in general,
then there certainly was an image/identity gap to look into.
Secondly, I discovered during my little research that the Cambodian people really
need tourists – and many of them - in order to get out of their poverty and generally
poor economic situation.
In order to figure out whether I agreed with my girlfriend, and thus whether I wanted
to write about Cambodia at all, I naturally had to visit the country myself. So I did.
And “luckily” I fell as much in love with the country and its people as my girlfriend
during my two and a half months journey through the country this summer. Having
returned to Denmark there is absolutely no doubt in my mind that this is a country
with great potential for the Danish tourists.
By looking at the tourism statistics4, much greater than I believe most Danish people
know. For example when looking at the list of destinations the Danish people visited in
20095 Cambodia is not mentioned at all. This is not particularly odd since only 20
4
From “Danmarks Statistik”: Holidays in foreign countries in 2009 (appendix, 14: table 12)
5
The only statistics and year I could gain access to from “Danmarks statistik”
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destinations are on the list. However, considering Cambodia’s neighboring country
Thailand is on the list – a destination that in my opinion is furthermore very similar to
Cambodia – one should think that Cambodia could just as well have been on the list.
This leads me back to my earlier question regarding what should be done in the
marketing area for Cambodia…
1.1 Problem statement
As a result of the above issues in relation to Cambodia and the Danish tourists, the
problem statement for the thesis is as follows:
How is it possible to market Cambodia as an appealing and distinctive
tourist destination towards the Danish tourists?
In order to answer the problem statement, I need to be able to understand and
answer the following operational questions:
1) Why do people travel? (Theory)
2) How can destinations successfully work with branding? (Theory)
3) What is the Cambodian identity? (Empirical)
4) What is the potential of Cambodia as a travel destination in relation to the Danish
tourists’ travel motivations, preferences and habits? (Empirical)
5) How do the Danish tourists perceive Cambodia as a travel destination? (Empirical)
Thus, during my thesis, I will firstly investigate theoretical issues in relation to
destination branding, identity, travel motivations, image formation, with more.
Furthermore, with help from my theoretical knowledge, I will gather and analyze
empirical data from a selection of Danish as well as Cambodian people with the
purpose of being able to understand: Travel motivations, preferences and habits of
the Danish tourists, how the Danish tourists perceive Cambodia as a travel destination
and what the Cambodian identity is.
In the end the combination between my gained theoretical knowledge and the results
from my empirical data should lead to an answer to the question of how to market
Cambodia as an appealing and distinctive tourist destination towards the Danish
tourists.
My goal with the thesis is to be able to develop a brand identity for Cambodia
especially targeted the Danish tourists, as well as some strategic recommendations of
how to implement this brand identity. The idea is that the Cambodian tourism board6
can be inspired by the brand identity as well as make use of the recommendations in
the future as part of their overall marketing of Cambodia as a tourist destination.
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However, anyone with an interest in marketing Cambodia towards the Danish people
could potentially make use of the recommendations: a Danish travel agency, travel
agents, tour operators, etc.
1.2 Reading guide
The thesis is divided into three parts with appertaining chapters: a theoretical part, a
methodical part, and an analytical part. Furthermore the thesis has a fourth part
which is the brand strategy part (brand identity and implementation).
The first part makes a theoretical fundament that is necessary in order to be able to
work with destination branding. Before establishing the fundament, however, I will
elaborate on my choice of theory.
Hereafter three subsections follow: ‘Society and tourist motivation’, ‘Adaptation and
cultural differences’, and ‘Destination branding’.
‘Society and tourist motivation’ consist of two additional chapters, both of which try to
answer operational question number one: why do people travel?
The first chapter is called ‘Tourism in contemporary society’ and deals with a general
understanding of contemporary western society in relation to tourism. It seeks to help
answer question one by shedding a light on possible factors within contemporary
western society that influence tourism and thereby also why people travel. Due to a
limited amount of pages at my disposal I have chosen to put this part of the thesis in
the appendix (appendix, 1). The second chapter is called ‘Tourist motivations’ and
takes over from where chapter one was letting go, by answering more directly the
question why people travel by making an outline of some of the many different factors
that motivate people to travel. Many of these due to the nature of people’s home
societies.
The second subsection ‘Adaptation and cultural differences’ hereafter follows which
introduces the concept of adapting advertising and branding strategies to cultural
differences as well as local habits and consumer motives. Furthermore it introduces
the Hofstede model and his five cultural dimensions.
The third subsection of part one, called ‘Destination branding’ deals with the question:
How can destinations successfully work with branding?
It covers different aspects of destination branding, such as: what is destination
branding, differences and similarities between destination branding and corporate
branding, the stakeholders of destination branding and the destination branding
process.
After having established the necessary theoretical fundament, the second part
follows which is the method chapter. It contains an elaboration of my considerations
in relation to my empirical investigations of the thesis (my work with the focus
groups) as well as later analyses.
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The third part of the thesis is the analysis part, which contains three different
analyses:
The purpose of the first analysis is to identify the Cambodian identity on the basis of
qualitative focus groups with Cambodian people. This analysis is relevant because I
want my developed brand identity of Cambodia, as well as the recommendations for
implementing this, to be rooted in what Cambodia has to offer as a travel destination.
An important part of identifying the Cambodian identity is furthermore to find out how
the Cambodian people want Cambodia to be perceived as a tourist destination. This
analysis therefore seeks to answer operational question number three.
After having analyzed the Cambodian identity, I will seek to answer the fourth
operational question: What is the potential of Cambodia as a travel destination in
relation to the Danish tourists’ travel motivations, preferences and habits? This is
important since there is no point in figuring out how to market Cambodia if what it
offers does not fit the Danish tourists. Therefore this analysis first seeks to get an
understanding of the travel motivations, preferences and habits of the Danish tourists
based on qualitative focus group interviews with Danish people. The knowledge
achieved from this analysis is hereafter being juxtaposed to the knowledge I have
achieved from analysis number one about the Cambodian identity. It should now be
possible to answer the above-mentioned question.
The last and third analysis has the purpose of investigating the Danish tourists’ image
of Cambodia and is, like analysis number two, carried out on the basis of the results
of the two Danish focus group interviews.
The reason why this analysis is important is that I need to establish the present image
held by the Danish tourists in order to be able to know how to change it via a brand
strategy.
This final analysis is thereby trying to answer the final operational question: How do
the Danish tourists perceive Cambodia as a travel destination?
After having made the three analyses I will juxtapose the results from all of the
analyses. By doing this I should be able to find out how to change the Danish tourists’
image of Cambodia via the development and implementation of a brand identity for
Cambodia targeted the Danish tourists. The brand identity and implementation of it
constitutes thereby the fourth part of the thesis.
In the end I will make a conclusion on the thesis and answer the question:
How is it possible to market Cambodia as an appealing and distinctive tourist
destination towards the Danish tourists?
Before moving on to the first part of the thesis, I will cover delimitations of the thesis
as well as my scientific choice of method.
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1.3 Delimitation
Destination branding and nation branding may cause some confusion and lead people
to think that they are two different terms for the same phenomenon. There are,
however, significant differences between them:
Nation branding is a broader term than destination branding with the goal of creating
an overall positive image of the nation. An image that is used to advance everything
from the sales and export of the nation’s products (country-of-origin) to businesses
and investment, as well as tourism. Destination branding is, thus, a subcategory of
nation branding as it concentrates mostly on marketing the destination in order to
attract tourists (Fan, 2005:6-7), whereas nation branding needs to attract everything
from politicians, to investors, companies and tourists.
Since the purpose of this thesis is to investigate how to market Cambodia as a tourist
destination towards the Danish tourists, it will mainly concentrate on the concept of
destination branding.
That being said, if destination branding is going to be successful it needs to attract
and be on good terms with a lot of other stakeholders besides tourists, such as
managers of hotel chains and politicians. Nevertheless, due to the limited timeframe
as well as number of pages at my disposal in relation to this thesis, I have chosen to
focus on the stakeholders I consider to be the most important for destinations only
(cf. 2.5.3).
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1.4 Scientific choice of method
A central question when working scientifically is to know which values one has in
relation to the understanding of reality. The reason why this is important is that these
values are going to determine which paradigm one’s investigation is controlled by, and
thereby also which scientific method one should use.
In relation to scientific investigations, there are considered to be four general
paradigms:
1)
2)
3)
4)
The
The
The
The
positivistic paradigm
neo-positivistic paradigm
critical paradigm (critical theory)
constructivist paradigm
The paradigms are different from each other in the way they answer three basic
questions: What is reality (ontology), how is reality being recognized (epistemology),
and how can the investigator investigate reality (methodology).
The answer to these three questions, thus, constitutes one’s basic set of values, and
thereby which scientific paradigm one relates to (Nygaard, 21-24).
1.4.1 The constructivist paradigm
Since I am of the opinion that there is never one single recognition of reality only, this
thesis relates to the constructivist paradigm:
In the constructivist paradigm reality is considered to be relativistic and the
recognition of reality to be subjective (Nygaard, 2005: 25).
In other words reality in the constructivist paradigm is believed to be a construction
made by people, and there is therefore not considered to be just one single truth
about reality (= relativistic ontology). Furthermore reality is considered being
recognized via an endless list of different interpretations (= subjective epistemology).
The constructivist paradigm thereby relates to the postmodern thought with its
lacking belief in universal truths (A:1).
1.4.1.1 Social constructivism
The constructivist paradigm encompasses a lot of different approaches that are all
within the general paradigm. One of these is the social constructivism (Nygaard,
2005:37), which I confess to in relation to this thesis.
However, there is not just one type of social constructivism.
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Therefore, to be able to position my own investigation within the paradigm of social
constructivism, I will make a quick summary of four different types as classified by
Collin (2003).
Collin (2003) is classifying his four social constructivism paradigms on the basis of
whether one is assuming that reality itself is a construction (ontological
constructivism) or whether knowledge about reality is a construction (epistemological
constructivism). Furthermore he is classifying them on the basis of whether the type
of reality that is ‘at stake’ can be considered to be a social one or a physical one
(Nygaard, 2005: 128).
This altogether creates four different types of social constructivism paradigms:
The epistemological constructivism paradigm about the physical reality: Within this
paradigm it is argued that knowledge about the physical reality is a construction,
created via interaction and negotiation between people. The physical reality therefore
exists independently from our realization of it.
The epistemological constructivism paradigm about the social reality: In this paradigm
it is argued that knowledge about the social reality is a construction, created via
interaction and negotiation between people. Like with the paradigm above, the
constructed knowledge does not represent the social reality itself, which therefore
exists independently from our realization of it.
The ontological constructivism paradigm about the physical reality: in this paradigm it
is argued that the physical reality itself is a construction, which means that – as
opposed to the ones above – it does not exist without our realization of it.
The ontological constructivism about the social reality: Within this paradigm it is
argued that the social reality is a social construction that is created via our knowledge
of it and therefore does not exist independently from our knowledge of it (Nygaard,
2005: 128-130).
1.4.1.2 Where my own investigation belongs
The thesis is operating somewhere in between the ontological and the epistemological
constructivist paradigms. Below I will elaborate on this.
The purpose of my thesis - how to market Cambodia towards the Danish tourists - is
primarily relating to an ontological constructivist paradigm. This is due to the fact that
my choice of marketing Cambodia towards the Danish people only, as opposed to
tourists from all countries on the planet, is based on the belief that marketing should
be adapted to cultural habits and consumer motives instead of being standardized. A
part of the logic behind this belief is that (tourist) motivations and habits are social
constructions shaped between people in the different cultures.
In continuation of this, it can also be argued that my theory chapter about tourist
motivations takes a predominantly ontological constructivist perspective, since most
of the motivations in the outline are based on the home societies of the tourists –
indicating that motivations are socially constructed phenomenons.
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In other areas of the thesis my approach is closer to the epistemological constructivist
paradigms.
For example is my theory chapter about destination branding, and the destination
branding process, mostly of an epistemological constructivist nature. This can, among
other things, be seen in the way I have incorporated theories that view organizational
identity as a phenomenon that has to be agreed upon among the members of the
organization and/or destination in order to achieve knowledge about it. Yet I am still
aware that there is a Cambodian reality outside the agreed opinions of what the
Cambodian identity is.
In continuation of this my method of investigation in relation to this thesis can
furthermore be argued to be operating mostly within the epistemological paradigms.
This can be seen via my choice of using focus groups, as this is a type of method
whereupon knowledge of reality is being achieved via interaction and negotiation
among the participants in the focus groups (cf. 3.1). However, reality itself is not
being created.
This means that I, via the focus groups, will achieve knowledge about the Danish as
well as the Cambodian people’s perceptions of the Cambodian reality (image and
identity, respectively) on the basis of their agreements and negotiations. However,
the Cambodian reality itself is not created via the discussions.
Furthermore I will via the focus groups achieve knowledge about the potential of
Cambodia as a travel destination in relation to the Danish respondents discussions
and negotiations about their travel motivations, preferences and habits – but not a
definitive no/yes answer to whether Cambodia does in fact has a potential or not.
Since I consider the reality of a destination to be both physical (nature,
accommodations, tourist attractions, etc.) as well as social (interaction with local
people, meeting other travelers, etc.) the type of reality of investigation in relation to
the thesis is both social and physical. The thesis can thus be said to operate within all
four social constructivist paradigms.
When relating to a social constructivist paradigm one of the “consequences” is that
the investigator’s own perceptions are going to affect the results of the investigation,
since it according to the social constructivist paradigm is not possible to separate the
investigator and the investigated (Nygaard, 2005: 28-29).
As mentioned in the introduction my perceptions of Cambodia are very positive after
having been there myself. Therefore this is most likely going to affect my way of
interpreting the different analyses. Had I had some very negative perceptions about
Cambodia, my conclusions on the basis of the analyses would probably have turned
out differently.
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Theoretical fundament
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2 Theoretical fundament
2.1 Choice of theory
The purpose of this section is to give a brief introduction to the theories I have chosen
for this thesis as well as elaborate a bit on the reasons for having chosen these
instead of other theories.
2.1.1 Tourist motivations
This theory chapter has the purpose of making an outline of some of the most
frequently discussed tourists motivations within the tourism literature over the years.
The reason why it is only going to be an outline is that my interest within tourist
motivations, in relation to this thesis, lies in the motivations of the Danish tourists, as
opposed to general tourist motivations. In continuation of this, I do not believe in any
universal tourist motivations, but instead in cultural related tourist motivations that
advertising and branding strategies therefore need to be adapted to.
Nevertheless, I have found that a general understanding of the many different travel
motivations tourists may have in relation to traveling to be an inspirational help in my
later work of understanding some of the motivations the Danish tourists have for
traveling.
Because the purpose of this chapter is to make an outline of some of the many
discussed tourist motivation theories, I have deliberately chosen not to be especially
selective in my choice of theoreticians within this chapter. My only requirement has
been that I via my research have found them to be dealing with some of the most
frequently discussed and known tourist motivations.
The theoreticians I have chosen for my outline are: Dean MacCannell,
Graham M.S. Dann, Richard Sharpley, Rolf Jensen, Nigel Morgan, Anette Pritchard &
Rachel Piggott and Giuli Liebman Parrinello. Except from these theoreticians I will
furthermore in the chapter now and then relate the different tourist motivations to
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
2.1.2 Adaptation theory
Due to the nature of this thesis, and its belief in the necessity of adapting branding
and advertising strategies to local habits and consumer motives, I have found it
necessary to gain insight into the Danish culture and what especially motivates people
within this kind of culture.
To help me with this I have chosen culture theorist’s Geert Hofstede and his findings
in relation to cultural differences and consumer motives.
17
The reason for choosing his findings as opposed to other culture theorist’s findings is
that I find his five dimensions to be very useful and applicable in relation to the
development and implementation of a brand identity for Cambodia targeted the
Danish tourists.
That being said, I will not just make use of the knowledge blindly since I believe it is a
bit generalizing to propose that a whole country’s culture can be simplified down to
only four or five dimensions.
Besides from making use of them in relation to the development of the brand identity
and later implementation, I will furthermore relate to them when making the analysis
of the Danish tourists’ travel motivations, preferences and habits.
2.1.3 Destination branding
I have chosen to use Seppo Rainisto and Teemu Moilanen’s proposed destination
branding process as a framework for the destination branding chapter, as well as my
own working method with developing a brand identity for Cambodia.
There is one significant reason for this, namely that the method differentiates from
the rest within the field of destination branding7 by incorporating organizational
identity issues.
Whereas organizational identity is a concept that has been recognized and used widely
within the field of corporate communication for years, for a destination branding
method this is very unique.
Despite a realization among destination branding academics that the internal aspects
are just as important as the external ones in order to develop a strong brand identity
(=corporate identity), the main focus has always been – and still is - on the image
perspective (Konecnik, 2008: 177).
For this reason I have found it very difficult to find literature as well as methods within
the field of destination branding that handle this ‘internal’ identity aspect. Besides
from Rainisto & Moilanen’s work (2009) I have only been able to find a couple of other
destination brand academics that handle this issue, namely Maja Konecnik & Frank Go
(Konecnik, 2008), and Nigel Morgan, Annette Pritchard & Rachel Piggott (Morgan et
al. 2002). However, when it comes to Konecnik & Go they are, in my opinion, taking a
bit drastic approach by only focusing on the internal aspects, and thus ignoring the
image perspective completely (Konecnik, 2008: 178). Since I consider both aspects
equally important I have chosen not to use their method. Nigel Morgan, Annette
Pritchard & Rachel Piggott (2002), touch a lot upon the importance of organizational
identity as well (Morgan et al., 2002). Nevertheless, I find the way they handle the
work of finding the organizational identity to be somewhat superficial, as they do not
include the destination’s citizens in their work, as opposed to Rainisto & Moilanen. A
stakeholder I find to be extremely important (cf. 2.5.3). I have therefore chosen not
to use the above two proposed destination branding processes as method despite
their incorporation of organizational identity.
That being said, except from the organizational identity perspective, Rainisto &
Moilanen’s destination brand development process is very similar to most other
agreed development processes. For example both Hudson & Ritchie (2008), Morgan et
7
Among the literature I have been able to find.
18
al (2002) and Vellas (2003) have proposed multistage methods for destination
branding that are very closely related to Rainisto & Moilanen’s.
Despite Rainisto & Moilanen’s incorporation of organizational identity, their method is
not without weaknesses, as they use very limited space in explaining why the internal
aspects are important in developing a brand identity as well as how to find them.
Especially their handling of the internal aspects in relation to the research stage (cf.
2.5.4.2) is very limited.
For this reason, I have chosen to incorporate knowledge from corporate
communication during this step. More specifically I have incorporated contributions
from: Joep Cornelissen (2008) Peggy Simcic Brønn & Roberta Wiig Berg (2005),
George Cheney (2004) and Philip Kotler et al. (2002).
Another weakness of Rainisto & Moilanen’s method is in my opinion that they have not
incorporated the fact that a country can be a destination into their work.
Instead they have made two different models: one for destination brands and one for
country brands. The destination brand model is customized to “tourism destinations
with relatively limited geographical areas and limited number of stakeholders, such as
ski destinations, paradise islands or equivalent” (Moilanen & Rainisto, 2009: 164).
This means that even though my focus is on destination branding, I have felt
compelled to draw on the country brand method from time to time. Mostly, however, I
have focused on the destination brand method, since I have found it to be the most
relevant and applicable one for the thesis.
Even though I use Rainisto & Moilanen’s method in relation to the process and the
steps within this process, except from organizational identity, most of the elements
within the steps (such as image measurement, developing of a brand identity and
implementation) are agreed upon as being important for the development of a
successful destination brand by most academics within the field of destination
branding.
