The Vietnam War- Cold War Build-up- Longest American War in Cold War History
Understanding the phases of USA involvement in Vietnam
What were the goals of the USA in Vietnam and what did they reflect about
the perceptions of the Cold War?
USA Presidential Polices of the Cold War: Roots of Involvement in Vietnam
I. President Truman’s Policy of Containment
President Truman: Democrat- 1945-1953
Secretary of State- Dean Acheson
Orthodox Belief
Truman Doctrine
Marshall Plan
Containment Policy
1947- USA National Security Actcreated the CIA and the NSC
(National Security Council)
Berlin Crisis & Airlift
NATO Established
USA support of Nationalists in China
Use of the United Nations
Korean War- extension of Executive powers for an undeclared war
1950- Truman grants aid to France in its war against the Vietminh in Vietnam. Truman wanted
to secure his alliance with France and its support of Containment
1950-1954 - USA grants more than $2.6 billion to France for its war in Indochina (Vietnam)
Military Build-up - Arms Race begins!
1954- Dien Bien Phu campaign- French lost control of Vietnam to the Nationalists/ Communists
II. President Eisenhower’s Policy of Massive Retaliation
President Eisenhower: Republican- 1953-1961- IKE
Vice-President- Richard Nixon
Secretary of State- John Foster Dulles
Eisenhower Doctrine- Empowered the President to extend economic and military aid to
nations of the Middle East if threatened by communists.
1952 (Days before Eisenhower came into office) USA tests the 1st H-Bomb (Hydrogen Bomb)
15 Megaton blast
*Death of Stalin (March 1953)
USSR tests the H-Bomb in July 1953
France surrendered in Vietnam (USA, Great Britain, France, USSR, China, Laos, Cambodia, and
the Vietminh met in Geneva to design the Peace Accord.
Geneva Accords- 1954- Divides Vietnam, 17th Parallel- Vietminh North, French South
Eisenhower’s “Chance for Peace” speech- called for a new era of relations… would not come.
Domino Theorypresented as need to
support South Vietnam
after Korea- 1954
Massive Retaliation- If the USSR attacked, the USA would retaliate instantaneously.
“…. by means and at places of our own choosing.”1
Decrease in armed personnel, Increase in Air Power and Nuclear Power
Brinkmanship- a critical name given to the policy of massive retaliation “reckless”
USSR Launches Sputnik- August, 1957 (1st possible intercontinental ballistic missile)
Missile Gap- USA increases funding for missile development
NASA - established to close the missile gap.
National Defense Education Act (NDEA) $$$$ of support for education and universities USA Established short-range missiles in Europe.
Suez Crisis- Nasser takes power in Egypt, demands control of the Suez Canal from the British.
USA offered to assist Nasser with the building of the Aswan Dam.
Nasser made a deal with the Soviets for Arms, and Dulles withdrew support of the Dam.
July 1956- Nasser seized control of the canal.
Israel, Britain and France invaded Egypt.
Eisenhower did not support.
Opened the Middle East to the Soviets.
Cuban Revolution- 1958
1961- In his Farewell Speech, Eisenhower warns of the “Military Industrial complex”
III. Decolonization after World War II brings greater instability
1946-1960- There were 37 emerging nations (new Cold War battlegrounds)
Korean WarVietnam WarEastern EuropeMiddle EastSuez Crisis- 1956
IV.
CIA involvement in emerging nations:
Iran- Overthrow of the Iranian government (Mossadeg) in 1953 to reinstate the Shah.
Operation AJAXGuatemala- 1954 Successful Coup
Laos and South Vietnam- Supported friendly governments 1954->
Indonesia- Unsuccessful overthrow- 1957
Cuba- 1961 Unsuccessful coup
Dominican Republic – 1960 Successful Coup
Congo- Attempted assassination of leader 1961
Overview of Vietnam War:
Summary of Vietnam Events:
Vietnamese Nationalism and 1st Indochina War
USA Involvement in the Cold War Context
Diem and the Republic of Vietnam
Kennedy and the 1st USA Involvement in Vietnam
Johnson and Escalation
Quagmire and the Tet Offensive
Quagmire- An dangerous and difficult situation that is difficult to escape.
1960-1970- USA Domestic Anti-war movement
1969-1975- Nixon and Vietnamization
1975- Aftermath of the War
1900-19541947-19551955-19601961-19631964-19661966-1968-
V. President John F. Kennedy 1961-1963
President Kennedy: Democrat- 1961-1963- JFK
Pragmatist- a leader who looked for practical solution
The New Frontier (JFK’s Domestic Policies)
Television plays a major role in the USA elections (JFK only 43 years old)
Secretary of StateSPACE Race begins- USSR Yuri Gagrin orbited the Earth 1961
JFK- Calls for the USA to land a man on the moon and return him to earth before 1970.
Project Mercury (Glenn orbited the Earth) 1962, Project Gemini 1965-66, Apollo Program 1968
USA Established the Peace Corps 1961
Bay of Pigs
Cuban Missile Crisis
Background to unrest in Vietnam:

World War II- Vietnam was occupied by Japanese

September 2, 1945- Vietnam declares its independence
from French rule

Ho Chi Minh- Leader of the Vietnam nationalist forces
(The Vietminh)- Communists
 French unwilling to give up control of Indochina :




Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam
By 1945- Vietminh controlled the North of Vietnam,
French secured the South.
1950- France appeals to the USA for aid and assistance
1950- Truman reluctantly grants aid $20 million to
France
France surrendered in Vietnam 1954- (USA, Great
Britain, France, USSR, China, Laos, Cambodia, and the
Vietminh met in Geneva to design the Peace Accord.

Geneva Accords- 1954- Divides Vietnam, 17th
Parallel- Vietminh North, French South.

Domino Theory- 1954- coined by Eisenhower as
reason to support South Vietnam
South Vietnam:
Ngo Dinh Diem 1954- came to power in the South Vietnam 1954
1954-1961- USA sends $1 billion in aid to South Vietnam (80% went to military)
Diem canceled elections (held a special referendum instead). He “won” 98% approval. 
NLF (National Labor Front) – aka the Vietcong- Established in South Vietnam (largely
communists) to oppose Diem.
Civil War in the South Diem’s Forces
Supported by USA
Vietminh - Communists
NLF- Vietcong
Close to Ho Chi Minh government
Support from North Vietnam
Indirect support from China and USSR
JFK- Viewed Vietnam as part of the larger Global struggle - Extension of the
Domino Theory established under Eisenhower.
VI.
President John F. Kennedy’s Policies in Vietnam
1. Strengthen South Vietnamese army with USA technology and advisors
a. USA gave triple the aid under Kennedy
2. Pressure Diem to make economic and political reforms to lessen the attraction
of communists and radicals in Vietnam
a. USA sent 16,000 advisors to Vietnam by 1963
b. Little impact…. Widespread corruption
c. Monks setting themselves on fire in protest… “Thich Quang Duc”
1963- Diem was overthrown by his own South Vietnamese Generals- Evidence points
to heavy involvement of the Kennedy Administration in hopes of gaining North Vietnamese
support.
November 1, 1963- Diem was assassinated in the Coup
(Three weeks later, JFK was assassinated) Vice-President Johnson took over power.
VII. President Johnson’s Polices and actions in Vietnam
Lynden B. Johnson- Democrat- 1963-1969
Most known for the Domestic Polices of “The Great Society”
Secretary of State- Dean rusk
Secretary of Defense- Robert McNamara (1968 Replaced by Clark Clifford)
National Security Advisor- McGeorge Bundy
1. Expansion of involvement in Vietnam\
a. General Westmoreland - Commander in Vietnam- Later admitted that US
polices were often “trial and error” because of the little experience that US commanders
and troops had with the same type of forces and atmosphere.
b. Repeated Coup d’états in the South- Johnson- “I’m sick of this coup shit.”
c. 1965 – USSR aided North
Vietnam- Soviet Premier
Kosygin met with North
Vietnamese in Hanoi and
agreed to aid.