For this reason I also draw on work from a lot of other destination branding academics
during the destination branding chapter as a whole. These are: Liping A. Cai (2002),
Melodena Stephens Balakrishnan (2009), J.A. Rooney (1995), Graham Hankinson
(2006), Morgan et al. (2003), Simon Hudson & J.R. Brent Ritchie, (2009), Laurie
Murphy et al. (2007), Ana M. Gonzalez and Laurentino Bello (2002), Henrik Vejlgaard
(2001) and Charlotte M. Echtner and J.R. Brent Ritchie (2003)
In relation to the last mentioned academics, Echtner and Ritchie, I use their model of
destination image measurement to measure the Danish respondents images of
Cambodia, as well as the Cambodian identity. I find their model (which is build on
classic image research) brilliant since it helps measure the unique holistic components
of an image as well as the common attribute based. This is important since it is the
holistic components of an image that indicate whether a destination is differentiated
or not.
In relation to contributions from within corporate communication I do not only draw
on this field in relation to organizational identity, but in several of the other steps in
the destination branding process as well. For example I make use of David A. Aaker
(1996) and Philip Kotler et al. (2002) in relation to the brand identity chapter and the
implementation chapter, respectively.
19
2.1.4 Method chapter
In relation to my methodological work with the focus groups, I have made use of
Bente Halkier (2005). This I have done because I consider her to be among those
academics that have had the most practical experience with focus groups and
therefore to be among the best within this field to learn from. Besides from Bente
Halkier, I have made use of Steinar Kvale (1994), Ana M. Gonzalez & Laurentino
Bello, as well as Philip Kotler et al. (2002) during my work with the interview guides.
20
2.2 Society & tourist motivation
This part of the thesis consists of two chapters: ‘Tourism in contemporary society’ and
‘Tourist motivation’.
2.2.1 Tourism in contemporary society
As mentioned in the chapter ‘Reading guide’ this chapter deals with a general
understanding of the Western society of today, with the purpose of creating a realm of
understanding of the world contemporary tourism is operating in, and thus also
indirectly why people are traveling. It is done by shedding a light on some of the
most talked about ‘societal concepts’ of present time (e.g. the postmodern society,
The Dream Society, and The Experience Society) and, where it is possible, linking
characteristics of these to the tourism of today.
As mentioned previously, this chapter has been put in the appendix (appendix, 1) due
to a limited amount of pages at my disposal.
2.2.2 Tourist motivations
This chapter takes over from where chapter one was letting go by answering more
directly the question why do people travel?
This is done by firstly explaining the importance of tourist motivations for the tourism
industry in general as well as for destination marketers. Secondly it will represent an
outline of some of the many different travel motivations tourists are considered to
have – many of them due to the characteristics of contemporary society described in
chapter one.
2.2.3 Why tourist motivations are important
The reason why tourist motivation is important for the tourism industry in general is
the fact that it acts as the trigger that sets off all the other events involved in travel
(Parrinello, 1993: 233). The motivation to take part in tourism is namely “manifested
in a felt ‘need’ to travel and only when the decision has been made to satisfy that
need does the individual move on to the subsequent stages in the process”
(Sharpley, 2003: 5.2).
In other words, tourism would simply not exist if it were not for the tourists’ needs
and desires (= motivations) to travel in the first place (Sharpley, 2003: 1.21).
For destination marketers tourist motivations are important to understand because
choice of destination is first and foremost based on the needs and wants of the
tourists (Sharpley, 2003: 5.2). This means that if the destination marketers do not
understand the needs and wants of their target tourists, they are not going to be able
to create destination brands or marketing that attracts them.
21
Below I have drawn a model of the so-called Tourism Demand Model as proposed by
Mathieson and Wall in order to illustrate the role of motivation within all the other
stages of the process of choosing a certain holiday destination.
Mathieson and Wall’s Tourism Demand Process model:
(Sharpley, 2003: 5-2)
Stage 1:
Felt need or
travel desire
Stage 2:
Stage 3:
Information
Travel
collection
decisions
and evaluation
(= motivation)
Stage 4:
Stage 5:
Travel
Travel
preparations satisfaction
and travel
evaluation
experience
2.2.4 An outline of tourist motivations
As implied further above, in the literature you will find a whole bunch of suggestions
to what motivates people to travel.
Below I will make a summary of some of the most talked-about suggestions. In order
to make it easier for the reader I have classified them into two different categories:
motivations to escape and motivations for personal grow and self-promotion.
2.2.4.1 Motivations to escape
Many tourist motivations are believed to be rooted in people’s home societies which
due to their often modern conditions, are perceived ‘normlessness’, meaningless,
distressful, oppressive etc. As a result many people often feel a need to escape their
home society by taking a holiday.
For instance many people go on holiday in order to get away from the routines and
constraints of everyday life – to rest and relax, whereas others are motivated by a
wish to experience something new and different their modern home society cannot
fulfill (Sharpley, 2003: 5.6).
The latter could for instance be to visit people in foreign countries who are different
from themselves in culture, geography and lifestyle (Jensen, 2003: 53), or to satisfy
some hedonistic needs that are sanctioned in their home society, such as
overindulgence of sex, food and alcohol (Dann, 1996: 115). In other words: to
liberate the libido.
Many people are furthermore motivated by a need to experience an authenticity they
feel they cannot find in modern, developed societies. For this reason they seek it
elsewhere as tourists in foreign, pre-modern cultures:
“The progress of modernity (…) depends on its very sense of instability and
inauthenticity. For moderns, reality and authenticity are thought to be elsewhere: in
other historical periods and other cultures, in purer, simpler lifestyles” (MacCannell,
1989:3).
22
The tourists of today thus become kind of pilgrims in the search for authenticity in
other places and other people’s life. And often these places are countries or societies
in the less developed parts of the world as they are more authentic in the eyes of
modern tourists (Sharpley, 2003: 7.3).
2.2.4.2 Motivations for personal growth and self-promotion
Motivations within this category are all rooted in the individual’s concern for personal
growth and/or self-promotion in one way or another, through tourist experiences.
Living in the so-called Dream Society (appendix, 1) more and more of the products
people surround themselves with are about self promotion: it is all about expressing
the exiting person one is, the values one has as well as the people one belongs to and
differentiates from (Jensen, 2003: 75).
A reason that can be found in the characteristics of the postmodern consumer:
“Postmodern consumers seek to feel good in separate, different moments by acquiring
self-images that make them marketable, likeable, and/or desirable in each situation or
moment” (Galloway, 2005: 7).
Holidays are being no exception to this trend:
Many people feel motivated to go on holiday by an opportunity to be recognized and
get their confidence or ego boosted. Something that can be achieved by getting a
suntan, sending a postcard, showing photographs of places visited via Facebook, etc.
The latter two being ultimate status symbols of ‘I am here but you are there’.
The opportunity for ego and status enhancement can furthermore be directly related
to Maslow’s self-esteem needs (Sharpley, 2003:5.16).
Other people, on the other hand, may be more motivated by a need for personal
growth - or self-actualization to stay within the terms of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
This can for instance be seen in people’s more and more adventurous holiday
activities such as mountain climbing in India or diving with great whites in South
Africa. Experiences that move boundaries for the perception of who we are, as well as
challenge ourselves and the destiny
(Jensen, 2003: 47-48).
In some cases, however, holidays even allow us to change the person we are
completely – even if it is only for a short period of time.
As Horst Opaschowski for instance states:
“People on vacation want to consider themselves as a kind of actors. Holiday means
the ability to assume a different role, to swap the old in favor of a new, better.
Vacation will be to compare with a staged piece” (Opaschowski, in Jensen, 2003: 54).
The above quote is interesting as it uses two of the same metaphors that are being
used in relation to the experience economy (appendix, 1) with the tourists being
described as ‘actors’ playing roles and holidays being compared with “a staged piece”.
23
Whereas it is no surprise that the tourism industry is a part of the experience
economy, the above quote of Opaschowski is interesting as it illustrates how the
tourist experience has the potential of being an even more ‘staged experience’ than
other experiences:
Due to the special conditions that are often involved with being on a vacation – such
as being far away from home and meeting new people – it is much easier for people
to let themselves be staged in addition to the tourist experience and become different
persons than it is with a more everyday life experience such as going to the cinema.
As a consequence hereof tourists of today are not as much asking ‘what can we do on
a holiday?’ but instead ‘who can we be on a holiday?’ (Morgan, 2002:338).
2.3 Adaptation and cultural differences
In continuation of the earlier described tourist motivations of escaping one’s home
society for several reasons, it has been proposed that global advertising and branding
strategies should be adapted to local habits and consumer motives, instead of being
standardized.
Earlier standardization in advertising has been the common method due to efficiency
reasons. However, several studies in recent time have demonstrated that an
adaptation strategy is in fact more effective (Hofstede, 2010: 85).
The reason for the effectiveness can (a bit simplified) be explained like this:
“When the values of consumers are congruent with the values reflected in advertising,
the link to liking the ad, the brand or the company increases, and advertising will be
more effective” (Hofstede, 2010:99).
Therefore understanding cultural differences and the variations in what motivates
people is today viewed as extremely important for positioning brands as well as
developing advertising appeals in different markets (Hofstede, 2010: 93).
2.3.1 The Hofstede model
In the past decades several models for understanding culture have been proposed of
which the Hofstede model is the one that has been applied the most to global
advertising and marketing due to its large numbers of countries measured (76) as
well as the simplicity of the dimensions (Hofstede, 2010:85-88)8.
In the model, Hofstede has identified five dimensions contributing in differentiating
cultures: Power Distance (PDI), Individualism/Collectivism (IDV),
Masculinity/Femininity (MAS), Uncertainty Avoidance (UAI) as well as Long-/ShortTerm Orientation (LTO) (Hofstede, 2010:88).
8
See in appendix (appendix 2) for a review of the story behind.
24
2.3.1.1 The power distance dimension
The power distance dimension can be defined as “the extent to which less powerful
members of a society accept and expect that power is distributed unequally”
(Hofstede, 2010: 88).
In cultures with large power distance everyone has his or her rightful place in a social
hierarchy, and one’s social status must be clear in order for others to be able to show
proper respect.
This concept is important for advertising, especially branding, as brands can help
people to be clear about their social status towards other people.
2.3.1.2 Individualism/collectivism
This dimension can be defined as “people looking after themselves and their
immediate family only, versus people belonging to in-groups that look after them in
exchange for loyalty” (Hofstede, 2010: 88-89).
In individualistic cultures, one’s identity is within the person, people are ‘I’-conscious
and self-actualization is important. In collectivistic cultures on the other hand, people
are ‘we’- conscious and their identities are based on the social system they belong to
(Hofstede, 2010: 89).
2.3.1.3 The masculinity/femininity dimension
This dimension can be defined as follows: “The dominant values in a masculine society
are achievement and success; the dominant values in a feminine society are caring for
others and quality of life” (Hofstede, 2010: 89). In masculine societies achievement
must be demonstrated, which means that status brands and products such as jewelry
are important in order to show one’s success. In feminine cultures on the other hand
relations and modesty are important characteristics. This means that a relationship
orientation (including family values) is not only a characteristic of collectivistic
cultures but is also found in individualistic cultures that are also feminine.
When it comes to role differentiation this is small in feminine cultures and large in
masculine (Hofstede, 2010:89, 91). This could for instance be shown in the way
women from more feminine cultures enjoy travel experiences, which in masculine
societies might be looked upon as ‘masculine’, such as rock-climbing, or river rafting.
2.3.1.4 Uncertainty avoidance
This dimension can be defined as “The extent to which people feel threatened by
uncertainty and ambiguity and try to avoid these situations” (Hofstede, 2010: 89).
People in cultures of high uncertainty avoidance need rules and formality in order to
structure life. This means that they believe in experts and are searching for one truth.
Furthermore, people of high uncertainty avoidance are less open to change and
innovation than people from low uncertainty avoidance cultures (Hofstede, 2010: 8990).
25
2.3.1.5 Long- versus short-term orientation
This dimension can be described as “The extent to which a society exhibits a
pragmatic future-orientated perspective rather than a conventional historic or shortterm point of view” (Hofstede, 2010:90)9.
2.3.1.6 The dimensions vs. the Danish culture
The Hofstede model provides scales from 0 to 100 for all of the 76 countries and for
each dimension. Each country has a position on each scale or index, relative to other
countries (Hofstede, 2010: 88).
In the figure below one can see where Denmark stands in relation to four of the
dimensions10 (http://www.geert-hofstede.com/hofstede_denmark.shtml):
As can be seen in the figure, the Danish culture is characterized by having a low
power distance, a high individualistic culture, a feminine culture (low masculine), and
low uncertainty avoidance.
I will not go into anymore details concerning this last dimension due to the fact that it was, as the only
one of the dimensions, only applied to 23 countries, and Denmark was not one of them
(http://www.geert-hofstede.com/hofstede_denmark.shtml).
10 See footnote above why the last dimension is not incorporated.
9
26
2.4 From motivation to choice of travel
destination
In the beginning of the motivation chapter I wrote that if people did not have the
need or the desire to travel, tourism would not exist. For this reason we also saw that
tourist motivations acts as a trigger that sets off all the other events involved in
travel.
In other words, tourist motivations make up the so called push factors that lead to the
decision of going on a holiday to begin with, with the nature of those motivations
determining what type of holiday or destination it is going to be (Sharpley, 2003:5-4).
For instance, a motivation to rest and relax most likely will lead to a holiday with
beach and sun (or cottage and wood), whereas a motivation for self-actualization
might lead to an adventurous holiday in the mountains.
However, as we also saw, there is still a long way from these motivations to the actual
travel experience. The most being the choice of travel destination and purchasing of a
particular holiday.
This is where the so-called pull factors enter:
“…the image or known attributes of the destination, the impact of advertising, the
distance and mode of travel to the destination, previous experience, the advice of
family and friends and so on” (Sharpley, 2003: 5.2).
After having realized his or her motivations (needs and wants), the tourist is trying to
figure out which particularly destination or holiday will fulfill them. This decision is
based on the above described pull factors such as the images of the different
destinations, advertising, previous experience, advice of friends and family, etc.
Furthermore the choice of holiday is constrained by factors such as finance and
commitments to family and work (Sharpley, 2003: 5.2).
As can be seen, a lot of the pull factors have to do with destination branding, such as
the influence of the destination image, and the impact of advertising. Destination
branding therefore plays an extremely important factor in determining the tourists’
choice of holidays.
With that being said I will turn my attention to the field of destination branding and
how countries can work with destination branding.
27
2.5 Destination branding
This chapter is primarily dealing with the question of how destinations can work
successfully with branding.
However, before trying to answer this question I will establish a definition on
destination branding.
2.5.1 A definition on Destination Branding
I have already mentioned a couple of times during the thesis what destination
branding is about, namely: the marketing of destinations with the purpose of
attracting tourists (cf. 1.3). The destination being everything from a tourist resort, a
city, a region, a country, or groups of countries, such as the Caribbean (Vellas, 1999:
183).
However, in order to be more specific, destination branding can be defined as:
The selection of a consistent mix of branding elements to identify and distinguish the
destination through positive image building (Cai, 2002: 722).
As can be seen from the definition, destination branding is closely related to other
types of branding, such as product branding, service branding and corporate
branding. As with the other types of branding, destination branding is namely about
creating identification and recall of a destination’s key factors and differentiating it
from competition (Balakrishan, 2009:612). With the goal being to attract and keep
customers (Rooney, 1995:48) – or in the case of destination branding: tourists.
There is one type of branding, however, which destination branding is closer to than
the others, namely corporate branding. In fact, these two types of branding, or
brands, share some significant similarities, which I will elaborate on in the chapter
below.
28
2.5.2 Corporate branding vs. destination branding
The similarities between corporate branding11 and destination branding are primarily
due to the similar contexts surrounding both types of brands, which, therefore, have
an influence on the management of them.
Both destination brands and corporate brands are namely:
1) Comprised of a bundle of ‘products’. In a destination brand context this could
for instance be theatres, museums and hotels, whereas in a corporate brand
context this could be clothing, accessories and shoes. This means, in a
management context, it requires management at a high level in the
organization in both of the branding types (Hankinson: 2006: 246,
Balakrishnan, 2009: 613)
2) Subject to the growing market complexity: e.g. globalization, internal and
external government policies, and natural environment.
3) Dependent upon a good departmental coordination internally as well as strong
compatible alliances externally in order to be effective (Hankinson, 2006: 246).
4) The “owners” of a wide range of stakeholders they need to manage and
communicate with (Hankinson, 2006: 246).
Despite the above similarities, there is, however, one significant difference between
the two types of brands as well as the management of them: the ‘products’ of the
destination brands (e.g. hotels and museums) are co-produced by a diversity of
autonomous organizations, whereas in corporate branding it is still one single
organization that is in charge.
For this reason destination brands are also called networks brands: The location of
brand planning as well as management is often shifted from a product and corporate
level to a network level where a network of different organizations are cooperating in
order for the destination brand to be successful.
Usually, however, a new organization is developed by the network to coordinate all
the activities of the network. This new organization is also called a Destination
Marketing Organization (Balakrishan, 2009: 611-612), or more modestly: a
Destination Branding Team (DTB).
The DBT’s job is to organize, coordinate and manage the Destination Branding project
and can have a variety of names, such as ‘Board of Managers’, ‘Branding Group’ or
‘Action Group’.
Well functioning DBT’s usually have members from the top management of all the
largest companies operating within the destination, as well as some representatives of
the public sector that are responsible for areas that have some direct influence on the
“The ultimate ambition of corporate communication is to develop and present the organization as one
unified brand: a corporate brand” (Cheney, 2008: 60).
11
29
destination, such as infrastructural planning and environmental regulation (Moilanen &
Rainisto: 2009: 165-167).
In Cambodia a so-called ‘Tourism marketing and promotions board’ is about to be
established, with members from both the public and private sector (appendix, 16).
DTB’s status as network organizations often create considerable managerial
challenges due to the fact that their members are from a wide range of different
organizations that may have diverse strategic objectives, or worse be competitors in
other areas than the management of the destination brand (Moilanan & Rainisto:
2009:168-169). Furthermore DTB’s do not have top down implementation control as
“normal” organizations have, due to the fact that they still need to consider the other
organizations in the network in their decisions (Balakrishan, 2009: 611-612).
In such, destination branding is not a brand of a single product, neither of a company,
but of the destination itself (Moilanen & Rainisto, 2009: 114-115).
Despite the differences between corporate branding and destination branding, the fact
that there are still some significant similarities have led to a proposal from different
marketing specialists12 that the literature from corporate branding as well as corporate
communication has the potential of making an important contribution to the
management of destination brands. Especially since destination branding is still in its
infancy literature wise (Hankinson, 2006:241).
As mentioned in the choice of theory chapter, during my own research and work with
destination branding, I have found there to be some gaps within destination branding
literature wise, especially within the area of organizational identity. Gaps that I find
some of the literature within the field of corporate branding and corporate
communication has the potential to fulfill. For this reason I will now and then draw on
literature from these fields in the following chapters.
Nevertheless, even when not incorporating theories directly from other types of
branding, such as corporate branding, a lot of the literature within destination
branding is building on the literature as well as practices from older branding types.
Before moving “deeper” into the field of destination branding, I will shortly give an
introduction to some of the many stakeholders a destination has, as well as the
stakeholders that are in focus in this thesis. Again I will touch upon some of the
similarities and differences between the management of destinations and
organizations…
12
E.g. Hankinson (2006)
30
2.5.3 The destination’s stakeholders
As mentioned in the chapter above, one of the similarities between corporate brands
and destination brands is that they both have a wide range of stakeholders – internal
as well as external - they need to manage and communicate with.
The importance of this has for a long time been recognized within organizations. In
fact, this recognition has been so strong that it has led to the “birth” of the concept of
corporate communication:
“Corporate communication is a management function that offers a framework for the
effective coordination of all internal and external communication with the overall
purpose of establishing and maintaining favourable reputations with stakeholder
groups upon which the organization is dependent” (Cornelissen, 2008: 5).
The positive result of the “birth” of corporate communication is within a stakeholder
perspective that organizations are increasingly communicating with stakeholder
groups they would never speak to before such as employees and members of the
community (Cornelissen, 2008:38).
Even though destinations have acknowledged the importance of communicating with
both their internal as well as external stakeholder groups (e.g. Morgan et al.,
2003:287, Hankinson, 2006:246), I have during my research found a lack of focus on
one of the internal stakeholder groups I consider to be among the most important
ones; namely the destination’s citizens. Ironically, when “translated” to a corporate
communication perspective, this stakeholder group can be compared to both of the
above-mentioned stakeholder groups that managers within organizations have
realized to be important, namely ‘the employees of an organization’ as well as
‘members of the community’. I will elaborate more on the reason I find this particular
stakeholder group to be important for destination branding in the chapter
‘Organizational identity held by the citizens’.
Besides from a destination’s citizens, destinations have a lot of other important
stakeholder groups - especially the bigger destinations such as countries. However, as
mentioned in the delimitation chapter (cf. 1.3) due to a limited timeframe as well as
number of pages at my disposal, I have in this thesis chosen to focus on those
stakeholders only I consider to be the most relevant in relation to destination
branding. Besides from citizens of a destination, I consider this to be the tourists, as
they are the ‘customers’ of the destination. Nevertheless, since I have already
elaborated on this stakeholder group in relation to the chapter about tourist
motivations and I am going to touch a lot more upon it later in relation to the
analyses of the Danish tourists (cf. 4.2, 4.3) I do not want to elaborate on this
stakeholder group any further here either.
For the sake of clarity I have in the model below highlighted some of the many
stakeholder groups a destination like Cambodia has.
31
Figure 1: Stakeholder map for destinations
2.5.4 The destination branding process
In this chapter I will move closer to the answer of the question: How can destinations
successfully work with branding?
The way I am going to do this is by elaborating on those elements within the
destination branding process that among several destination branding academics are
considered to be the most important for the development of a successful destination
brand.
However, as mentioned in the choice of theory chapter, I have chosen to use Rainisto
& Moilanen’s proposed destination branding process as the framework, since it differs
from other methods within destination branding in a positive way by incorporating
organizational identity issues.
Still, as also mentioned, I find there to be some gaps, why I yet again will draw a bit
on theories from corporate communication.
Furthermore I will supplement with several other theoreticians from destination
branding as well.
I have not elaborated on all of the elements within the different steps of the process,
but only the ones that are relevant for the scope of this thesis.
32
2.5.4.1 Stage 1: Start-up and Organization
The start-up phase of the destination branding process is crucial for the project’s
success. The aim of this phase is to create the Destination Branding Team, to create
commitment and communicate the objectives and benefits of the project to the
members of the DTB as well as other key stakeholders. Last but not least it is vital in
order to be able to create a strong destination brand to put a focus on the identity of
the destination. This step I consider to be the only relevant one in relation to this
thesis, why it is the only one of the steps from this stage I will elaborate on.
2.5.4.1.1 Focus on Organizational Identity
During this stage the members of the DTB are trying to put a focus on and understand
the identity of the destination. Despite being about destinations though, Rainisto &
Moilanen use the corporate communication term: organizational identity.
So what is organizational identity then?
Organizational identity can be thought of as a shared answer to the question “Who are
we as an organization?” In a destination branding context this question is translated
to “Who are we as a destination?”
Organizational identity represents the insiders’ perceptions and beliefs about what
distinguishes their organization or destination from others (Moilanen & Rainisto, 2009:
168).
Similar, Hatch & Schultz define organizational identity as the many different elements
all of the members of an organization have an opinion on as well as how they think of
themselves. It represents the ‘who we are’ and ‘what we stand for’ (Brønn & Wiig,
2005: 104). A bit more abstract management scholars Albert & Wetten view
organizational identity as the consistent thread that runs through an organization over
time – the organization’s ‘core’. As such organizational identity can be understood as
the central, distinct, and enduring dimensions of an organization (Cheney, 2004:
108). Or just the core values (Cornelissen, 2008: 70).
Seen from a more general identity perspective, identities are what make it possible
for people to recognize and differentiate one individual or organization from other
individuals and organizations. In this sense, it is not possible to define an identity, or
talk about any identity as unique, without having something to compare it with.
To illustrate this, it would be difficult to describe the identity of Body Shop without
comparing it with less environmentally friendly cosmetics and personal product
manufacturers (Cheney, 2004: 108).
In other words identity is to a great extent about differentiation.
As mentioned in the introduction of the thesis, most destinations of today are so
developed that they can market themselves on having five-star resorts, great service,
sun & sand, superb attractions, friendly people, etc. However, because organizational
identity represents the core of an organization, something unique that comes from
33
within, it can offer a great solution to the substitutability problem. In fact it is
considered to has become the basis for survival within a globally competitive marketplace (Morgan, 2002:336)
For this reason it is crucial that destinations, just like organizations, understand their
core values/the organizational identity before they develop their Corporate Identity:
the picture of the organization or destination that is presented to external
stakeholders13 (Cornelissen, 2008: 70). Corporate identity - which in destination
branding terms and this thesis relates to the brand identity (cf. 2.5.4.3) - thus needs
to be rooted in the organizational identity.
Making sure that the corporate identity/brand identity is rooted in the organizational
identity not only offers a ‘distinctive edge’ and great differentiation but also ensures
that the projected image is authentic and shared by the members of the
organization/destination as opposed to cosmetic (Cornelissen, 2008: 69). This is very
important since a brand identity should – above all - capture the reality of the tourism
product (Rainisto & Moilanen, 2009: 174).
2.5.4.2 Stage 2: Research stage
The purpose of this stage is to collect extensive basic information for the later
decision-making. I consider the most important steps within this stage to be:
‘Research on the destination brand images held by the tourists’, as well as to research
on ‘The destination brand images held by the destination’s citizens’. In relation to the
last issue, I choose to name it “Organizational identity according to the destination’s
citizens” instead, as I consider citizens of a destination to be internal stakeholders,
and thus perceive ‘image’ to be a misleading term.
2.5.4.2.1 Destination brand images
Images have always been of great interest and concern for marketers due to their
direct link with consumer behavior.
Destination images are being no exception to this tendency. As with product and
corporate images, several studies have (non-surprisingly) shown that destination
images do influence tourist behavior. More specifically, the destinations with strong
positive images are much more likely to be considered and chosen in the travel
decision process, than those with weak images. For this reason the creation and
management of a distinctive and appealing image of the destination has become a
key component of the destination branding process.
Before being able to create or change any destination image, it is crucial to first
establish the present image held by the consumers (Echtner & Ritchie, 2003:37-38).
In fact, any effort in changing a destination’s image without first establishing the
present image held by the consumers is most likely wasted, since it would then be
impossible to know whether the branding efforts are moving the present image in any
new and positive direction (Gartner, 1993: 207).
In other words: all planned forms of communication, symbolism, and behavior of employees
(Cornelissen, 2008: 66).
13
34
There has over the years been a host of different definitions on destination image.
Many of them, however, are very alike with descriptions such as:
“perceptions held by potential visitors about an area”
(Hunt, 1975, in: Echtner & Ritchie, 2003:41),
“Perceptions or impressions of a place” (Phelps, 1986, in Echtner & Ritchie, 2003: 41)
and: “The sum of beliefs, ideas and impressions that people have of that place”
(Kotler, 2002: 229).
As can be seen from especially Kotler’s image definition a destination image embodies
a simplification of a large sum of different types of associations attached to a place
(Kotler, 2002: 229).
However, according to Echtner & Ritchie (among others), most of the existing
destination image definitions are too vague, as they do not specify whether the
researchers are thinking of the attribute-based components of the destination image,
the more holistic components, or both. Furthermore, when examining the research
behind the definitions it becomes evident that the destination image researchers are
conceptualizing the attribute-based components only. This is a problem since classic
image research considers both types of components to be equally important parts of
an image (Echtner & Ritchie, 2003: 40-41).
For this reason Echtner & Ritchie have proposed a model of destination images that
builds on classic image research. They are of the opinion, however, that previously
research has overlooked one additional dimension of the image concept: namely that
the attribute-based components are common components meaning that they can be
used to compare all destinations, whereas the holistic components are unique in the
sense that only one or a few destinations can have them (Echtner & Ritchie, 2003:
43). This is important since it is the holistic components of an image that indicates
whether the destination is differentiated or not.
35
Figure 2: The components of a destination’s image (Echtner & Ritchie,
2003:43)
As the figure illustrates, a destination image is composed of two main dimensions,
namely the common attribute-based components and the unique holistic-based
components. Each of these, however, can be divided into functional characteristics
and psychological characteristics.
The attribute-based components thus represent common functional characteristics of
an image such as price level, types of accommodation, transportation, climate, etc, as
well as commonly psychological characteristics, such as quality of service, level of
friendliness, safety, etc.
On the other end of the scale we have the holistic components. These are divided into
unique functional characteristics such as features and events, and unique
psychological characteristics such as auras, feelings and atmospheres (Echtner &
Ritchie, 2003:43).
In order to exemplify Echtner & Ritchie’s model, figure 3 below illustrates how Nepal
may be perceived as a tourist destination.
36
Figure 3: An illustrative example of four components of destination image:
Nepal (Echtner & Ritchie, 2003:43)
What differentiate Nepal from other destinations are thus its unique holistic
components such as its stunning mountainous villages (holistic-functional) and its
mystic atmosphere (holistic-psychological). The rest of the components of Nepal’s
image are common, which means that they can be found in other tourist destinations
as well.
The Echtner & Ritchie model is being used to measure the image a certain destination
has among the consumers.
For destination marketers the goal is to obtain information on the traits common to all
destinations, as well as capturing the unique features and auras that differentiates the
destination from its competitors (Echtner & Ritchie, 2003: 44). I consider the latter to
be especially important since differentiation is one of the most crucial elements in
attracting tourists (cf. 2.5.1). Therefore if no unique features and auras are found
during the image measuring, or if ‘wrong’ ones are found that does not fit the
organizational identity, the discovery will help the destination marketers in knowing
what to focus on when building the brand identity.
In the method chapter I will describe how to measure destination image on the basis
of the Echtner & Ritchie model as well as in general (cf. 3.2.6.3).
37
Even though the model is only meant to measure destination image, I find it just as
useful in determining a destination’s identity. For this reason I am not only going to
make use of the model in relation to my analysis of the Danish tourists’ image of
Cambodia, but also in relation to my analysis of the Cambodian identity (4.1).
How are images formed?
Images are widely considered of being formed via the flood of information that people
are being exposed too during their daily lives. In the case of destination images the
flood has various sources, including promotional literature, the general media and the
opinions of others (Echtner & Ritchie, 2003:38). The sources can be divided into socalled image formation agents. In the chapter Image formation agents (appendix,3) I
elaborate on these agents: their strengths and weaknesses, as well as when to use
which ones.
2.5.4.2.2 Organizational identity according to the destination’s citizens
This step of the destination branding process constitutes the second part of the
investigation of the organizational identity.
As written in the organizational identity chapter (cf. 2.5.4.1.1) one of the reasons
why the brand identity has to be rooted in the organizational identity is the fact that it
ensures that the projected image is authentic and shared by ‘all of the members’ of
the destination. As citizens must be considered to be just as much ‘members’ of a
destination as the members of a destination branding team are, they should be asked
as well.
Furthermore, when the created brand identity matches the citizens’ idea of the reality
(= organizational identity), it will be easier for the citizens to deliver it to the tourists’
vacation experience, e.g. via their often service related jobs (Rainisto & Moilanen,
2003: 173).
In continuation hereof, the way the local citizens behave towards the tourists is a very
important part of the vacation experience.
To mention an example, it is vital that the citizens are proud of the destination, as
tourists will soon discover this when visiting the destination (Kotler, 2002: 101).
For this reason so-called ‘pride building’ is a primary element of place marketing
strategies. When the citizens have a fundamental knowledge and feeling of the
uniqueness of the destination, they will consciously or unconsciously act as place
marketers (Kotler, 2002: 101-102).
38
2.5.4.3 Stage 3: Forming the brand identity
The third stage’s objective is to define the elements in the destination’s brand identity
based on the research results from stage 1 and 2.
2.5.4.3.1 A definition of brand identity
According to Aaker, brand identity is:
“Brand identity is a unique set of brand associations that the brand strategist aspires
to create or maintain. These associations represent what the brand stands for and
imply a promise to customers from the organization members” (Aaker 1996: 68).
As can be seen from the above quote, Aaker defines brand identity as a unique set of
brand associations the brand marketers want to create in the minds of the customers.
Furthermore the associations both need to represent what the brand stands for as
well as imply a promise to the customers.
2.5.4.3.2 Choosing the elements of the brand identity
As mentioned a couple of times already, destinations are suffering greatly from
substitutability problems. One solution to the substitutability problem is, as we saw
during the previous stages, to root the brand identity in the organizational identity.
Furthermore we saw that the brand identity needs to take a starting point in the
present destination image in order to know how to change it, and, thus, which
direction the creation of the brand identity should take. Not to forget that the brand
identity necessarily needs to fit the motivations of the target tourists in order to have
any effect at all (cf. 2.2.3).
However, to live up to these ‘basics’ are not enough to create a brand identity. What
we are “missing” is some general brand recommendations for how to create a brand
identity that is going to attracts the tourists.
In the chapter below I will elaborate on some of the most agreed upon
recommendations among destination branding academics.
39
2.5.4.3.3 Branding emotional ‘lifestyle’ experiences
Several academics within the field of destination branding14 are of the opinion that
what differentiates one ‘exotic sun-and-beach destination’ from another, and thus
attracts the tourists, is the marketers’ capability of making the tourists feel
emotionally connected to the destination. One way of doing this is by branding an
experience rather than just the physical attributes of a certain destination; also called
experiential marketing:
“…experiential marketing views consumers as emotional beings, focused on achieving
pleasurable experiences” (Hudson & Ritchie, 2008: 218)
Among the proponents of this kind of marketing are Morgan et al who state that: “The
challenge for destination marketers is therefore to make the destination brand live so
that visitors truly experience the promoted brand values and feel the authenticity of a
unique place” (Morgan et al., 2002: 339).
In other words it is about creating an expectation of the future holiday experience via
the brand identity (Hudson & Ritchie, 2009: 220).
In order for the tourists to feel emotionally connected to the branded experiences, it is
not enough, though, to create marketing messages that focus on the tourist
experiences, but the promoted experiences necessarily need to appeal to the
emotions of the potential travelers as well (Hudson & Ritchie, 2008: 217)
For this reason it is proposed that the branded experiences should be related to the
lifestyles of the targeted tourists (Hudson & Ritchie, 2008: 483). The reason for this
proposal is that it in general has become accepted that consumer decisions are often
based on whether or not a product fits into their lifestyles or not (Murphy, 2007: 6),
as opposed to their socio-demographic and economic backgrounds because
consumers that differ in socio-economic and demographic terms have shown to have
very similar purchase behaviors (Gonzalez & Bello, 2002:51)
Therefore it is only natural that destination marketers integrate the concept of
lifestyles within their branding methods as well. As Murphy et al say:
“…travel and tourism marketers need to focus on and confirm more of what the
costumer would like to see in and of themselves and their lifestyles, rather than on
the tangible properties of the product or service being promoted….” (Murphy, 2007:
6).
And choice of holiday is indeed considered an important lifestyle indicator that tells
who we are or who we want to be (Morgan, 2002: 338, Vejlgaard, 2001: 28)
In such, choice of holiday destination has a great potential in fulfilling the tourists’
needs for self promotion, or staging, which we saw in the motivation chapter is very
important to the contemporary consumer living in The Dream Society. Furthermore
staging is being one of the main characteristics of The Experience Society (cf. 2.2.4.2)
The term lifestyle suggests a patterned way of life where consumers fit various
14
E.g. Moilanen & Rainisto, 2009: 173 - Williams, 2006: 483 - Roberts, 2009: 2 – Morgan et al 2002: 336
- Hudson & Ritchie, 2008: 217.
40
activities, products and resources (Arnould, 2004: 436).
Through the ages there have been several different definitions on lifestyle. One of the
more recent ones is proposed by Vejlgaard who defines lifestyle as: “A staging of life
from an aesthetic awareness” (Quote translated, Vejlgaard, 2001: 157).
2.5.4.4 Stage 4: Implementation
The objective of this stage is to create an implementation plan based on the strategic
objectives (brand identity) defined in stage 3.
The goal is to figure out how to capture the essence of the brand identity and
communicating it out it via marketing communication through different marketing
communication channels (Rainisto & Moilanen, 2009: 182).
Below I will elaborate on some of the tools available for destination branding teams to
capture the essence of the brand identity.
2.5.4.4.1 Tools for capturing the brand identity
Roughly speaking, there are three different tools destination marketers can draw on
when implementing their brand identity.
These are: 1) slogans, themes and positions, 2) visual symbols; and 3) events and
deeds (Kotler, 2002:241). I will elaborate on the two first of them below.
2.5.4.4.2 Slogans, Themes and Positions
Slogans: A slogan is a short, encompassing phrase with the purpose of embodying an
overall vision of a place. A good slogan offers a platform from which a destination’s
image can be further enhanced. As an example south Australia’s slogan “Relax,
indulge, discover, enjoy” gives a great introduction to the public as to what the
destination has to offer. Often slogans are used to unify a specific campaign.
Themes: Themes are regularly used to drive specific marketing programs addressed
to target segments. An example of a theme used as a platform for a destination
campaign is the Indian province Kerala’s theme: “The Green Gateway of India”
(Kotler, 2002:241-242). Themes are, thus, a great way to create an expectation of
the future holiday experience, which we saw during stage 3 is one of the main
recommendations for the creation of a strong brand identity (cf. 2.5.4.3.3).
The request for themes is furthermore one of the biggest influences of the Dream
society.
Image positioning: image positioning is about a place positioning itself as a place for a
certain type of activity and/or as a great alternative to another place that might have
a stronger, more well-established position, such as Siargao has done it with its imagepositioning statement “Surfing Capital of Asia” (Kotler, 2002:242).
41
2.5.4.4.3 Visual symbols
Just like slogans, themes and positions, visual symbols are great tools as well for
changing a destination image. To be successful a visual image needs to support the
rest of the elements in the destination brand campaign. There are in the literature
four commonly used visual image strategies:
The diverse visual: The destination uses a wide range of visual images. The goal is to
show as many of the characteristics of the destination as possible.
The consistent visual: This strategy is the opposite as the previous, as the destination
seeks to apply a consistent image. It is easier to assemble this strategy when the
destination already possesses a clear and positive image. Problems may arise when
the destination tries to hit several different target groups with the one and same
visual (Kotler, 2002: 243).
The humorous visual: Here the destination is being portrayed in a humorous style.
This strategy can be especially useful when dealing with a negative aspect of the
destination. For example Australia’s inconvenient geographic location on ‘thee other
side of the world’, has been made into a humorous campaign, with the slogan
“Discover the other side of yourself”.
The denying visual: This strategy seeks to handle a negative image by only showing
positive visuals of the destination, and thus denying the negative aspects. There is a
big risk connected with this strategy, though, since the negative aspects may turn up
as soon as the tourists visit the country and are being confronted with the realities
(Kotler, 2002: 244).
42
Methodological
fundament
43
3 Methodological fundament
3.1 Choice of practical method
In this thesis I have chosen to use a pure qualitative method.