2. Gulf of Tonkin Resolution- USA
victims of unprovoked attacks in
the Gulf
Congress granted Johnson authority
to “take all necessary measures to
repel an armed attack against the forces of the US and to prevent further aggression.”
Later discovered that Johnson had used the attack in Tonkin to gain Congressional support,
but in reality the destroyers in the gulf had been assisting South Vietnamese soldiers to raid
two islands in the North.2
3. Widespread Aerial Bombing- Operation Rolling Thunder- February, 1965. USA
responds to Vietcong attacks in the South.
Represented a Policy of Graduated Response
a. Response to Vietcong Attacks at Pleiliu Airbase in 1965- 8 Americans killed
b. Johnson orders the 1st American bombing of North Vietnam by the USA
c. Three years of bombing in the North
d. Targeted the Ho Chi Minh Trail (weapons supply route through Laos and Cambodia)
New leader in South Vietnam- General Nguyen Van Thieu- even more unpopular.
e. Use of Agent Orange and Napalm
1965- USA ground forces ordered to Vietnam to guard the airbase at Da Nang at request of
general Westmoreland.
1965- 180,000 American Troops in Vietnam
1966- 360,000 American Troops in Vietnam
1967- 500,000 American Troops in Vietnam
By 1967- 14,000 American Deaths
4. Johnson believed that the real goal of the North was to legitimize China’s position in Asia.
Johnson feared USSR and Chinese involvement (a repeat of Korean at the Yalu River)
Split occurred between the USSR and China because the Chinese often smuggled the Soviet
weapons back to China. Very little trust between China and USSR
5. Pacification Program- a type of scorched earth policy pursued by the USA ground troops.
Destroyed villages, burning fields, capturing villages, and taking prisoners.
6. Johnson repeatedly attempted to negotiate with the North. He would withdraw
bombing and attempt negotiations.
VIII.
Failures in Vietnam
1. USA Policy makers greatly underestimated the Vietcong and the North Vietnamese
allies under Ho Chi Minh
a. Key example… 1967 General Westmoreland announced that the enemy was
losing.
2. Vietcong and Ho Chi Minh fought for a type of “Pyrrhic Victory” – one in which the
costs for the USA would outnumber those for the Vietnamese, even though the North may suffer
more casualties.
3. USA reliance on Air power was relatively ineffective given the terrain and tactics of
the North Vietnamese
a. Widespread bombing of civilian and military targets did not break the moral of the North
Vietnamese…. Actually increased it.
b. Huge devastation: by 1967 USA used more bombs in Vietnam than had been dropped in all
of WWII by the Allies. 3 Use of B-52 Bombers
c. Use of Agent Orange and Napalm - very drastic
4. USA Ground troops- Search and Destroy missions were largely ineffective
a. Inexperienced soldiers
b. Average age of USA solder was 19 years old…
c. Unfamiliar terrain
d. Pacification Program created more enemies for the USA and supporters for
the Vietcong
5. Inability to respond to the Guerilla Tactics of the Vietcong
a. Vietcong were familiar with the local terrain
b. Vietcong had the support of the local peasant population
c. USA soldiers found it difficult to distinguish friend from foe.
6. The Tet Offensive- Major turning point of the Vietnam War 1968
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
No place in the South was safe from communist attack, even the USA embassy.
Decreased USA domestic confidence and raised doubts about Johnson’s policies.
Tet- 1st day of the Vietnamese New Year
Major offensive by the Communists against the South- They infiltrated Saigon
Communist goal- “to spur uprisings throughout the South”
Huge losses on both sides- Greatest USA loss was to regain city of Hue
For the 1st time Johnson would not agree to General Westmoreland’s request for an
additional 200,000 troops
7. Costs of the Vietnam Wara.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
58,000 + Americans dead
300,000 Americans wounded
$150 Billion
America lost the War! American confidence shattered.
8 million tons of bombs dropped in Vietnam, equivalent to 640 Hiroshimas. 4
Economy and infrastructure of Vietnam destroyed
8. Demonstrated the power of Nationalist Movements
9. Represented the Politicization of War- goals became more political (domestically)
than militarily. Vs WWI and WWII, which saw complete mobilization
10. Irony of the Vietnam War- High Tech war for USA, fighting a low tech enemy
a. Example of operation IGLOO white- Sensors along the Ho Chi Minh Trail
b. Examples of air dominance. B52s- 12 taken down with basic anti-aircraft
weapons
IX. Vietnam Effects USA Domestic Politics:
1. 1st War to be Televised- reporters were embedded with the troops and the pictures were
brought into Americans’ living rooms.
2. Johnson announces that he will not seek reelection
3. Democratic favorite and potential nominee, Robert Kennedy, assassinated (June 4, 1968)
4. USA Presidential politics turn more conservative
a.
b.
c.
d.
Democratic party torn apart by the death of Kennedy and MLK
The Democratic Candidate, Hubert Humphrey support Johnson’s Vietnam Policy
Widespread public outrage with Humphrey’s stand.
Nixon’s only contender, Governor Wallace was too far right… his VP running mate even
spoke of using nuclear weapons to win in Vietnam. Frightened voters and most sided
with Nixon.
5. Democrats blamed for failure in Vietnam and many feared that democratic push for Civil
Rights had gone too far. End to the “Liberal Era” declared Nixon.
a. Vietnam had been seen by some as “a bone in the nation’s throat.”
5
6. 1970s in the USA witnesses an “Era of Social Consciousness”
7. The Pentagon Papers, June 1971, brought widespread protest: (wikileaks of the 70s.)
a.
b.
c.
d.
Secret Defense department study of USA involvement in Vietnam…
Leaked by Daniel Ellsberg, (former Defense Department analyst)
Revealed that the government had lied about the war
Exposed the real reason was not to fight communism but to “avoid a humiliating
defeat.” - Nixon tried to block the papers from being released even though his
administration was not implicated.
8. Rise of Student Activism in the 1960sa. Large number of baby boomers attending university in the 1960s. 4xs the # of students
in the 1950s in American Universities. By 1970, 8xs the # of students.
b. Reality was that only a small % joined the activists movements. Many were well off
economically and not part of the New Left
c. Students for Democratic Society- SDS Movement Spread.
i. University of Michigan
ii. Led protest movement at the Washington Monument
d. Berkeley University- Protests and sit-ins
e. Kent State- Ohio- students outraged with Nixon’s move to send troops into Cambodia,
in April 1970.
1. Kent State uprising at the ROTC building
2. Ohio Governor Rhodes called in the National Guard
3. 600 Students protested peacefully
4. Tear gas ensued, verbal conflict… troops fired into the crowd. Four students killed.
5. Later determined that the actions of the National Guard were “unwarranted and
inexcusable.”
f. Jackson State University- Mississippi
1. Violence between protesters and the National Guard
2. 500 troops brought in, 80 state officers, and 125 police
3. Violence broke out, 2 protesters killed, 12 students wounded.
9. Resisting the Draft- Rise of Conscientious Objectors
a. By 1950s all 18 year olds had to register for the draft (despite not having the right to
vote.)
b. Critics claimed that the Draft unfairly targeted low income citizens due to the ability of
college students to obtain draft deferments.
c. African Americans accounted for 18% of the fighting forces in Vietnam (yet they were
only 10% of the American population.)
10. Widespread Opposition to the War- Media alters public opinion.
a. Hawks- Americans who supported the war
b. Doves- Americans who opposed the war
c. Best example of American brutality brought to the screens: The My Lai Massacrei. Scoop by Journalist Seymour Hersh
ii. March 1968, US forces under the command of Lieutenant William L Calley had
massacred 350 Vietnamese civilians.