There are a couple of reasons for this: First of all it fits the social constructivist belief
systems (cf. 1.4.1.1). Secondly, my goals of reaching a thorough understanding of 1)
the motivations, preferences and habits of the Danish tourists, 2) their perceptions of
Cambodia, and 3) the Cambodian identity, would not be achieved via quantitative
methods, since they would not give access to the depth of understanding I am looking
for.
As mentioned in the scientific choice of method chapter (cf. 1.4.1.2) I have
furthermore chosen to use focus groups. The reason for this is that in my opinion it is
the only method that really fits the social constructivist paradigms due to its unique
nature:
A focus group can namely be understood as “a scientific method, whereupon data is
being produced via group interaction about a subject, which the scientist has decided”
(translated quote, Halkier 2005: 11).
Focus groups thereby differentiate themselves from more classic types of interviews,
including ordinary group interviews, by giving direct access to ‘action’ in the form of
negotiations of meaning instead of just accounts about ‘action’. In other words, the
participants in focus groups exchange accounts and comprehensions about the world
and negotiate them in a way that resembles the way they interact in their daily lives
with families, friends and colleagues.
Besides getting direct access to ‘action’, another advantage for the researcher doing
focus groups instead of ‘classic’ interviews is the opportunity to get access to social
experiences that have become so-called tacit knowledge. This happens because the
participants in focus groups are getting the opportunity to “force” each other to be
explicit in their negotiations with each other, which sometimes leads to an expression
of before tacit knowledge (Halkier 2005: 12-13).
Below I will elaborate on my thoughts and choices in relation to my own practical
work with the focus groups.
44
3.2 Method in praxis
For this investigation I have chosen to have two focus groups with Danish people and
two focus groups with Cambodian people.
3.2.1 Mix of focus group participants
To make the interview situation as natural as possible, and thus have a better chance
of getting access to a dynamic which resembles the way people interact and discuss in
daily life, I have tried to find groups of participants who know each other from their
daily lives in one way or another: through work, by being part of the same circle of
acquaintances, by being close friends, etc. This has another advantage as well, since
the participants may feel more secure during the interview situation when they know
each other and thus will find it more easy to take part in the conversation (Halkier,
2005:34).
When it comes to the Danish focus groups I have furthermore tried to make sure that
the participants within each group are in their same phase of life in relation to having
kids. This means that one of the Danish focus groups is consisting of participants who
have kids, whereas the other is consisting of participants who do not have any.
This I have done because I believe that people’s travel habits might be influenced by
whether they are having kids or not.
An exclusive concern when it came to the Cambodian focus groups was the fact that I
had to make sure that the participants had some travel experience outside of
Cambodia. The reason why this is so important has to be seen in the light that it is
not possible to define an identity, or talk about any identity as unique, without having
something to compare it with (c.f. 2.5.4.1.1) The Cambodian people, thus, would not
be able to say something relevant about the Cambodian identity without having
experienced other countries. To find Cambodian people with the above characteristic
was not as easy as it may sound since Cambodia is such a poor country that most
people cannot even afford leaving their hometown. In the end though, I succeeded in
finding some Cambodians with a lot of travel experience.
Despite the above homogeneity of the focus groups, the focus groups are very
heterogeneous when it comes to two other areas: sex and social background. This is a
deliberate choice as well, since a mix of sex and social background among the
participants is important for my investigation to be valid. Validity can be translated to
“whether a method investigates what it is supposed to investigate” (translated quote,
Kvale, 1994: 233). In the light of the main purposes of my investigation15, I would
find neither the ‘Cambodian identity’ nor the ‘Danish tourists’ perception of Cambodia,
15
What are the travel needs and wants of the Danish tourists, how do the Danish tourists perceive
Cambodia as a travel destination, and what is the Cambodian identity.
45
if for example all of my participants had been from the ‘top’ of the respective
societies, or if they had all been of the same sex. Furthermore we saw in the chapter
about organizational identity that organizational identity is defined by the many
different elements all of the members of an organization have an opinion on (c.f.
2.5.4.1.1)
One might think that the Cambodian participants cannot be very mixed when it comes
to social stratums since they all have travel experience despite coming from a poor
country. This is not the case however. During my travel in the country I was lucky to
meet some Cambodian circus artists who have been traveling all over the world via
their jobs, despite the fact that two out of three of them were coming from very poor
families.
Another important aspect for my investigation to be valid besides a broad
representation of social stratums and a representation of both sexes is the need for
both the Cambodian and the Danish participants to represent different parts of the
countries. Also this aspect has been fulfilled in the final focus groups.
An aspect in relation to validity that has not been fulfilled though is the aspect of age.
In my opinion the ideal would be if both the Cambodian as well as Danish participants
represented all age groups between the early twenties and the sixties. The age of
both groups, however, is only stretching between the early twenties to the late
forties. This is not bad, but it had been even better if I had been able to get a couple
of participants to represent the ‘old people’ of both populations. This has
unfortunately not been a possibility.
3.2.2 Number of groups and participants
When creating focus groups it is not only important to have the right mix of
participants (Halkier, 2005:30), but the number of participants, as well as focus
groups, should also be of concern (Halkier, 2005:38).
I have chosen small groups consisting of members between 3-4 people. My reason for
that is that in my experience 4 people is the maximum number that in real life can
have a conversation together without the group splitting up into two. Even though my
role as moderator of the interviews means that I have some kind of power to control
the conversation, if the focus group is splitting up, the main benefit with focus groups
is, as mentioned before, the opportunity for them to resemble the way people interact
in their daily lives. For this reason I have also chosen to use as less moderator
involvement as possible (see also later in relation to the execution of the focus
groups: Cf. 3.2.4)
When it comes to the number of focus groups, I have, as mentioned earlier, two focus
groups with Danish people and two focus groups with Cambodian people. Ideally I
would have liked to have had a few more groups in order to cover a wider spectrum of
both the Cambodian as well as the Danish people. The reason for the limited number
of the Cambodian groups is the fact that I did not succeed in finding any more people
that had both the before mentioned travel experience and were able to participate at
the right time and at the right place. When it comes to the number of Danish focus
46
groups I did have a plan on doing a third interview. However, two out of three
cancelled at the very last minute, why I did not see any reason to do the interview.
Below you can see an overview of the four focus groups as well as a short description
of the participants.
3.2.3 Presentation of the focus groups
Cambodian Focus Group no. 1:
Members of a Cambodian circus that travels all over the world.
Cambodian Focus Group no. 2: A group of friends living in Phnom Penh.
All of the participants are connected to the Cambodian tourist industry in one way or
another. Their jobs, however, are very different: from a tourism coordinator to a “tuktuk” 16 driver, to a manager at Bangkok Airways and a fourth works at a hotel.
Danish Focus Group no. 1: A group of singles from Sjælland without any children.
The participants in this group have as different occupations as: hairdresser, architect,
psychology student, and HF student.
Danish Focus group no. 2: A group of married/w.girlfriend with kids from Jylland.
The occupations of the participants in this group stretch from kindergarten teacher, to
jurist and craftsman.
3.2.4 Execution of the focus groups
Because there is a lot more interaction going on between the participants in focus
groups than in classic group interviews, the main job for the interview person, also
called moderator, is to make room for the social interaction instead of controlling it
(Halkier, 2005: 54-55).
For this reason I have, as mentioned earlier, chosen to use as less moderator
involvement as possible during all the interviews.
In praxis this meant that I for both the Cambodian and Danish interviews tried to stay
as much out of the discussions as possible and only interfered with new questions
when necessary.
Due to the very different purposes behind the Danish and Cambodian interviews,
however, there were a lot of differences between the two types of interviews. Below I
will go through some of the unique characteristics of the Cambodian and Danish
interviews, respectively, as well as the thoughts and considerations behind them.
16
A ‘tuk-tuk is a special type of motor vehicle that has the function of a taxi.
47
3.2.5 The Cambodian focus groups
3.2.5.1 The Cambodian Identity
Before I began the interviews with the Cambodian people, I introduced them to the
subject: the Cambodian identity.
Furthermore I told them that it would be great if during the interview they would have
in mind the other countries they have been to. There are two reasons for this: first of
all I believed it might help them to be more able to speak about the Cambodian
identity since we saw in the theory chapter that one cannot define or talk about any
identity as unique, without having something to compare it with (cf. 25411).
Secondly, I thought that this awareness of the other countries might get them to
speak out loudly about how Cambodia differentiates from these other countries.
Something I could potentially use as part of my later creation of a brand identity for
Cambodia.
Luckily the participants in both the focus groups were very “generous” with
comparisons between Cambodia and other countries.
To make it even easier for the Cambodian people to talk about the Cambodian
identity, I prepared before the interviews an interview guide with about ten overall
questions relating to subjects that in the general travel literature are considered to
constitute a destination, and thereby a destination’s identity. These subjects are:
Attractions, nature, climate, culture, economy, language, religion, history, politics,
natural resources & products, and the inhabitants of the destination. The idea was
that I intended to ask the participants questions like: How would you say the
Cambodian nature is like? Or: what would you say is characteristic for the Cambodian
people?
During both of the interviews, however, it showed that most of the questions I had
prepared in the interview guide, I did not need to ask, since the participants actually
touched upon all of the subjects in relation to the questions by themselves during the
conversation. In both of the interviews it was enough for me to ask two questions to
get them to talk about all of the before mentioned subjects. These two questions
were: How would you describe Cambodia with a few words? And later: what would
you say is Cambodian culture?
Especially the question about culture got in both cases the conversations to “roll”,
meaning that it did not take long before they talked about a lot of other subjects as
well.
3.2.5.2 Identity in a tourist destination perspective
Since the purpose of this thesis is to figure out how to market Cambodia as a tourist
destination, it has been important to me that the respondents kept this in mind when
discussing the identity in order for the discussions to be relevant for the thesis17.
Therefore an underlying purpose with the discussions about the Cambodian identity
has been to figure out how the Cambodian people want Cambodia to be perceived as
a tourist destination
To make sure the focus groups discussed the identity in a tourist destination
perspective I told them before the interviews what the general purpose with the
Furthermore, organizational identity can in a destination branding perspective be translated to “Who
are we as a destination?” (Cf. 2.5.4.1.1)
17
48
interviews and my thesis was. As it showed during the interviews the focus groups to
a large degree did discuss the identity in a tourist destination perspective.
However, to make sure I got some more direct answers in relation to how they want
Cambodia to be perceived as a tourist destination, I had in the interview guide
created a couple of questions related to the subject. These questions are: “which
areas would you like Cambodia to be known for”, and: “What do you think foreigners’
image of Cambodia is?”
Whereas the purpose with the first question is to get a specific idea of how the
Cambodian people want Cambodia to be perceived, the purpose with the second
question is to get an idea of whether there are some areas where the respondents
believe Cambodia’s current image does not fit the reality and in continuation hereof
get them to talk about how they want to be perceived instead.
Since the respondents had already incorporated how they want Cambodia to be
perceived in their discussions about the identity, I changed in both the interviews the
first question into the clarifying questions: “So if you could choose some other things
Cambodia should be known for it would be its nature? And: ”So - besides the temples
- the nature and beaches and the Cambodian people are areas you would like
Cambodia to be known for as well?”
The second question, however, the respondents did not answer by themselves why I
“had to” directly ask the question.
As mentioned in the theory chapter (cf. 2.5.4.2.1) I will use Echtner & Ritchies model
of destination images as an inspiration when measuring the Cambodian identity. The
reason for this is that it will help me to find the unique holistic components of the
Cambodian identity, and thus which elements I should especially highlight in my
developed brand identity in order to differentiate Cambodia from other destinations.
3.2.6 The Danish focus groups
3.2.6.1 Before the interviews
When I asked my Danish participants whether they wanted to participate in my focus
groups I did not tell them exactly what it was about. What I told them was that it was
about their travel motivations, preferences and habits (which is true), but I did not
tell them that half of the interview was going to be about how they perceive
Cambodia. The reason for this is that I did not want them to go home and read a lot
about Cambodia before the interviews and get their present perceptions ”colored”.
Furthermore none of the participants know me personally, and thereby do not know
anything about my own Cambodian travel history. If they did, also this would probably
have colored their perceptions about Cambodia, or at least hindered them to be
hundred percent honest about them during the interviews.
To spare myself for translating the interviews later into English, I asked the
participants before the interviews whether it would be okay if we could speak English.
Luckily they were all willing to do this.
As with the Cambodian focus group interviews, I made an interview guide as part of
the preparation for the Danish focus group interviews as well.
49
Because there are two purposes with the Danish interviews, I divided the interview
guide into two parts: one about the participants’ travel motivations, preferences and
habits and one about their perceptions about Cambodia.
3.2.6.2 Part 1: Travel motivations, preferences and habits
This part of the Danish interviews is very important since it is the basis for figuring
out whether Cambodia has a potential as a tourist destination in relation to the Danish
tourists.
I began both of the interviews by asking the participants “How often do you travel?”
The reason why I asked this question is that I wanted to make sure that the
participants represent the target group from my problem statement: Danish tourists
(cf. 1.1). I followed the question up with: What type of destination do you prefer
when going on a holiday/traveling?
This question I asked because I find it interesting to see whether the participants have
an interest in destinations that reminds of what Cambodia has to offer.
After these somewhat introductory questions, I asked the participants in focus group
2: “What motivates you to travel”
The reason why I only asked one of the focus groups this question is that the
participants in the other focus group had already talked a bit about their motivations
for traveling in relation to the previous question. Therefore I asked focus group 1 the
clarifying question instead: “It sounds like your main motivations for traveling is to
experience new and exotic cultures? And become friends with the locals? Is that
correct?”
The next question on my interview guide is: What kind of activities do you prefer
when traveling? This question is important because I wanted to get an idea of the
participants travel lifestyles. As mentioned in the Destination Branding chapter, all
branded travel experiences should be related to the lifestyles of the targeted tourists
(cf. 2.5.4.3.3).
According to Gonzalez and Bello (2002) there are two methodologies to use for
destination marketers when they want to segment people on the basis of lifestyles:
The first methodology is to segment people on the basis of their general lifestyles, and
the second to segment them on the basis of their lifestyles specific to the product or
service concerned. In other words the style of tourism the travelers are usually
engaged in (Gonzalez and Bello, 2002: 57). As can be seen from the question above,
I have chosen to segment the Danish tourists on the basis of the second
methodology, namely their lifestyles in relation to traveling. This I have chosen since I
consider the first methodology to be a bit too comprehensive for my investigation.
As with the question about travel motivations, I only asked this question to focus
group 2 as well, since the participants in focus group 1 had already talked about their
preferred travel activities earlier in the interview.
3.2.6.3 Part 2: Perceptions of Cambodia
As mentioned in Destination Branding chapter (cf. 2.5.4.2.1) I will use Echtner &
Ritchies model of destination images as an inspiration when measuring the Danish
tourists’ image of Cambodia as well, since I find it important to capture all of the four
components of Cambodia’s image - especially the unique features and auras (holistic
components) since they are the ones who differentiate a destination from its
50
competitors. If no unique features and auras are found during my image measuring of
the Danish tourists’ image of Cambodia, or if ‘wrong’ ones are found that do not fit the
Cambodian identity, the discovery will help me to know what to focus on when
building the brand identity.
According to Echtner & Ritchie it is crucial in order to capture all of the components of
a destination’s image, to use both structured and unstructured methodologies. In
relation to this they propose that standardized scales can be used to measure the
perceptions of functional and psychological attributes, whereas open-ended questions
can be used to determine the holistic impressions and to capture the unique auras and
features (Echtner & Ritchie, 2003:46).
Since I have chosen to use qualitative focus groups to determine the Danish tourists’
image of Cambodia, standardized scales are not especially appropriate. However, I
have still found it to be possible to capture the functional and psychological attributes
via the interviews.
The difference is that the answers I am getting are a lot richer than they would be via
for example a five-point scale in a questionnaire.
At the same time I have from the beginning found it to be a lot more ideal to capture
unique auras and features via a qualitative methodology such as a focus group
instead of via a questionnaire for example, since open-ended questions (for obvious
reasons) are much better fitted in an interview than in a questionnaire.
Echtner & Ritchie propose that the subjects of the structured methodologies (in their
case: standardized scales) should be found by asking a focus group before the
creation of the questionnaire. This way it should be possible to uncover a complete list
of relevant characteristics of destination images in relation to functional and
psychological attributes, since the existing lists of characteristics according to them
are incomplete. (Echtner & Ritchie, 2003: 45). I thought about using this methodology
myself when creating questions in relation to uncover the functional and psychological
attributes of Cambodia’s image. However, I found it to be a too big of a mouthful to
ask the Danish participants of which characteristics they thought would be relevant.
Especially since I have a lot of other areas to cover during the interviews. For this
reason I chose instead to be inspired by the characteristics the Cambodian
participants themselves have mentioned in relation to the Cambodian identity when
creating the questions in the Danish interview guide. In other words: I first used the
Cambodian interviews to identify how they see Cambodia. And then used their views
as an inspiration when making some of the more structured questions in the interview
guide.
Besides sparing the Danish participants for a lot of time, there are also a couple of
other advantages by using this method. First of all I did not only have to make use of
the functional and psychological attributes, but also the holistic features and auras.
Secondly, the method makes it easy for me to see during my analyses whether there
is a gap between the identity and the image.
I chose to design this part of the interview guide in such a manner that in the
beginning I asked the Danish participants a lot of open-ended questions about their
perceptions of Cambodia with the purpose of especially capturing the holistic auras
and features of their perceptions. Later in the interview guide I then, in a more
structured manner, asked into all four of the image components on the basis of the
characteristics Cambodia has according to the Cambodian participants. The reason
why I have placed the more structured questions in the end of the interview guide is
51
to make sure that they do not color the Danish participants’ own associations of
Cambodia.
To come with an example of the more open-ended questions I asked in the beginning
of part 2 the participants: How familiar are you with Cambodia?
Besides from giving room for some discussions that might reveal the more holistic
perceptions the participants have of Cambodia, the purpose with this question is to
establish the participants’ familiarity with Cambodia.
This is important since it will help giving me a clue about whether Cambodia has an
awareness problem (Kotler, 2002:236). After this, I asked them to mention some
cities, places or attractions in Cambodia. This question is important as well since in a
more directly manner it will inform me how familiar the participants are with
Cambodia by telling whether the participants are aware of some of the functional
characteristics (holistic features as well as attributes) of Cambodia, and which ones.
After having established the participants’ familiarity with Cambodia, I moved on to the
question: What would you say is your immediate impression of Cambodia? The
purpose of this question is to get an idea of how favorable the participants feel
towards Cambodia, which will furthermore give me a clear idea of whether Cambodia
has an image problem (Kotler: 2002: 236). Before asking this question, however, I
needed to split one of the focus groups into two (focus group 2) and thereby also the
rest of the interview into two, since I discovered that one of participants had been to
Cambodia before, and I did not want his answers to color the answers of the other
two participants (see more: appendix, 13).
After having asked the above-mentioned question, I had prepared to ask all of the
participants the question: Can you mention some of the associations you get when
you hear the name Cambodia?
The idea was to get a lot of discussions that would reveal the participants more
holistic perceptions of Cambodia. However, most of the participants in both of the
focus groups had actually already talked a lot about their associations during the
previous discussions. The only participant who had been a bit cautious was the one
who had already been to Cambodia. Therefore I decided to ask the question to him
only.
At this point of the interview we have reached the more structured questions, with the
purpose of measuring the image in relation to the Cambodian identity, to see whether
there are some gaps between the two. To accomplish this, I asked the Danish
participants to comment on several statements based on the characteristics of
Cambodia.
To illustrate my method in relation to this, one of the characteristics of Cambodia is
the psychological attribute: hospitality of the destination’s inhabitants. To measure
what the Danish participants’ perceptions are in relation to this attribute, I asked
them to comment on the statement: The Cambodian people are very hospitable.
Because the Cambodian participants, during their interviews, talked a lot about how
Cambodia differentiates from other countries, some of the structured questions are
incorporating these views as well.
An example of this is the functional attribute of beaches. In both the Cambodian
interviews the participants mentioned that Cambodia has a lot of beautiful paradise
beaches, and that they can easily compare with the beaches in countries such as
Thailand, Vietnam and Greece. To measure what the Danish participants’ perceptions
are in relation to this attribute, I asked them to comment on the statement:
52
Cambodia has just as beautiful beaches as they have in for example Thailand and
Vietnam.
Part 2 of the Danish interviews therefore do not only give answers in relation to how
the Danish people perceive Cambodia, but also how they perceive Cambodia in
relation to other countries.
3.3 Analytical approach: meaning condensation
When it comes to my analytical approach, I have chosen to be inspired of the socalled meaning condensation (Kvale, 1994). Due to a limited number of pages at my
disposal, I have decided to put the description of this method in the appendix
(appendix, 9).
3.4 Transcription method
When it comes to my method of transcription there is according to Kvale no standard
rules (Kvale, 1994: 171). I have chosen to be as faithful to the respondents’
statements in real life as possible. In other words: I have avoided changing their
language from spoken language to an “academic” language. However, I have edited it
a little bit, when it comes to grammatical mistakes, etcetera.
53
Analytical fundament
54
4 Analytical fundament
This part contains analyses of the thesis’ qualitative investigations and is going to
form the basis for the later development of a brand strategy for Cambodia targeted
the Danish tourists.
First of all I will make an analysis of the Cambodian identity on the basis of the
interviews with the Cambodian focus groups. The purpose with this is to find the
special characteristics of Cambodia that are going to differentiate it from other
destinations. Then I will make the second analysis, which seeks to find out what the
potential of Cambodia is as a travel destination in relation to the Danish tourists’
travel motivations, preferences and habits. As mentioned in the Reading Guide (cf.
1.2) this is done by firstly analyzing the travel motivations, preferences and habits of
the Danish tourists, and secondly by juxtaposing the knowledge gained in this analysis
to the knowledge gained in the first analysis about the Cambodian identity. After
having established the potential of Cambodia I will move on the analysis of the Danish
tourists’ perceptions of Cambodia. As we saw in the theory chapter, a brand identity
not only needs to be rooted in the organizational identity and motivations of the
targeted tourists, but to take a starting point in the image as well. The reason for this
is, as we saw, that one needs to establish the present image first, in order to know
how to change it.
After having made the three analyses I will juxtapose the results from all of the
analyses. By doing this I should be able to find out how to develop an appealing and
distinctive brand identity for Cambodia, and thus answer the problem statement: How
is it possible to market Cambodia as an appealing and distinctive tourist destination
towards the Danish tourists?
A note to the reader: When reading the analyses below, the parentheses following
the quotes are references to the transcriptions in the appendix.
They have to be interpreted like this:
A = Appendix chapter 4 (The “A” Refers to: Focus group A)
B = Appendix chapter 5 (The “B” refers to: Focus group B)
C = Appendix chapter 6 (The “C” Refers to: Focus group C)
D = Appendix chapter 7 (The “D” refers to: focus group D)
The number in front of the letter in each parenthesis refers to the number of the
quote in the concerned transcription. For example does “17:B” means quote number
seventeen in focus group B, chapter 5 in appendix.
55
4.1 The identity of Cambodia
The purpose of this chapter is to investigate the identity of Cambodia on the basis of
my focus group interviews with the Cambodian respondents.
In the chapter I will define a list of categories that are the main characteristics of
Cambodia18, according to my focus groups. As mentioned in the method chapter, the
focus groups in general discuss the Cambodian identity in a tourist destination
perspective, and thus incorporating the issue of how they want Cambodia to be
perceived as a tourist destination into their discussions.
4.1.1 The Cambodian people
The respondents in both of the focus groups agree that one of Cambodia’s biggest
assets as a travel destination compared to other countries is its people. They
especially mention three areas whereupon this shows: the Cambodian people’s innate
warmth, friendliness and hospitality, their excellent English skills, and their curiosity in
getting to know the tourists.
Some of the statements the respondents make in relation to these three areas are:
 “The Cambodian people are also more warm and friendly to the tourists I think than
in many other countries. For instance in Thailand people more want to be together
with other Thai people. And in Vietnam: people are not that interested in getting to
know the tourists also (…) But in Cambodia many people want to learn the tourists…
they want to talk to the tourists. And get to know them – you know” (18A)
 “…And people they often tell me that they think I am a very nice and friendly to
them. But it is because I want to know them also you know. And also I want them to
have a good vacation. So maybe they want to come back in the future” (20A)
 “…but also I think because we are more hospitable than in countries like Vietnam
and Thailand. I know a lot of people from Thailand especially and they do not want to
speak with the tourists. They just don’t care. But in Cambodia we are very curious”
(26B)
 “And also in Cambodia people are much better in speaking English than in Thailand
(…) not only Thailand but in Vietnam and Laos also …for example” (17A)
 “…and I have also been told that the Cambodian people are much better in English
than most other countries in Asia. For example in Laos and Thailand. They cannot
speak English so well. So that is irritating for the tourists. So that is why they will
rather talk with the Cambodian people” (25 B)
Statements like these indicate that the Cambodian people are truly interested in
tourists, not only for the money but also on a more human level. Furthermore it is a
Some of the categories the focus groups believed to be main characteristics of Cambodia, I have
chosen to put in the appendix, since I have not find them to be useful in relation to this thesis. These
categories are: ‘Food’, ‘Economy & politics’, and ‘Hard working Cambodian people’ (appendix, 11).
18
56
sign that a visit to Cambodia is just as much a visit to a people, as it is a visit to a
place. A people that are friendly and hospitable, easy to communicate with, and who
would like getting to know you.
4.1.2 The Cambodian nature
Besides from the Cambodian people, another big subject in both the focus groups is
the nature of Cambodia, which all of the respondents agree is very beautiful and has a
lot to offer the tourists.
Among the most frequently discussed “nature-assets” are the Cambodian beaches:
“The Cambodian beaches are very beautiful also” (47B), “yes! And we have so many
of them. I don’t think people know that. They only think it is Thailand and Vietnam
they have beautiful beaches” (48B), “it is better in Cambodia I think because there
are not so many tourists yet. So people can still find a beach for themselves” (49B),
“yes. Cambodia is very…what do you say? Pristine like that” (50B)
As can be seen from the above conversation, it is important for the respondents that
tourists become aware that it is not only in the neighboring countries of Thailand and
Vietnam they have beautiful beaches, but in Cambodia as well. Furthermore, they
believe that Cambodia has an advantage compared to the before mentioned countries
as it is still possible for the tourists to find a beach of their own in Cambodia, without
being disturbed by a horde of other tourists.
In the other focus group the respondents have a similar conversation:
“Another good thing about Cambodia is its beaches. In Cambodia we have many
beaches – many people do not know that. They just come because of the temples. But
in Cambodia we have many beaches like in Thailand… You know like paradise beaches
with white sand and palm trees and clear blue water…” (22A), “yes. The big difference
is that in Cambodia most of the beaches are not as crowded as in Thailand. In fact
many of them are yet to be discovered. This means that in Cambodia you have a
greater chance of pretending you are Robinson Crusoe or something. Ha Ha. And you
know discover new beaches where no people - or almost no people - have been
before. For example on the many islands outside of Sihanoukville” (23A), “yes I think
many tourists like that” (24A)
As can be seen from the conversation, the advantage in relation to the many secluded
beaches takes a whole new level than the first conversation with the mentioning of
the possibility for the tourists to become modern Robinson Crusoe-types that discover
new beaches on small islands where no people – or almost no people – have been
before.
For those tourists who do not like to pretend they are Robinson Crusoe, one of the
respondents assures, though, that it is also possible to get a more “average” beach
experience in Cambodia:
“yes. But still it is also possible to be a typical tourist and go to a beach with maybe a
hundred of other tourists. Some people also want to have an opportunity like that.
Like a real holiday beach experience. Like in other countries” (25A).
57
In continuation hereof another one of the respondents adds that in Cambodia there
are also great opportunities to do all the usual beach activities, such as snorkeling,
water skiing and kayaking. Even scuba diving is getting more and more common
(26A).
In relation to this, the respondents in the other focus group at one point talk about
the Cambodian beach capital Sihanoukville which apart from beautiful beaches offers
a great nightlife:
“I think a lot of tourists are surprised by our beach capital in Sihanoukville” (51B),
“Yes. I think so too. Most people only come here to see the temples. And when they
go down south and see all the beautiful beaches and the nightlife they think. Wow”
(52B), “yes. We have so much more to offer than the temples. For example people
mostly go to Thailand to party and be at the beaches and then they come to
Cambodia to see the temples. But it is like: we have parties and beaches as well!
Down in Sihanoukville there are a lot of clubs and bars for westerners, and in the high
seasons there are a lot of westerners there” (53B)
It is interesting to note how the respondents yet again compare Cambodia to
Thailand, by making it clear that Cambodia has just as much to offer as Thailand in
relation to the popular beach-party experiences. Furthermore they point out that the
world famous Angkor Wat temples are not the only reason to go to Cambodia, even
though many people think that.
Except from the beaches, the many Cambodian national parks with great possibilities
for outdoor-adventures constitute another popular nature-subject among both of the
focus groups.
Some of the statements in relation to this are:
 “We have a lot of beautiful nature. With the many national parks and its mountains
and waterfalls” (41B),
 “yes. And a lot of them (the national parks) offer great possibilities for amazing
adventures for the tourists. For example elephant rides through the jungle, visiting big
caves, mountain climbing and canoe trips along the rivers” (42B),
 “yes there are many trips the tourists can take (…) Some of them are very
interesting and last for several days through the jungle where the tourists get to sleep
in the wild on a hammock and things like that” (43B),
 “…we have a lot of interesting national parks in Cambodia with a lot of beautiful
nature. Just waiting to be explored” (26A),
 “Many mountains and national parks – like many options for do trekking in the
jungle and things like that” (31A),
 “yes there are a lot of eco-tourism options in Cambodia” (32A),
 “There are a lot of opportunities in Cambodia for outdoor adventurous people. Such
as trekking through the jungle, riding on elephants, exploring caves, or just take a
swim in a lake” (40A)
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4.1.3 The Cambodian culture
As mentioned in the method chapter, when I asked the respondents about the
Cambodian culture, it did not take long until they started talking about subjects not
purely related to culture. However, both of the focus groups did discuss several more
culture-related subjects, and, as with the two previous categories, a lot of these were
the same.
4.1.3.1 Human qualities of the Cambodian people
First of all, the earlier mentioned human qualities of the Cambodian people are
reflected in the culture as well:
“yes. But I think another thing that is typical for Cambodian culture is its people. I
mean I think we are a very friendly people” (21B), “Yes. I think so too. We are very
caring – both for the people who are close to us but also our neighbors and people on
the street. And everyone else” (22B),
As can be seen from the above interview sample the respondents believe the
Cambodian people are very caring for each other. Not only the people that are close
to them, but also the ones that they do not know very well. In the other focus group
one respondent goes more into detail about in which way the Cambodian people are
caring by saying:
“I’m not sure but I think a typical Cambodian thing is that we are very caring for each
other. I mean if someone have a problem we always help them…” (8A)
Just like the participants from the other group, she adds that it is not only the ones
closest to them they like to help but also strangers they meet on the street (8A). The
reason for this behavior is according to one of the other respondents that the
Cambodian people like to think of all people as their friends:
“yes that is true. I think so as well. It is like the Cambodian people would like to think
all people as their friends. Even the people we have just met…” (9A)
4.1.3.2 The Angkar temples
An area the respondents in both of the focus groups agree upon is typical as well as
very important for the Cambodian culture, is the famous Angkar temples:
“I think another thing that is a very important part of our culture is the temples.
Especially Angkor Wat is a very important part of the Cambodian culture” (34B),
“yes I think that as well. Did you know that Angkar Wat is one of the seven wonders
of the world?” (35B), “Like the temples: they do not have these in Thailand. Or in any
other country in the world. It is only in Cambodia. And I think they are an important
part of both the Cambodian culture as well as the Cambodian tourism industry” (16A)
All of the above quotes indicate that the world famous temples are something the
Cambodian people are particularly proud of, since not only do they not have them in
“any other country in the world” but the most famous one of them (Angkar Wat) is
even “one of the seven wonders of the world”.
This indication is being confirmed later when one of the respondents says:
“Yes Angkor Wat is a very important part of the Cambodian identity if you can say
that. Because it is something that makes us very proud. And it is something that our
59
grand-grand-grand-grand fathers have built. And nothing in the world is like that”
(36B)
A statement the other respondents in the focus group agree on:
“Yes no one has been able to build like that. Everyone is very proud of it” (37B), “yes
I think it is what makes me the most proud about being a Cambodian too. They are
very special. Very breathtaking.” (38B)
4.1.3.3 Easy, laid-back lifestyle and atmosphere
The last and perhaps most interesting discussion to mention in relation to the
Cambodian culture, is one about the easy, laid back Cambodian lifestyle as well as
atmosphere. The respondents in one of the focus groups namely agree upon that
Cambodia is a very easy, laid-back place to live (11B-14B).
As one of the respondents states:
“…It is a very easy place to live. And also to be for tourists. It is like…everything is
easy. You don’t need to do a lot to feel happy. You don’t need to take a lot of cloth on
because of the weather. And you don’t need to do a lot to get something to eat. It is
just right outside at the street corner you know” (12B)
Besides from believing in an easy lifestyle, the Cambodian atmosphere is also
mentioned as very easy and relaxed (11B-14B). For example one of the respondents
states:
“In the rest of Thailand it is not that relaxed either I think. But in Phnom Penh and in
rest of Cambodia it is more relaxed. It is a more easy atmosphere” (11B)
As can be seen from the quote, the respondent compares Cambodia with Thailand,
which in his opinion has not got as relaxed an atmosphere as Cambodia does.
4.1.4 Cambodia’s image according to the Cambodian
people
When I ask the respondents what they think foreigners’ image of Cambodia is it is
both positive and negative.
4.1.4.1 The Angkar temples
In both of the focus groups the respondents agree that people’s positive associations
of their country relate to the world famous Angkar temples. As a respondent in one of
the focus groups mentions:
“I think it is good – for instance I have met many people in Thailand and also
Vietnam who wanted to go to Cambodia because they wanted to go and see the
temples…” (46A)
Likewise a respondent in the other focus group states:
60
“I think many people have a good image of the temples. I mean they want to come
and see them” (67B).
A negative thing in relation to the temples is, however, as mentioned previously in the
analysis, that the respondents believe that people think the temples are the only
attractions Cambodia has to offer. As the very same respondent, for example, adds
shortly after the statement above:
“But maybe not so much the rest of the country. I mean. I think many people believe
it is only the temples we have. So many people they go to Thailand and just take a
quick visit to Cambodia to see the temples and then they go again. Back to Thailand
you know. Or to Vietnam” (67B)
In relation to this, one of the focus groups discuss earlier in the interview how much
they want the tourists to know that Cambodia has so much more to offer than the
temples (52B-57B). As one of the respondents claims:
“Yes I want the tourists to know that we have so much more to offer. There are so
many different things for the tourists to do. They can go trekking in the jungle, climb
the mountains, sail in the rivers or the ocean or jump from island to island. And just
relax at one of the many beaches” (56B).
To show their agreement, two of the other respondents continue the listing of the
many things to do in Cambodia by talking about the Capital of Cambodia (Phnom
Penh) as a “real Asian capital” where you can do “everything” including being cultural,
go shopping and partying (57B-58B).
Since the diversity of Cambodia is something that is being highlighted several times
during both of the focus groups interviews, I consider it to be among those assets the
Cambodian people especially wants the world to know about.
4.1.4.2 Dangerous, corrupt and poor country
Perhaps on the most negative end of the “associations-scale” the respondents in both
of the focus groups agree that people perceive Cambodia as a dangerous country to
travel in because of its brutal history. A perception the focus groups do not believe fit
the present reality.
As one of the respondents states:
“And perhaps also that it is a dangerous country to travel in – because it has been
quite dangerous before. Of course it still can be dangerous but not more than it is in
so many other countries, like for instance Vietnam or Thailand. Or Chile or Mexico…
And in general I would say that it is a safe country to travel in” (50A)
As can be seen from the statement, the respondents in general believe Cambodia to
be as safe as any other country to travel in (50A-51A, 69B-76B).
In continuation of the discussions about Cambodia as a dangerous country to travel
in, one of the respondents mentions that she believes many people have a bad image
of Cambodia because they hear it is corrupt. As she adds though, this is not
something the tourists will feel (75B). Another one of the respondents corrects her a
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bit saying: “No. Maybe only a little bit, but again it is nothing. It is the same as in
Thailand and Vietnam. Or any other country. People just don’t know that” (76B).
The last subject being discussed in relation to Cambodia’s image is among one of the
focus groups that they believe people think of Cambodia as a poor, developing
country. This image, however, they do not believe is a negative thing since – as they
mention - tourists in general do not mind visiting poor, developing countries, as long
as it does not mean they are also dangerous to travel in (55-56A). Furthermore the
image of a poor developing country does also fit the reality of Cambodia. As one of
the respondents states:
“I mean of course we are still a developing country. Even though we have been
developed a lot, compared to western standards we are still a lot behind” (54A).
4.1.5 Summary
In the above analysis we saw that the Cambodian people revealed a lot of
characteristics of Cambodia. As mentioned a couple of times already, I have chosen to
use Echtner & Ritchies model intended to measure the components of a destination
image to measure the Cambodian identity. The reason for this is that it will then be
easier to measure whether Cambodia has any unique characteristics that differentiate
it from other destinations. Furthermore, when later used on the image analysis with
the Danish respondents, it will be easier to measure whether the image fits the
identity, or not.
As can be seen in the figure below Cambodia has several unique holistic
characteristics, according to the Cambodian respondents:
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Figure 3: The Cambodian identity according to the Cambodian respondents
After having established the Cambodian identity, I will now move on to the second
analysis, which is going to measure the potential of Cambodia in relation to the
Danish tourists.
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4.2 The potential of Cambodia in relation
to the Danish tourists
The purpose of this chapter is to investigate the potential of Cambodia as a travel
destination in relation to the travel motivations, preferences and habits of the Danish
tourists.
I will therefore first analyze the focus group interviews I made with the Danish
respondents and thereafter relate this new knowledge to the knowledge I have gained
from the previous analysis about the Cambodian identity. By juxtaposing the two
analyses it should be possible to conclude the potential of Cambodia in relation to the
Danish tourists. During the analysis I will relate to the general theories of travel
motivations - both in relation to similarities and differences (cf. 2.2.4.)
4.2.1 Frequency of traveling
In relation to the first question I asked the Danish focus groups – How often do you
travel? - I will conclude that all of the respondents represent the target group of my
investigation: Danish tourists (1.1). The reason for this is the fact that most of the
respondents travel at least one or two times a year, and some of them even more
(2C-7C, 2D-3D). Only one of the respondents states that some years he do not travel
at all due to lack of money. However, because he really likes to travel, he travels
“constantly” the years he can afford it (4D).
4.2.2 Type of destination
When I ask the focus groups what type of destination they prefer when traveling all of
the respondents agree that they want to experience something new and different from
Denmark.
First of all they are all interested in experiencing a destination that offers a different
culture and different experiences than in Denmark (17C-18C, 25D-26D). As one of the
respondents states:
”I think it’s very important that you get to experience something new and different
from the place where you live. A new culture, that offers new experiences” (17C)
In relation to meeting new and different cultures, the respondents in one of the focus
groups agree that they prefer warm and exotic destinations. One of the reasons for
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this is that they believe exotic places more often than non-exotic places have cultures
that differentiate a lot from the Danish culture.