X. Richard Nixon elected President- Policies in Vietnam:
1. President Nixon, 1969-1974: Republican
Secretary of State- Henry Kissinger
2. Vietnam Policies:
a. Publicly supported Johnson’s attempts to negotiate peace- claimed as he
was running for President that he would do nothing to threaten such
negotiations. Later evidence suggests that Republicans had actually met
and negotiated with the South Vietnamese leaders urging them not to
make a deal with Johnson, and that they “would get a better deal with
Nixon”. (CNN Cold War Episode 11).
b. “Peace with Honor”- Pledged to end the war quickly… despite claiming to
have a plan to end the war quickly, the war continued on for four more years. Most
officials could only optimistically estimate that it would take eight more years.
c. Nixon Doctrine- USA would no longer intervene in emerging nation’s affairs with
military personnel; however, the USA would continue to send weapons and aid for local
forces to conduct the fighting.
i. Foreign Policy almost exclusively conducted by Nixon and Kissinger
d. Vietnamization- Goal to maintain a pro-western, independent
government in South Vietnam
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
USA trained South Vietnam forces to take the place of USA soldiers.
November 1969, Nixon withdraws 60,000 troops from Vietnam
1969-1972, USA troops dropped from 500,000 to less than 25,000 in Vietnam.
By 1971- Vietnamization was seen as a failure…. South losing.
e. The Secret Wari. Nixon ordered the bombing of supply bases on Cambodia and Laos
in March 1969. Increase of American bombing.
ii. Nixon used a “carrot and stick” approach… force through bombing raids,
and tempting North Vietnam with negotiations. Kissinger failed to deliver the
negotiations.6
iii. April 1970, Nixon orders US Troops into Cambodia to attack North
Vietnamese bases.
f. Nixon Moves to silence Protestersi. Appeal to the “Silent Majority” those not protesting. The “real
Americans”
ii. Referred to the protesters as the minority making the most noise.
iii. Kent State- Ohio- students outraged with Nixon’s move to send
troops into Cambodia, in April 1970.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Kent State uprising at the ROTC building
Ohio Governor Rhodes called in the National Guard
600 Students protested peacefully
Tear gas ensued, verbal conflict… troops fired into the crowd. Four
students killed.
5. Later determined that the actions of the National Guard were
“unwarranted and inexcusable.”
iv. Jackson State University- Mississippi
1. Violence between protesters and the National Guard
2. 500 troops brought in, 80 state officers, and 125 police
3. Violence broke out, 2 protesters killed, 12 students wounded.
g. Final Peace Talksi. Paris, October 1972
ii. Cease-fire was negotiated- called for the withdrawal of all American troops and
POWs.
iii. Kissinger announced, “Peace is at hand.”
iv. South Vietnam leader, President Thieu, refused to sign the treaty, claiming that
the USA was abandoning the South.
v. The Christmas Bombings- December 18- Nixon orders bombing of
Hanoi and Haiphong, lasted for 12 days…
vi. North Vietnamese returned to negotiations, agreed to cease-fire
vii. USA pressured President Thieu to accept the cease-fire
viii. Major question… was this peace with honor? Many critics claim that the same
treaty could have been obtained four years earlier and thus save 600,000
Vietnamese lives and 21,000 Americans.
h. Peace accords Failed to bring Peace
i. The cease fire collapsed, March 1975 North Vietnam launched a
major offensive
ii. Fall of Saigon in April 1975
iii. Evacuation of the American Embassy in Saigon
iv. South Vietnam surrendered to the North.
3. Nixon’s Foreign Policy elsewhere:
a.
b.
c.
d.
Détente with the USSR
Nixon goes to China
Middle East and Shuttle Diplomacy
Liberation Theology
i. Interventionism
1. Chile- Salvador Allende
4. Nixon brought down by the Watergate Crisis-
Compiled by David Nelson for IB History HL, ACS Athens 2011
1
Tilford, Earl H. "“By Means and at Places of Our Own Choosing…” « The Center for Vision & Values at Grove City College." The
Center for Vision & Values at Grove City College. 2 Dec. 2004. Web. 25 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.visionandvalues.org/2004/12/qby-means-and-at-places-of-our-own-choosingq/>.
2
Nash, Gary B. American Odyssey: the United States in the Twentieth Century. New York: Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, 1999. 772. Print.
3
Ibid., 774.
4
Ibid., 801.
Ibid., 797.
6
Ibid., 798.
5