As one of them states:
“yes. I guess that is also why I prefer more exotic places – you know like the
Philippines or Thailand. Or African countries for that matter. Places where the cultures
and the local people are a lot different from Denmark. More warm and welcoming. Of
course not all people are like that. Not even in exotic countries. Ha ha” (18C)
The last part, about the human qualities of the local people, is another area that is
particularly important for the respondents in this focus group (18C-21C):
”yes the way the local people behave is very important for the overall travel
experience. I have had some amazing experiences with the locals in for example
Bukina Faso and Kenya. But also some horrible experiences in India” (20C), ”I don’t
think I have ever gotten to know the locals when traveling. But I would really like to.
Guess it could be an interesting experience” (21C)
As can be seen the respondents have a wish of getting to know the locals and share
experiences with them.
In continuation of experiencing exotic cultures and meeting the locals, three of the
respondents agree that they find it interesting to visit cultures and people that are
more behind from western standards, because it “gets more interesting” (23C) and
“seems more real” (24C).
The reason for this preference can be explained by a need among the respondents for
authenticity. As we saw in the chapter about tourist motivations (cf. 2.2.4.1) modern
tourists cannot find authenticity in modern societies and therefore seek it elsewhere
as tourists in foreign pre-modern countries.
Besides from experiencing new, different, pre-modern and exotic cultures with more
warm and welcoming locals, another area that is important to the respondents in both
of the focus groups is the geography/nature of the destination:
“Yes I feel the same. I also think it’s healthy to experience something new and
different from what you are used to in Denmark. Not only in relation to cultures, but
also geographically. For example differences in the nature and things like that. The
nature is actually very important to me…” (26D)
Besides for the fact that they want the nature to be different from Denmark, they also
want it to be beautiful:
”Of course it has to be a beautiful place as well! (14C), ”yes that is very important.
The nature and stuff. It has to be beautiful…”(16C) ”...I mean Denmark does not have
so much to offer in my opinion so it is nice to get to see something else. More
beautiful and more extreme. That is one of the reasons why my husband and I really
love to go to Norway and Sweden” (27D)
Two of the respondents even state that they would never travel to a place that is not
beautiful (29D, 30D). The beauty, however, does not necessarily needs to be rooted
in the nature, but can just as well be the architecture of a destination:
”For example if you are going to spend a holiday in Prague it is not the nature you are
coming for, but the beautiful architecture and special atmosphere. And I mean with
so many beautiful places on earth why pick an ugly one?” (30D)
The above preferences of experiencing something new and different from one’s home
society (Denmark), as well as visiting people in foreign countries that are different
65
from one’s home society (Denmark) in relation to culture and geography, can all be
related to the motivations to escape (cf. 2.2.4.1)
4.2.3 Travel activities
The respondents in the two focus groups are very similar when it comes to their
preferences in travel activities (=habits).
There are in general three types of travel activities that are important to both of the
focus groups: nature-adventure activities, beach activities, and big city-activities.
Furthermore the respondents in one of the groups enjoy party-activities as well.
Below I will analyze the interview on the basis of the four categories.
4.2.3.1 Nature-adventure
As the name reveals, this category relates to active adventure-activities in the nature.
The respondents in both of the focus groups enjoy everything from hiking in the
jungle, to mountain climbing, scuba diving, tubing, sailing and visiting caves (35D37D, 35C-39C).
As one of them states:
“Well, like I said, many of my traveling activities have got something to do with being
in the nature. I enjoy everything from hiking, to mountain climbing, to sailing in all
kinds of boats, to scuba diving, to...yeah well, basically everything in the nature!”
(35D).
In the other focus group a respondent states:
“I think I’m more the nature-adventure kind of guy. You know. I really like to do
things like hiking or mountain climbing” (35C).
As a response to this, another respondent starts talking about a nature-adventure
experience he once had, which was one of his best travel experiences ever:
“I think the best travel experiences I have had has been when I have been on a
nature-adventure like that. For example I had a really great experience a couple of
years ago in Thailand where I went on this jungle trip with a France guy I had met.
We got to see a lot of beautiful nature, and do a lot of cool things. Like tubing down a
river with dangerous snakes hanging down from the trees, and visit a huge cave in
the middle of the jungle. And mountain climbing as well. This was also when I got to
know some locals like I mentioned before. It was a really great experience” (36C)
In one of the focus groups the respondents have a conversation about why they enjoy
these kinds of travel activities:
“Yes I think stuff like that is also really cool. It makes you grow in a way…”(37C), “yes
like you feel you become a completely different person afterwards. In a good way.
Like a hero” (38C) “yes exactly! (39C), “Ha ha. I can see your point” (40C)
In other words, some of the reasons why the respondents enjoy these natureadventure activities can be found in motivations of personal growth and selfactualization, as well as the motivation of self-promotion and being recognized (cf.
2.2.4.2) - in this case as ‘heroes’.
However, the motivation of especially self-actualization does not come as a surprise
since the respondents are Danish and therefore live in an individualistic culture where
this type of motivation is one of the most important ones (cf. 2.3.1.2) Furthermore
we saw in the theory that the need for both self-promotion as well as selfactualization is typical for people living in The Dream Society, and that one way this
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can be seen is via people’s more and more adventurous holiday activities such as
mountain climbing (cf. 2.2.4.2)
4.2.3.2 Sun & beach activities
Like the nature-adventure category also this category is a very popular travel activity
among the respondents in the two focus groups (31C-32C, 41C-43C, 44D-49D).
Some of the statements in relation to sun & beach activities are:
“Definitely. We love to just relax at a beautiful beach all day. To just stress completely
out and get a tan” (45D), “To just relax at the beaches and get a tan” (31C), “yes
that is very important to me as well. I mean to get a chance to just let go…not worry
about anything” (32C), “I’d rather just stay at a beach and relax. Ha ha” (41C), I love
beaches as well! (42C), “yes me too. That is like basic. A very important basic (43C)
“Or relaxing by the beach if we are in that kind of place. That is very nice as well”
(44D).
As can be seen from the statements some of the reasons why the respondents carry
out ‘beach activities’ are: to relax, to get a tan and to let go and not worry about
anything. These more passive beach activities can be related to the motivation to
escape from the routines and constraints of everyday life (cf. 2.2.4.1).
Not all of the preferred beach activities are on the passive end of the scale though. As
one of the respondents says:
“And then maybe if things gets too boring one can always take a nice swim or perhaps
go snorkeling for a bit if it is possible” (47D). Activities that the other respondents in
the group as well as their families enjoy also (48D-49D).
A respondent in the other focus group mentions (as the only one) that to enjoy more
active beach activities is the only reason why he visits beaches:
“If I go to a beach it is only to try out some water activities. Like water skiing or
snorkeling. Things like that” (44C).
4.2.3.3 Big city activities
This third category encompasses all of the activities tourists usually do when visiting
big cities: Going shopping, visiting museums, going to concerts, eat in restaurants,
partying, or just strolling along the streets.
All of the respondents like visiting big cities when traveling and doing some or all of
the above mentioned big city activities (46C-53C, 39D-43D). Furthermore a couple of
the respondents mention that they enjoy going on so-called “big city holidays”:
“Yes definitely! That is why I really like to take a holiday in a big city. Like Paris, or
Rome. Where you can go crazy in shopping. Ha ha. And party of course” (47C),
“There is nothing better that just stroll along the streets of a beautiful city like Prague
or Paris on a sunny day. On holidays like these out travel activities are very classic
big-city activities like going to museums and concerts, eat in nice restaurants and of
course go shopping… “ (39D)
One of the respondents who does not like to spend a whole holiday in a big city
mentions that one of the reasons why she still enjoys visiting big cities when traveling
is that it is often in big cities cultural activities are possible (42D). In general cultural
activities are among the most frequently mentioned big city activities and something
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all of the respondents enjoy (51C-53C, 39D-43D). The next frequently mentioned
activities are shopping and eating in restaurants (46C, 52C, 39D-40D).
To make it clear that big cities and big city activities constitute an important part of
travel experiences in general, one of the respondents states:
“There has to be at least one great big city in the county you are traveling too” (48C)
4.2.3.4 Party activities
This type of activity is only mentioned as important to the respondents in one of the
focus groups (33-34C, 47C). This might be due to the fact that the respondents in the
other focus group are all having children and husbands/girlfriend, whereas the
respondents in this group are all singles with no children.
One of the respondents states the following in relation to party activities:
“To let go is especially important to me…. Ha ha. I mean to party and stuff like that. I
often feel a need to just book a plane to somewhere. A nice place with some crazy
parties where I can just let go and be myself. Be a better me. Or maybe worse. Ha
ha. You know just let lose” (33C)
The last part of the statement about becoming “a better me. Or maybe worse” is
interesting as it relates to the travel motivation of changing the person one is in favor
of a better one (cf. 2.2.4.2) The expression of “letting go” and “let lose” can
furthermore be related to a motivation of liberating the libido (jvf. motivation chapter)
as the mentioned expressions in combination with partying are often related to an
overindulgence in alcohol and sex.
Another one of the respondents mentions that “crazy parties” are the main reason
why he loves to visit destinations like Koh Phangan or Phuket in Thailand, and Ibiza in
Europe (34C). Whereas a third mentions that parties along with shopping is the
reason why she likes to take a holiday in a big city like Paris or Rome (47C).
4.2.3.5 A mix of activities
In the end of this part of the interview, the respondents in one of the groups has a
conversation about how they do not prefer one travel activity from another because it
is the combination that makes traveling fun (54C-58C).
As some of the respondents states:
“I mean I like holidays or longer travels where I can do it all: you know like lying at
the beach in the morning, do a hike in the afternoon and party in the evening” (56C),
“Definitely. It is the combination that makes it fun. You get bored if you lie at the
beach all day, 14 days in a row, and you might get a little tired if hiking and being
adventurous all the time. Shopping can be very exhausting as well. Ha Ha” (57C),
“Except from the shopping I agree on this one. I like to do a lot of different things
when traveling. Being cultural, being adventurous, take a sailing trip down the river,
or just sit and relax at a nice restaurant – enjoying the sunset” (58C)
Only one of the respondents states that she prefers the three activities of relaxing at a
beach, go shopping once in a while, and partying (59C).
Even though it is only one of the focus groups where some of the respondents explicit
agree to prefer a combination of travel activities, I consider the respondents in the
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other focus group to have the same preference. The reason for this is that we during
the above analysis have seen how they as well prefer all kinds of traveling activities
from nature-adventure activities, to beach activities, and big city activities.
4.2.4. Summary: The potential of Cambodia in
relation to the Danish tourists
The Danish focus groups had the following preferences in relation to type of
destination, which are at the same time all related to the motivations to escape from
one’s home society:
 They prefer warm and exotic destinations
 They prefer visiting cultures and people that are more behind from western
standards = the motivation of visiting ‘authentic’ destinations
 They prefer destinations where the local people are warm and welcoming and where
you have a chance of getting to know them and share experiences with them.
 They prefer destinations that have a beautiful nature that differentiates from the
Danish nature.
If relating the above preferences to the knowledge gained from analysis one about the
Cambodian identity, Cambodia must be said to be a highly relevant destination in
relation to the Danish tourists:
First of all Cambodia is a developing country and thus behind from western standards
(cf. 4.1.4.2) Secondly the Cambodian people is, according to the Cambodian
respondents, warm, friendly and hospitable, easy to communicate with and most
importantly “eager” to getting to know the tourists on a more personal level (cf.
4.1.1). Third, the Cambodian nature is very beautiful with lots of beautiful national
parks, beaches, mountains, jungles and waterfalls (cf. 4.1.2.). Nature assets that
furthermore differentiate from what the Danish nature has to offer since Denmark
does not have either mountains, jungles or “paradise beaches with white sand and
palm trees” (cf. 4.1.2.). At last, even though the Cambodian respondents do not
mention the word exotic during the interviews, there should be no doubt that
Cambodia is a warm and exotic destination. First of all because it has got a tropical
climate, and secondly since the Danish respondents mention the term ‘exotic’ in
relation to destinations where the cultures are a lot different from Denmark, and the
local people are more warm and welcoming. Something we saw are both
characteristics of Cambodia.
In relation to travel activities that the Danish respondents enjoy, they agreed about
the following, which are at the same time indirectly travel motivations as well:
 Nature-adventure activities – the motivation for self-actualization, personal grow
and self-promotion.
 Beach activities – the motivation to escape from the routines and constraints of
everyday life
 Big city activities (and great big cities that offer these)
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 Party activities (“crazy parties” like the ones they have in Ibiza and Thailand) travel motivation of changing the person one is in favor of a better one as well as the
motivation of liberating the libido.
Furthermore the focus groups prefer destinations that offer a combination of different
travel activities, instead of just one or two.
If relating these travel activities to the activities Cambodia has to offer, Cambodia
must yet again be said to be a highly relevant destination for the Danish tourists:
First of all we saw in the identity analysis that Cambodia offers all kinds of natureadventure activities, such as elephant rides through the jungle, exploring big caves,
mountain climbing, scuba diving, and canoe trips along the rivers (cf. 4.1.2).
Secondly, the Cambodian beaches offer all the classic beach activities such as
snorkeling, water skiing or sailing in kayaks. On top of that the Cambodian islands
with its many pristine beaches offer unique “Robinson-Crusoe-experiences”, as it is
still possible for the tourists in Cambodia to find a beach of their own, without being
disturbed by a horde of other tourists like in most other tourist countries (cf. 4.1.2)
Also big city activities are possible in Cambodia, since the Cambodian capital of
Phnom Penh is described as a “real Asian capital” where it is possible to do everything
from shopping to being cultural and partying at clubs (cf. 4.1.4.1).
When it comes to the fourth travel activity of partying, the Cambodian respondents
agree that Cambodia has the same to offer as for example a destination like Thailand
when it comes to “crazy beach-party experiences” (cf. 4.1.2) As indicated above, also
the Cambodian capital, Phnom Penh, offers a great party scene.
Last, but not least, the Cambodian respondents believe and want the tourists to know
that Cambodia offers a wide variety of different activities, such as the ones described
above (cf. 4.1.4.1).
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4.3 Cambodia’s image among the Danish
tourists
The purpose of this chapter is to investigate the image of Cambodia on the basis of
the second part of my focus group interviews with the Danish respondents.
Since one of the Danish respondents has been to Cambodia, I have chosen to make
two different image analyses: one with the respondents who have never visited
Cambodia, and one with the one respondent who has visited Cambodia.
The fact that I both have an analysis with respondents who have never been to
Cambodia and one with a respondent who has been to Cambodia, will help me to get
a clue whether there is any difference between the way the general Danish tourist
perceive the Cambodian reality and the reality seen from the eyes of those Danish
tourists who have actually visited the country.
Due to a limited number of pages at my disposal, I have chosen to put the second
image analysis in the appendix (appendix, 12) and create a short summary of it in the
thesis (cf. 4.3.2).
4.3.1 Image analysis, number 1:
Respondents who have never visited Cambodia
4.3.1.1 General familiarity and associations of Cambodia
When I ask the respondents in the two focus groups how familiar they are with
Cambodia they reveal very different levels of familiarity:
Two of the respondents believe Cambodia is a country in Africa (61C, 54D), a few
others have an idea that it is somewhere in Asia (63C, 53D), one does not have a clue
of where it is (64C), and two know exactly where it is located (62C, 55D). Among the
two who know where it is, one of them is the one who has been in Cambodia before,
and therefore has the highest level of familiarity with Cambodia among the
respondents19 (55D).
Besides from mentioning where they believe Cambodia is located some of the
respondents that showed least familiarity in relation to the location of Cambodia have
a small conversation about how they do not know anything about Cambodia (56D58D). Despite this, the conversation reveals that even these respondents do have
some associations in relation to the country.
As two of the them state:
“Isn’t it a very poor country? And dangerous?” (57D), “yes that is what comes to my
mind as well. Ha Ha” (58D)
In other words, despite having agreed previously that they do not know anything
about the country they still have some (negative) perceptions about the country.
19
See image analysis part 2, appendix, 12)
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In the other focus group the majority of the respondents have the same perceptions:
that Cambodia is a poor and dangerous country (87C-89C). Furthermore two of them
have the impression that it is a place where people come to adopt kids:
“Isn’t it the place where Angelina Jolie has adopted Maddox?” (83C), “yes it is. Maybe
that is what I think of when I think about Cambodia. A country where people come to
adopt kids…” (85C)
The fact that the respondents mention the famous actor Angelina Jolie and her
adoption of her son Maddox in relation to why they think of Cambodia as a country
where people come to adopt kids indicates how much power celebrities can have
when it comes to the image formation of a destination.
4.3.1.2 Specific associations of Cambodia: Cities, places and
attractions
In general the respondents are not capable of mentioning a lot of cities, places or
attractions in Cambodia20. And among the few things they do mention, it in general
comes from the same two or three respondents, which means that the majority of the
respondents know nothing, or almost nothing, specific about the country:
Only three of the respondents have heard about the Angkar temples, with only one of
these being aware that they are located in Cambodia (68C-70C, 67D). Two people
know that Phnom Penh is the capital (75C, 62D), one of these, as she said, only
because she heard it mentioned in the news recently in relation to the tragedy that
happened in the capital during the water festival21 (62D). One respondent mentions
that he is familiar with the Tuol Sleng museum in Phnom Penh22, and knows about
“the horrible things that happened during the Pol Pot regime” (75C).
In relation to the last issue, a couple of other respondents mention their knowledge
about this tragic part of the Cambodian history (78C, 64D). One of these respondents
states:
“I have heard about Pol Pot. Does he still have some people running around and kill
tourists?” (78C)
This statement is interesting since it does not only reveal a very negative image of
Cambodia, but also an image that does not fit the present-day reality since 16 years
have passed since the three tourists were killed by the Khmer Rouge23
As can be seen from the respondents very scarce associations of Cambodia – both the
general as well as the more specific - the familiarity with the country is in general
very low. This indicates that Cambodia might have an awareness problem.
Furthermore among the associations of Cambodia the respondents do have, most of
Except from the one who has been to Cambodia already
http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/nov/23/cambodia-water-festival-phnom-penh
22 The Tuol Sleng museum: a former high school which was used as the Security Prison 21 (S-21) by the
Khmer Rouge communist regime from its rise to power in 1975 to its fall in
1979(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuol_Sleng_Genocide_Museum)
23 (http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1968996,00.html)
20
21
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these are very negative, which indicates that Cambodia might have an image problem
as well.
When I later in the interview ask the respondents more specifically about what their
immediate impression of Cambodia is both of the above indications become even
stronger:
In one of the groups three of the respondents mention outright that their impression
is negative (92C-94C), one of them adding that she does not think of Cambodia as a
place where people go on holiday (94C). The fourth and last respondent states,
however, that he is indifferent about it the reason being that he would like to go and
see the temples, but do not know enough about Cambodia to say: “that’s where I
want to go on my next adventure!” (95C).
In the other focus group two of the respondents have been a bit colored by the
respondent who has been to Cambodia (appendix, 13) why one of them mentions her
impression of Cambodia in past tense:
“Hmm it was negative. Very negative actually. Like I said I just thought it was a very
poor, and dangerous country. You know the kind of place where a lot of kids with big
hungry stomachs sit on the streets and beg. Like the pictures we see of Africa in the
television” (93D)
As can be seen from the statement her impression was very negative as well, before
she got colored a bit by the respondent who has been to Cambodia. The second
respondent still has a very negative impression though:
“I have an idea that it is a very poor and corrupt country. And yes maybe kinda
dangerous place for tourists to be. A bit too dangerous. And I have traveled in a lot of
other countries that might be considered as dangerous (…) But I still kinda have an
idea that Cambodia is more dangerous. Like that you can more easily get shot or
something…” (94D)
Like earlier in the interview the associations of Cambodia as a poor and dangerous
country are yet again mentioned in both of the statements. However, as opposed to
previously, this time it is being explicitly stated that Cambodia is perceived as a
dangerous destination for tourists, where one might get shot.
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4.3.1.3 Measuring image on the basis of the identity
Because the Danish respondents due to limited familiarity had very little to say about
Cambodia during the more unstructured and open-ended questions, I found it
necessary to ask into all of the characteristics of the Cambodian identity during the
more structured part of the interviews. First of all to reveal a more complete picture of
the Danish tourists’ image of Cambodia, and secondly to be able to see whether there
are gaps between the image and the identity.
4.3.1.4 The capital Phnom Penh
In relation to the first characteristic that the capital of Cambodia is a “real Asian
capital” where you can do everything including being cultural, go shopping and
partying, I asked the respondents to comment on the statement: The capital of
Cambodia (Phnom Penh) has little interesting to offer tourists compared to other
capitals in Asia.
In general the respondents agree with the statement, meaning that they do not
believe Phnom Penh has as much to offer as other Asian capitals, or is as interesting
as other Asian capitals. The main reason for this perception is according to the
respondents that they believe they would have heard about it if the capital was
interesting and had a lot to offer (98C-101C, 101D-102D).
4.3.1.5 The Cambodian beaches
When asking the respondents to comment on the statement:
The Cambodian beaches are just as beautiful as the beaches in for example Thailand
and Vietnam, the respondents have a two-sided opinion:
On one hand they have the same reaction as to the characteristic above: that they
believe they would have heard about it if there were beautiful paradise beaches in the
country. On the other hand, after having become aware that Cambodia is located
between Thailand and Vietnam, they agree that the nature cannot be that different
from the nature in the neighbouring countries.
As some of the respondents state:
“I guess there is a great chance that they do since Cambodia is so close to Thailand
and Vietnam. But it’s tricky. I mean. Again. We haven’t heard about it. So I would say
I agree with the statement again” (104D)
“Haven’t got a clue. But again: don’t you think we would have heard about it if there
were?” (105C)
“I mean it is right next to Thailand and Vietnam so the nature can’t be that much
different from these countries can it?” (106C)
Despite some of the respondents’ rationalizations regarding the similarity of the
nature between the East-Asian countries, beautiful beaches do not seem to belong to
any of their immediate impressions of Cambodia.
As two of the respondents mention:
“It is definitely not something I think of when I think about Cambodia. I don’t have
this like exotic association of Cambodia” (107C)
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“No me neither. It is not like you think beautiful beaches with palm trees and like
beautiful ladies with flowers in their hair dancing around ha ha… in the background
when you think about Cambodia...” (108C)
As can be seen from the above statements the respondents do not have any exotic
associations of Cambodia, for which reason beautiful beaches do not come into their
minds, when thinking of the country.
4.3.1.6 The Cambodian party scene
In relation to the third characteristic, that Cambodia has a great party scene, I ask
the respondents to comment on the statement:
Cambodia has no real party scene compared to other tourist destinations.
Yet again both of the focus groups’ agreements do not fit the Cambodian identity, as
in general they do not believe there are many places for tourists to party (107C-111C,
120D-121D). As some of the respondents state:
“And I especially don’t think there are parties going on there. I mean like at the
beaches in for example Thailand” (107C), “yeah I definitely don’t think Cambodia is
THE place to go if you want to party” (110C)
The reason why they have this perception is that they have not heard about it (111C)
and that they do not believe there are enough tourists in Cambodia to be able to party
with a lot of other tourists (109C, 120D). They believe, however, that it should be
possible to party with the locals:
“Or. I mean of course I believe the Cambodian people themselves party. Like most
people do. But I don’t think that there are a lot of places for tourists to party. That is
just a feeling I have” (120D)
“Yes. It is probably most for the Cambodian people themselves. I think so as well”
(121D)
“No I don’t think so either. It is probably not so touristic. To be able to party there
have to be a lot of tourists. Or you could party with the locals I guess…” (109C)
It is interesting to note how the respondents do not seem particularly thrilled with the
idea of partying with the locals, despite the fact that they earlier in the interview have
agreed that they would like to visit destinations where it is possible to get to know the
tourists and share experiences with them (cf. 4.2.2).
The reason for this might be that even though they like the idea of getting to know
the locals, they still want to be able to have that “classic” tourist-party experience
where they get to “go crazy” with a lot of other tourists.
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4.3.1.7 The Cambodian nature
This category - the Cambodian nature is beautiful - is very close to the category
about the Cambodian beaches. Perhaps for this reason the conclusions are also very
similar: First of all they rationalize that the nature must be beautiful since it is so
close to Thailand (128-129C). However, they do not associate beautiful nature with
Cambodia, and they definitely do not think it is as beautiful as for example the nature
in Thailand and Vietnam (129C-132C, 107-109D).
One of the respondents mentions what her impression of the Cambodian nature is
instead:
“No. I don’t really think nature when I think Cambodia. I more think of – well yeah
maybe I think of nature, but I more think of a very like dry landscape. With a lot of
what’s it called – straw cottages. You know. And then a lot of poor kids hanging
around” (131C)
An impression the other respondents in the focus group agree on (132-133C).
4.3.1.8 The selection of adventurous outdoor-activities
When I ask the respondents to comment on the statement; Cambodia has as many
adventurous outdoor-activities to offer as other Asian countries, the conclusion does
yet again not fit the Cambodian identity:
The respondents do not believe Cambodia has as many adventurous outdoor-activities
as the other countries (113-115C, 11-112D).
The conclusion is rooted in the same perceptions as mentioned earlier:
First of all the respondents believe they would have heard about it if there were a lot
of adventurous outdoor-activities in Cambodia, plus that Cambodia would have then
been a more popular travel destination (114-115C). Secondly, they do not believe
there are enough tourists in Cambodia to offer a lot of these kinds of activities
(111D).
One of the respondents does mentions, however, that he “guess it is possible to go
trekking and stuff like that” as there should be some jungles in Cambodia (115C).
4.3.1.9 The Cambodian people
When I ask the respondents to comment on the statement, The Cambodian people
are very hospitable, the respondents in one of the focus groups agree about not
having a clue (117-120C). On the other hand, the respondents in the other focus
group state:
“That I don’t have any answer to. I mean if there are not many tourists in the country
they probably are. But have no idea” (114D)
“No me neither. But usually people in Asia are very friendly. Aren’t they. I think I
remember they were very friendly when we were in Thailand” (115D)
As can be seen from the statements the respondents in this focus group believe that
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the Cambodian people might be friendly because 1) they have a perception there are
not many tourists in the country and 2) people in Asia are usually friendly.
Despite these positive rationalizations about the Cambodian people, the many
insecure sentences in the selfsame statements such as “That I don’t have any answer
to”, “But have no idea”, and “Aren’t they” strongly indicate that it is not their
perception that the Cambodian people are especially hospitable.
4.3.1.10 A laid-back atmosphere
The last Cambodian characteristic I want the focus groups to comment on is:
Cambodia has an easy, laid-back atmosphere.
The respondents’ reaction to this statement is very similar to their reaction regarding
the Cambodian people:
It is not their perception - however, they do not regard it as unlikely due to the fact
that it is an Asian country:
“Hmm does it?” (122C), “It probably has. I mean it is Asia after all” (123C), “yes it
probably does” (124C), “But it is not something you think about when you think about
Cambodia. I mean…”(125C), “No it is not like it’s image or anything. Or at least I
think...” (126C), “Hmm. Yes. Why not?” (123D) “Yes it doesn’t sound so unlikely”
(124D)
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4.3.1.4 Summary of image analysis number 1.
As can be seen from the above analysis, the Danish respondents revealed an overall
poor image of Cambodia, during both the more unstructured parts of the interviews as
well as the structured ones.
Furthermore, the above discussions in relation to the Cambodian characteristics
revealed that none of the Danish respondents’ perceptions of Cambodia fitted the
Cambodian identity. In fact, many of the characteristics found in the Cambodian
identity the respondents did not have any perceptions about, such as the beautiful
Cambodian beaches, the great selection of outdoor activities and the interesting
capital.
However, as we saw, because they did not beforehand have any perceptions in
relation to these areas, the respondents considered most of the characteristics not to
be true. The logic being: what they did not perceive (e.g. that the beaches in
Cambodia are beautiful) was due to the fact that they had never heard about it, and
what they had never heard about could not be especially beautiful, great or
interesting.
In other words: they did not consider the Cambodian beaches to be beautiful, the
outdoor activities to be plentiful, or the capital to be interesting due to the fact that
these Cambodian characteristics did not belong to any of their perceptions about
Cambodia.
In short: in these three cases, no perception about a certain characteristic is the same
as a negative perception about the characteristic.
In relation to two other characteristics however - that the Cambodian people are
friendly and that there is an easy laid-back atmosphere in Cambodia - the
respondents had a different logic: Both of these characteristics the respondents
considered to be realistic, despite the fact that they had not had any perceptions of
these characteristics in relation to Cambodia either. However, as it showed, they had
perceptions about these characteristics in relation to Asia: namely that people in Asia
are in general friendly, and an easy laid-back atmosphere is not unlikely for an Asian
country.
Still, these two characteristics were not part of the respondents’ perceptions of
Cambodia either.
As can be seen, the above five “non-existing” perceptions in relation to Cambodia
reveal as much about the respondents overall image of Cambodia as the perceptions
they do have (e.g. that Cambodia is a poor and dangerous country). The reason being
that the perceptions they do not have imply how the respondents do not perceive
Cambodia, and thus indirectly also imply how they perceive Cambodia.
For this reason I have chosen to incorporate these “non-existing” perceptions about
Cambodia into the image model below.
In order to separate the “real” perceptions from the “non-existing” perceptions I have
added a few boxes into Echtner & Ritchies image model below:
Outside the boxes are the “real” perceptions, whereas the “non-existing” perceptions
are inside the boxes.
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Figure 4: The Danish tourists image of Cambodia
(Destination image model, further developed by Stine Hedemann Hansen)
As can be seen in the model, during the interviews, the respondents revealed all four
types of image components.
In the main summary where I juxtapose all analyses (4.4) I will talk more about these
and how they are going to influence my later development of a brand identity, as well
as the answer to my question: How is it possible to market Cambodia as an appealing
and distinctive tourist destination towards the Danish tourists?
Firstly, though, I will make a short summary of the second image analysis below.
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4.3.2 Image analysis, number 2:
The respondent who has visited Cambodia
Summary
The second image analysis (appendix, 12) first of all revealed that the respondent
who has been to Cambodia has a very positive image of the destination.
Secondly, his perceptions about Cambodia fit the Cambodian identity almost hundred
percent. First of all he believes that the Cambodian capital is a very exiting capital
that has just as much to offer and is just as interesting as other Asian capitals he has
been to. Secondly, he believes that the Cambodian beaches are just as beautiful as
the beaches in Thailand and Vietnam and mentions (with other words) the “Robinson
Crusoe” opportunities as well. He also believes that Cambodia offers a lot of great
possibilities for outdoor-adventures, that the nature is “stunning”, that there is a great
party scene, and that a laid-back atmosphere is “typically Cambodia”.
Last but not least he finds the Cambodian people very friendly and hospitable, and
believes they are easy to talk with and “remarkable” good in English. Furthermore he
mentions that there is something very special about them that makes them stand out
from most other nationalities he has met, and that they are “lovely”, and full of life
and energy.
In relation to the characteristic about Cambodia as being poor, he agrees that it is
very poor. However, he does not perceive it as an especially dangerous country to
travel in compared to rest of the world. As he for example states: “I mean what
country isn’t a bit dangerous to travel in these days” (Appendix, 12).
In the figure below, the respondent’s different perceptions of Cambodia can be seen:
Figure 4: The perceptions of Cambodia belonging to the respondent who
has visited the destination
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As can be seen, the image model above is almost identical to the model from the
identity chapter (cf. 4.1.5).
Besides from being identical to the identity model relating the above model to the
image model of the first image analysis, it is clear that there is a great difference
between the perceptions of the respondents who have never visited Cambodia and the
perceptions of the respondent who has visited Cambodia.
Since this last image model is almost identical to the identity model, I have chosen to
use only the first image model when comparing the identity with the image in the
summary below.
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4.4 Summary: Juxtaposing of the analyses
In this chapter I will mainly juxtapose the image analysis with the identity analysis by
relating them to Echtner & Ritchie’s model.
By doing this I will first of all be able to see which of the Danish tourists’ present
perceptions of Cambodia that should be changed in a branding strategy in order to
better fit the characteristics of the Cambodian identity.
Furthermore I will try to figure out how to change the perceptions via a brand
strategy on the basis of what Cambodia has to offer, as well as what I know from the
second analysis that the Danish tourists want.
The main goal with the summary is to get closer to an answer to the question of how
to market Cambodia as an appealing and distinctive tourist destination towards the
Danish tourists.
For this reason I will especially take a look at the unique holistic characteristics of
Cambodia.
Below I have (yet again) highlighted the two models from the identity and the image
in order to be able to juxtapose their components.
Figure 3: The Cambodian identity according to the Cambodian
respondents
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Figure 4: The Danish tourists image of Cambodia
4.4.1 Gaps between identity and image
The two models above illustrate that there is a great difference between how the
Cambodian people describe their country and the way the Danish people perceive
Cambodia.
Many of these differences are due to the Danish respondents’ limited knowledge of
Cambodia, which has led to negative and untrue perceptions about Cambodia within
several areas.
Below I have listed the differences:
 The Danish respondents perceive Cambodia as a dangerous tourist destination 
According to the Cambodian respondents it is “as safe as any other country”.
 The Danish respondents perceive the Cambodian party scene to be poor with very
limited options for tourists to party  According to the Cambodian respondents the
parry scene is great with a lot of clubs and bars for westerners.
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 The Danish respondents do not perceive the Cambodian nature to be particularly
beautiful compared to other countries  According to the Cambodian respondents the
nature is very beautiful.
 The Danish respondents do not have any perceptions of beautiful beaches in
Cambodia  According to the Cambodian respondents there are plenty of beautiful
beaches which, besides from “classic” beach-experiences such as snorkeling and
beach-parties, offer “Robinson Crusoe-experiences” as well.
 The Danish respondents do not have any perceptions of a great selection of outdoor
activities in Cambodia  The Cambodian respondents mention a great selection of
outdoor activities in Cambodia identical with the type of activities the Danish
respondents have mentioned to be interested in.
 The Danish respondents have no perceptions about the Cambodian capital (Phnom
Penh) being interesting or having a lot to offer tourists  According to the Cambodian
respondents Phnom Penh is a “real Asian capital” that offers most or all of the big-city
activities the Danish people have mentioned to be interested in.
 The Danish respondents have no perceptions about the Cambodian people being
hospitable or friendly (even though they consider it as realistic)  The Cambodian
people are according to the Cambodian respondents very friendly, hospitable, caring
and warm, with excellent English skills and a curiosity in getting to know the tourists.
 The Danish respondents have no perceptions of Cambodia having a laid-back
atmosphere (even though they consider it as realistic)  A laid-back atmosphere is
one of Cambodia’s characteristics according to the Cambodian respondents. In
relation to this they also believe it is easy to feel happy in Cambodia.
If the Danish people had a better knowledge of Cambodia in relation to the above
areas it would probably have a positive effect when the Danish people are going to
choose a travel destination next time. Especially since we in the analysis about the
Danish respondents’ travel preferences etc. (analysis 2) saw that most of the above
Cambodian characteristics (seen from the Cambodian respondents) fit the Danish
people’s travel motivations, preferences and habits.
However, if Cambodia is going to stand out as a travel destination from competitors
such as Thailand and Vietnam it is important to especially highlight the unique holistic
elements of the Cambodian identity when branding the destination (cf. 2.5.4.2.1)
Among the above-mentioned areas the easy laid-back atmosphere is a holistic aura
and thus something that is unique24 for Cambodia. Furthermore the Robinson-Crusoe
experience is a holistic feature and thus unique for Cambodia.
The term unique has in this context to be understood as a characteristic only one or a few destinations
have
24
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4.4.2 Similarities between image and identity
It is not all of the Danish people’s perceptions that differ from the Cambodian identity
though. First of all the Danish people perceive Cambodia as a poor country, which the
Cambodian people themselves also mention as a characteristic of their country.
In the image analysis the Danish respondents talk about the attribute ‘poor’ in relation
to why they have a negative perception of the country. However, in the analysis about
travel preferences we saw that the Danish respondents are in fact interested in
visiting cultures and people that are more behind from western standards, because it
gives a more ‘authentic’ travel experience. The reason for this ambiguity might be
rooted in what one of the Cambodian respondents themselves mentions (cf. 4.1.4.2)
namely that tourists in general do not mind visiting poor countries, as long as it does
not mean they are also dangerous to travel in. Since we saw in the chapter above that
the Danish respondents believe Cambodia to be a dangerous country to travel in, they
might perceive ‘poor’ as a negative attribute in this context. For this reason it is even
more important to communicate towards the Danish tourists when branding the
destination that Cambodia is in general a safe travel destination, as this is going to
change their perception of Cambodia as a poor country from a negative one to a
positive one.
In continuation of the perception of Cambodia as a poor and dangerous country, the
Danish respondents also have a perception that it is a corrupt country. In relation to
this the Cambodian respondents mention that their country is corrupt, but that it is
not something the tourists will feel.
The last perception that fits the Cambodian identity is that Cambodia is home to the
Angkar temples (including the most famous: Angkar Wat). Unfortunately though, as
we saw in the image analysis, not all of the respondents were familiar with the
temples, and among the ones who ere not all of these knew that they are located in
Cambodia. For this reason the incorporation of the temples in the destination branding
of Cambodia is still relevant. Especially since they are truly unique features existing
nowhere else in the world, and the most famous one of them, Angkar Wat, is one of
the Seven Wonders of the World.
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4.4.3 Other perceptions
A few of the perceptions the Danish respondents revealed were not mentioned by the
Cambodian respondents themselves. These are:
 That Cambodia is a country where people come to adopt kids
 That some of the followers of the Cambodian dictator Pol Pot (the Khmer Rouge) are
still running around and killing tourists
In relation to the first perception there is no point in denying that it is true.25
However, the Danish respondents do not mention it as a particularly bad thing in a
tourism perspective. Furthermore, people of today are practically adopting kids from
all over the world, including some of the most popular tourist destinations in the
world, such as Thailand, China and Mexico26. In a destination branding perspective the
important thing in relation to this issue is to make sure that the Danish tourists
understand that to adopt a kid is not the only reason to go to Cambodia.
In relation to the second perception, that some of the followers of the Cambodian
dictator Pol Pot are still running around and killing tourists, it is, as mentioned earlier,
a false perception since it was more than 16 years ago since the three tourists got
killed in Cambodia by some of the men from Pol Pot’s Khmer Rouge (cf. 4.3.1.2). If
this false perception, which is furthermore a holistic perception, is a common
perception among the Danish people, it is crucial to make clear in the branding of
Cambodia that the perception has got nothing to do with the present reality in
Cambodia.
Besides from the above perceptions of Cambodia, one very important holistic feature
of the Cambodian identity, which has not been mentioned in relation to the Danish
respondents’ perceptions of Cambodia, is the diversity of Cambodia: that Cambodia is
a destination that offers the possibility of enjoying all kinds of travel activities,
including the ones the Danish respondents prefer (cf. 4.2.4). An asset, which we saw
the Cambodian people highlighted as something they especially want Cambodia to be
known for, since they have a perception that foreigners are not aware that Cambodia
has other positive things to offer besides from the Angkar temples. A perception we
found out via the above analysis is true. The famous Angkar temples were, namely,
the only positive perception the Danish respondents had of Cambodia.
25
26
http://www.adoptioninstitute.org/FactOverview/international.html.
See reference above.
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Brand strategy
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5 Brand strategy
Brand identity and implementation
In the development of my brand strategy for Cambodia I will focus on the following
areas:
 That it is rooted in the identity of Cambodia
 That it is consistent with the way the Cambodian people want Cambodia to be
perceived as a tourist destination
 That it takes a starting point in the Danish tourists’ present image of Cambodia
 That it fits the travel motivations, preferences and habits of the Danish tourists.
Furthermore I will be inspired by the recommendations from the theory chapter
regarding how to create a successful brand identity, as well as the existing tools for
successfully implementing a brand identity.
The purpose of the brand strategy is to create a distinctive and appealing image of
Cambodia in the minds of the Danish tourists that will differentiate Cambodia in a
positive way from similar tourist destinations such as Thailand and Vietnam, and thus
reposition Cambodia as an attractive tourist destination among the Danish tourists.
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5.1 The brand identity
In the Destination Branding chapter (cf. 2.5.4.3.3) we saw that a great way to
differentiate a destination from other destinations is to make the tourists feel
emotionally connected to the destination by branding an experience rather than just
the physical attributes of a certain destination. Furthermore we saw that it is proposed
that these experiences should be related to the lifestyles of the targeted tourists, in
order to enhance the emotional appeal.
In my development of the brand identity I have chosen to do this as well:
To create a brand identity that gives associations of the lifestyle experiences people
can look forward to when choosing Cambodia as a travel destination, instead of just
branding its physical attributes, such as beautiful beaches and friendly, hospitable
people.
The reason for this choice, however, is not only that it is recommended in the theory
as a way to differentiate one’s destination.
First of all we saw during the above analyses that the activities Cambodia offers fit the
preferred travel activities and thereby lifestyles (cf. 3.2.6.2) of the Danish tourists
very well.
Secondly, I conclude lifestyles to be the best way of segmenting the Danish tourists,
since we saw during the second analysis (cf. 4.2.3) that the Danish respondents,
despite their differences in age, sex and social background, are interested in the same
travel activities. In other words: a social-demographic and economic segmentation
would not have been appropriate27.
Third, when branding the many different lifestyle experiences Cambodia offers, it is at
the same time easy to reveal all of the unique Cambodian assets we saw during the
analysis of the Cambodian identity that Cambodia has and which will differentiate
Cambodia when branding them; its diversity in travel activities, its laid-back
atmosphere, pristine “Robinson Crusoe” islands and breathtaking temples. As a
“bonus”, also the other Cambodian characteristics, which we saw fitted the
preferences and motivations of the Danish tourists, will be easy to reveal: That it is a
warm and exotic destination, has friendly and hospitable locals that want to
communicate with the tourists, a beautiful nature, and an ‘authentic’ culture that is
behind from western standards.
Furthermore lifestyle experiences, or experiences in general, can easily be coupled
with opportunities for self-actualization and personal growth: the possibility of
discovering a true but unknown side of oneself or perhaps even becoming a new and
different person. Motivations we saw being important for the Danish respondents and
typical for people living in individualistic cultures, which Danish tourists do (cf.
2.3.1.6).
Even more we discovered that those kinds of experiences the Danish tourists couple
with self-actualization are among the experiences Cambodia offers.
The most important reason, however, for branding lifestyle experiences is that it will
show the diversity of Cambodia: a unique asset which the Cambodian people
highlighted as something they would especially want Cambodia to be known for.
27
Furthermore a socio-demographic and economic segmentation is (for the self same reason) no longer
considered to be the best way to segment people (cf. 3.2.6.2).
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By branding all of the above unique and common Cambodian characteristics towards
the Danish tourists, it will be possible to change the poor image we saw the Danish
respondents have of Cambodia.
The reason for this is that we saw their poor image is mostly due to the fact that they
have a very limited knowledge of Cambodia. Therefore by making them aware of the
above positive characteristics of Cambodia, which furthermore fit their own travel
motivations, preference and lifestyles, it should change their image of Cambodia from
a poor one to an appealing one. Even more, because of the many unique holistic
characteristics of Cambodia, the image will be distinctive as well.
There is, however, one part of the Danish respondents’ image of Cambodia I have not
yet mentioned: the Danish respondents’ perceptions of Cambodia as a very dangerous
country to travel in.
As we saw during the analysis of the Cambodian identity, however, the Cambodian
respondents believe Cambodia is as safe as any other country to travel in. It is
therefore important to communicate this out via my developed brand identity as well.
With inspiration in Aaker’s definition of a brand identity (cf. 2.5.4.3.1) my proposed
brand identity of Cambodia targeted towards the Danish tourists constitutes the
following:
Core idea
A safe, exotic, diverse, laid-back, yet adventurous Asian destination with a remarkable
friendly and hospitable population that wants to get to know the tourists, a beautiful
nature that offers everything from wild jungles to pristine paradise beaches, and last
but not least, unforgettable experiences for all kinds and lifestyles: From exiting
outdoor-adventures, to enjoyable big city activities, relaxing beach activities, ‘crazy’
parties, and breathtaking cultural visits to ancient temples.
Overall brand Promise
An excitingly safe and transformational adventure to an exotic and beautiful Asian
pearl with a laid-back atmosphere, a friendly people, and a diversity of travel
activities.
5.2 Implementation of the Brand identity
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To capture the essence of the brand identity, I have chosen the following two
strategic suggestions that are both related to lifestyles in one way or another:
1) A lifestyle campaign that reflects the diversity of Cambodia via the
following lifestyle categories:
 Nature-adventure lifestyle
 Relaxing in the sun lifestyle
 Party like an animal lifestyle
 Big city lifestyle
 Cultural lifestyle
2) Small viral movie clips filmed by satisfied Danish tourists enjoying
different lifestyle experiences in Cambodia:
The main purpose is to heighten the credibility of the lifestyle campaign (strategic
suggestion number 1), as well as giving the Danish tourists a feeling that Cambodia is
not only a fun and exiting country to travel in but also safe.
In the chapter below I will elaborate on the elements in the lifestyle campaign, as well
as the ideas behind.
5.2.1 Lifestyle campaign
As we saw in the second analysis (cf. 4.2.3.5), most of the Danish respondents do not
only prefer one type of travel activity but a mix of different travel activities. For this
reason the lifestyle categories of my suggested lifestyle campaign are not supposed to
be seen separately but as lifestyles that can be integrated into each other. Thereby
the campaign will have the potential of reaching both the Danish tourists who only
prefer one of the travel lifestyles as well as the ones who prefer a mix of lifestyles.
In all of the lifestyle categories I am proposing to use different themes in order to
enhance the expectation of the Cambodian travel experiences that awaits the Danish
tourists (cf. 2.5.4.4.2) as well as to capture more than one of the activities Cambodia
has to offer within the concerned category.
In other words, this campaign is, above all, applying a diverse visual strategy
(2.5.4.4.3).
Most of the themes are showing before/after scenarios in order to illustrate the
transformational experiences Cambodia offers in a humorous way. Furthermore I am
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trying to show different constellations of people (e.g. families, couples, friends) to
show that Cambodia is for everyone.
Due to a limited amount of pages at my disposal I have chosen to describe the
themes of the first category below only, to illustrate the idea behind them, and put
the descriptions of the others in the appendix (appendix, 8).
Nature-adventure lifestyle
The first of the lifestyles is meant to primarily reflect all of the nature-adventure
activities Cambodia offers, such as trekking in the jungles, mountain climbing, visiting
caves, kayaking in the rivers, or jumping from island to island while pretending to be
Robinson Crusoe. At the same time it is supposed to reveal the beautiful, exotic and
diverse Cambodian nature.
The suggested slogan for this type of lifestyle is: Discover your inner adventurer! The
slogan as well as the lifestyle category is supposed to create associations of Cambodia
in the minds of the Danish tourists as a destination where it is possible to let one’s
inner adventurer lose, and thus being a place for adventures and self-actualization.
Something we saw is important for the Danish tourists.
The proposed themes of this first category are:
1) Before: A “pretty boy” sitting with his laptop at his office. After: a Robinson
Crusoe look-alike arriving on an exotic island.
2) Before: A couple of scenes/pictures from a family’s boring non-adventurous
daily life. After: A family with kids going trekking in the Cambodian jungles –
visiting caves, taking a swim under a waterfall, meeting friendly, hospitable
locals in small villages on the way, etc.
Relaxing in the sun lifestyle
This category is meant to reflect the relaxing and passive end of the sun & beach
category from the second analysis (4.2.3.2). However, I have changed its name since
I have chosen to extend the category to not only include relaxing beach activities, but
relaxing activities in general. The reason for this is the fact that I want to shed a light
on Cambodia as a destination where you can be relaxed and enjoy the sun at other
places than just the beach, since we saw that a laid-back atmosphere is one of
Cambodia’s unique characteristics.
The slogan for this lifestyle category is: Leave the busy you behind and relax in the
Cambodian sun!
The slogan as well as the lifestyle category is supposed to create associations of
Cambodia as a warm, sunny, exotic and laid-back destination, where it is possible to
relax hundred percent and forget everything about one’s busy daily life back home.
See the proposed themes in the appendix.
Party like an animal lifestyle
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This category is meant to appeal to all of those Danish tourists who choose
destinations like Thailand and Ibiza to engage in ‘crazy’ parties (as we saw some of
the Danish respondents do). As we saw in the identity analysis the Cambodian
respondents are of the opinion that Cambodia has the same to offer as these
destinations, when it comes to crazy party experiences.
The slogan for this category is: Let your inner party animal loose!
See the proposed themes in the appendix.
Big city lifestyle
This category is meant to reflect all of the big city activities the Cambodian capital
Phnom Penh offers, such as going shopping, being cultural and partying at clubs.
The slogan for this lifestyle category is: Explore a real Asian capital!
The slogan as well as the category itself is supposed to give associations of an
authentic, exiting, exotic and laid-back Asian capital.
See the proposed themes in the appendix.
Cultural lifestyle
This last category is primarily meant to reflect the ancient Angkor temples.
As we saw in the image analysis, even though these are among the most known of
the Cambodian characteristics, there still seems to be a need on putting some focus
on them. First of all because not all of the respondents were familiar with the temples,
and among the ones who were not, all of these knew that they are located in
Cambodia. Secondly, the temples must be considered to be among the most
important Cambodian assets, if not the most important, as they are truly unique
features (WOW) that exist nowhere else in the world.
To put some more “spice” on the category, I suggest that it should reflect some of the
many other cultural activities Cambodia offers. As we saw in the second analysis
about the Danish respondents’ travel habits, most of them were very interested in
cultural activities. The slogan for this lifestyle category is: Discover a cultural Asian
nation
As can be seen the slogan is in fact not only a slogan but a positioning (cf. 2.5.4.4.2)
as well, since it positions Cambodia as a cultural Asian nation, and thus indicates that
it has more cultural offers than other Asian destinations.
As can be seen from the above suggestions, most of the core elements from the
brand identity are being embraced in the lifestyle categories.
However, one element seems to be somewhat missing, namely the Cambodian people
and their positive human qualities. This important Cambodian asset, however, is
reflected via the themes as I have suggested the Cambodian people to appear and
interact with the tourists in most of them. In continuation of this: to appeal to the
feminine culture, which Danish tourists are part of (cf. 2.3.1.6) I have in most of the
themes made a focus on relationships, implying that Cambodia is a great destination
for sharing unforgettable experiences with others.
I am proposing to use both traditional as well as untraditional medias as
communication channels for the lifestyle categories and their themes: Small movie
ads for the television as well as the Internet (viral marketing), and graphic ads and
posters for magazines.
93
6. Conclusion
In the problem statement I asked:
How is it possible to market Cambodia as an appealing and distinctive tourist
destination towards the Danish tourists?
I will now seek to answer this question on the basis of what I have found out during
my investigation.
First of all we saw during the theoretical chapters that in order to build any appealing
and distinctive brand identity it is important that it is rooted in the organizational
identity of the destination, that it fits the travel motivations of the targeted tourists,
and that it takes a starting point in the targeted tourists’ present image of the
destination. I therefore made three analyses to be able to answer the problem
statement: one with Cambodian people about the Cambodian identity, one with
Danish tourists about their travel motivations (as well as other areas), and another
one with Danish tourists about their present image of Cambodia as a travel
destination.
Furthermore we saw during the theoretical chapters that a great way to differentiate a
destination from other destinations is to make the tourists feel emotionally connected
to the destination by branding an experience rather than just the physical attributes
of a certain destination. Even more we saw that it is proposed that these experiences
should be related to the travel lifestyles of the targeted tourists, in order to enhance
the emotional appeal. During my development of a brand identity I chose to do this as
well: To create a brand identity that gives associations of the lifestyle experiences
people can look forward to when choosing Cambodia as a travel destination.
The reason for making this choice, however, was not only that it is recommended in
the theory as a way to differentiate one’s destination. As it turned out during the
above-mentioned analyses, to brand lifestyles experiences was a perfect fit for this
thesis:
First of all I discovered during the analyses that those types of experiences Cambodia
offers fit the preferred travel activities, and thereby lifestyles, of the Danish tourists
very well. These are: nature-adventure activities, beach activities, big city activities
and party activities.
Secondly, I found lifestyles to be the best way of segmenting the Danish tourists,
since we saw that the Danish respondents, despite their differences in age, sex and
social background, are interested in the same travel activities.
Third, I found that when branding the many different lifestyle experiences Cambodia
offers, it will at the same time be easy to reflect all of the unique holistic Cambodian
assets the analysis of the Cambodian identity revealed; its diversity in travel
activities, its laid-back atmosphere, its pristine “Robinson Crusoe” islands and its
breathtaking ancient Angkar temples. Especially we saw that the diversity of
94
Cambodia was an important unique asset to reflect since it was highlighted among the
Cambodian people as something they would especially want Cambodia to be known
for.
As a “bonus” also the more common Cambodian assets, which I discovered fitted the
preferences and motivations of the Danish tourists, would be easy to reveal: That it is
a warm and exotic destination, has friendly and hospitable locals, a beautiful nature,
and an ‘authentic’ culture that is behind from western standards.
At last I estimated that lifestyle experiences, or experiences in general, can easily be
coupled with opportunities for self-actualization and personal growth. Motivations I
discovered are important for the Danish respondents as well as typical for people
living in individualistic cultures, which Danish tourists do. Even more I found out that
those kinds of experiences the Danish tourists couple with self-actualization are
among the experiences Cambodia offers.
When incorporating all of the above unique and common Cambodian characteristics
into a brand identity, I concluded that it would also be possible to change the poor
image I discovered the Danish respondents to have of Cambodia.
The reason for this is the fact that we saw their poor image is mostly due to the fact
that they have a very limited knowledge of Cambodia. Therefore by making them
aware of the above positive characteristics of Cambodia, which furthermore fit their
own travel motivations, preferences and lifestyles, it will change their image of
Cambodia from a poor one to an appealing one. Even more, because of the many
unique holistic characteristics of Cambodia, I concluded that the image would be
distinctive as well.
One of the strongest and most negative perceptions the Danish people have of
Cambodia is that it is a dangerous country to travel in. However, also this perception
does not fit the Cambodian identity. The Cambodian respondents namely believe that
Cambodia is as safe as any other country to travel in. I therefore realized that it is
important to communicate this out via my developed brand identity as well.
On the basis of all of the above discoveries, I proposed the following brand identity for
Cambodia, targeted the Danish tourists:
Core idea:
A safe, exotic, diverse, laid-back, yet adventurous Asian destination with a remarkable
friendly and hospitable people that want to get to know the tourists, a beautiful nature
that offers everything from wild jungles to pristine paradise beaches, and last but not
least experiences for all kinds and lifestyles: From exiting outdoor-adventures, to
enjoyable big city activities, relaxing beach activities, ‘crazy’ parties, and breathtaking
cultural visits to ancient temples.
Overall brand Promise:
An excitingly safe and transformational28 adventure to an exotic and beautiful Asian
pearl with a laid-back atmosphere, a friendly people, and a diversity of travel
activities.
To capture the essence of the brand identity, I chose the following two strategic
suggestions that are both related to lifestyles in one way or another:
28
‘Transformational’ reflects the opportunities for self-actualization and personal grow.
95
1) A lifestyle campaign that reflects the diversity of Cambodia via the following
lifestyle categories:
 Nature-adventure lifestyle
 Relaxing in the sun lifestyle
 Party like an animal lifestyle
 Big city lifestyle
 Cultural lifestyle
2) Small viral movie clips filmed by satisfied Danish tourists enjoying different lifestyle
experiences in Cambodia.
In relation to the first strategic suggestion, the lifestyle campaign, we saw in the
analysis about the Danish tourists travel motivations, preferences and habits, that
most of the Danish respondents do not only prefer one type of travel activity but a
mix of different travel activities. I therefore proposed that the lifestyle categories of
my suggested lifestyle campaign should not be seen separately but as lifestyles that
can be integrated into each other.
In all of the lifestyle categories I furthermore suggested to use different themes in
order to capture more than one of the activities Cambodia has to offer within the
concerned category, and thereby use a diverse visual strategy. Most of the themes
are showing before/after scenarios in order to illustrate the transformational
experiences Cambodia offers in a humorous way. Furthermore different themes will
make it easier to show different constellations of people (e.g. families, couples,
friends), and thereby show that Cambodia is for everyone.
The nature-adventure lifestyle is primarily meant to reflect all of the nature-adventure
activities Cambodia offers, as well as the beautiful Cambodian nature. Furthermore it
is meant to create associations of a destination that offers possibilities for adventures
and self-actualization. For this reason my proposed slogan for this type of lifestyle is:
Discover your inner adventurer!
The next lifestyle category, Relaxing in the sun lifestyle, is meant to create
associations of Cambodia as a warm, sunny, exotic and laid-back destination, where it
is possible to relax hundred percent and forget everything about one’s busy daily life
back home. For this reason, the slogan I suggested for this lifestyle category is: Leave
the busy you behind and relax in the Cambodian sun!
The Party like an animal lifestyle is meant to create associations of a destination
where it is possible to engage in ‘crazy’ parties as the ones they have at destinations
like Thailand and Ibiza. The slogan I proposed for this category is: Let your inner
party animal loose!
The Big city lifestyle is supposed to reflect all of the big city activities the Cambodian
capital Phnom Penh offers. Furthermore it is supposed to give associations of an
authentic, exiting, exotic and laid-back Asian capital.
The proposed slogan for this lifestyle category is: Explore a real Asian capital!
96
The last lifestyle category, Cultural lifestyle, is primarily meant to reflect the unique
ancient Angkor temples.
However to put some more “spice” on the category, I suggested that it should reflect
some of the many other cultural activities Cambodia offers as well, since the Danish
respondents in general revealed an interest in cultural activities. The slogan for this
lifestyle category is: Discover a cultural Asian nation.
In order to reflect the Cambodian people and their positive human qualities, several of
my proposed themes incorporated this.
In continuation of this a focus on relationships was integrated in most of the themes
implying that Cambodia is a great destination for sharing unforgettable experiences
with others. The purpose of this was to appeal to the feminine culture Danish tourists
are part of.
When it came to communication channels for the lifestyle campaign and its themes, I
proposed to use a mix of traditional and untraditional medias: Small movie ads for the
television as well as the Internet (=viral marketing), and graphic ads and posters for
magazines.
In relation to my second strategic suggestion, small viral movie clips filmed by
satisfied Danish tourists enjoying different lifestyle experiences in Cambodia, the idea
is to heighten the credibility of the lifestyle campaign as well as giving the Danish
tourists a feeling that Cambodia is not only a fun and exiting country to travel in but
also safe.
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