Chapter 20 The Last Nomadic Challenges
I.
Introduction
With the Mongol conquests beginning in the thirteenth century, pastoral nomads enjoyed one last
century of political dominance over much of Eurasia. The Mongol empire stretched from China to
eastern Europe. Although the Mongols have often been depicted as savage barbarians, they
imposed peace on the regions they came to dominate and enabled the establishment of a Eurasianwide system of trade and cultural exchange.
II.
The Mongol Empire of Chinggis Khan
A.
Introduction
The traditional Mongol tribal divisions were finally overcome by Chinggis Khan in the
thirteenth century. The Mongols were typical pastoral nomads. They depended on herds of
goats and sheep for their livelihood, engaged in trade, and were renowned horsemen and
women. The basic unit of Mongol society was the tribe composed of clans. These social
units were fragile and seldom united for joint action. Courage and the ability to construct
tribal alliances were valued traits of Mongol leadership. Only powerful leaders could survive.
B.
The Making of a Great Warrior: The Early Career of Chinggis Khan
The Mongols had enjoyed brief periods of dominance in the fourth and tenth centuries.
Chinggis Khan's great- grandfather had defeated the Qin dynasty of China in the twelfth
century, but his successors did not enjoy his military success. Chinggis Khan's father, a
moderately successful Mongol leader, was poisoned by tribal rivals. Left to fend for his
family as a minor, Chinggis Khan was deserted by most clan heads. Temporarily captured
by his enemies, Chinggis Khan eventually escaped and joined the band of a more powerful
leader. As a young man, he was able to achieve a reputation as a successful military leader
and attracted clan chiefs to his encampment. In 1206, the Mongol chieftains elected
Chinggis Khan khagan, or supreme ruler of the Mongol tribes.
C.
Building the Mongol War Machine
Mongol warriors were not only excellent horsemen but also accomplished archers. Mongol
armies were entirely cavalry and depended on speed and mobility in making their assaults.
Chinggis Khan reorganized the tribal armies of the Mongols into units called tumens
containing 10,000 men. Each army was also divided into heavy cavalry, light cavalry, and
lightly armored scouts who preceded the main forces. Chinggis Khan introduced severe
discipline that mandated death for any soldier who left his unit in battle. Spies and informers
produced information that resulted in the creation of accurate maps. The later Mongol forces
were equipped with gunpowder and artillery.
D.
Conquest: The Mongol Empire Under Chinggis Khan
Chinggis Khan launched a massive series of assaults in 1207. He defeated the kingdom of
Xi Xia in northern China, then attacked the Qin empire of the Jurchen. At first frustrated by
the fortified Chinese cities, the Mongols soon developed siege weapons that rendered the
towns vulnerable to prolonged assault. Towns that chose to resist conquest were sacked
and the townsmen slaughtered. Towns that surrendered immediately were subjected to
tribute, but often spared.
E.
First Assault on the Islamic World: Conquest in China
From his early successes in northern China, Chinggis Khan sent his victorious armies
westward to attack the Khwarazm Empire. When the empire of Muhammad Shah II refused
to surrender, the Mongols conquered Khwarazm and incorporated the Turkish horsemen of
the region into his armies. By 1227, the Mongol empire stretched from northern China to the
shores of the Persian Gulf.
F.
Life Under the Mongol Imperium
Mongol rule was generally tolerant. Chinggis Khan established the capital of his empire at
Karakorum, to which he summoned the intellectuals from his conquered kingdoms. The
Mongols offered religious toleration to Confucians, Buddhists, Daoists, and Muslims. The
Mongol administration drew from examples in both the Islamic and Chinese world. Chinggis
Khan formulated a legal code intended to end tribal and clan divisions among the Mongols.
Under the Mongol peace, trade and cultural exchange flourished.
G.
The Death of Chinggis Khan and the Division of the Empire
In 1226, Chinggis Khan turned once again to the rebellious kingdom of Xi-Xia. Just as his
armies proved victorious, the Mongol khagan died. His body was carried to a secret place in
the steppes for burial. Chinggis Khan's three sons and a grandson divided the Mongol
empire among themselves. Ogedei, the khagan's third son, was named his successor. For
nearly a decade, Ogedei continued to direct Mongol campaigns.
III.
The Mongol Drive to the West
A.
Introduction
The subjugation of the Christian lands of eastern Europe was entrusted to the Golden Horde,
while the task of conquering the remainder of the Islamic world fell to the Ilkhan Empire. In
1236, Chinggis Khan's grandson, Batu, led the first Mongol invasion of Russia. The Russian
princes, who failed to unite in the face of the nomadic threat, were defeated individually. Just
as it appeared all of Russia might be conquered, the Mongols withdrew in 1238. Mongol
armies returned in 1240 and completed the reduction of the major Russian cities. Of all the
great urban centers of Russia, only Novgorod was spared.
B.
Russia in Bondage
The Mongol conquest of Russia reduced the Russian princes to tribute-payers. Payments
fell heavily on the peasants, who found themselves reduced to serfdom. Until the midnineteenth century, serfdom was typical of Russian agricultural labor. Some Russian cities,
such as Moscow, recovered their fortunes by the increased trade the Mongol empire
permitted. After 1328, Moscow also profited by serving as the tribute collector for the Mongol
overlords. The head of the Orthodox Church in Russia selected Moscow as his capital.
In 1380, the princes of Moscow turned against the Mongols and led an alliance of Russian
forces that defeated the Mongols at the battle of Kulikova. The victory broke the hold of the
Mongols on Russia, although the nomads continued to make raids into the fifteenth century.
The Mongol conquest of Russia ensured the central position of Moscow and the Orthodox
Church, led to changes in Russian military organization, and revised the political concepts of
Russian rulers. The period of Mongol dominance also cut Russia off from western Europe
both politically and culturally.
C.
Mongol Incursions and the Retreat from Europe
The first Christian reaction to Mongol invasions was positive. They were convinced that the
Mongols were potential allies against the Muslims. The assault on Russia proved that earlier
optimism about Mongol intentions was a miscalculation. The successful conquest of
Hungary alerted Europe to the potential danger of Mongol assault. Just as it appeared the
eastern door to Europe lay open, the Mongol hordes withdrew to Asia to resolve the
succession crisis that followed the death of Ogedei.
D.
The Mongol Assault on the Islamic Heartlands
The conquest of the Muslim heartlands of the Middle East fell to Hulegu, another grandson
of Chinggis Khan. In 1258, the Mongols captured and destroyed Baghdad, killing the last of
the Abbasid caliphs. The Mongol invasion and the consequent destruction of many cities
destroyed the focal points of Islamic culture. Without a central administration, the regional
Muslim commanders suffered repeated defeats. Only in 1260 did the Mamluk army of Egypt
defeat the Mongols at Ain Jalut. Baibars, the Mamluk general, was able to hold off further
Mongol invasions. Lack of unity among the Mongol hordes also caused Hulegu to end his
assault on Islamic territories.
E.
The Mongol Impact on Europe and the Islamic World
The Mongol invasions caused Europeans to alter their military organization and to adopt the
use of gunpowder. Mongol conquests facilitated trade across the Asiatic steppes between
Europe and Asia. The Mongol armies may also have transmitted the plague infection from
Asia to European populations.
IV.
The Mongol Interlude in Chinese History
A.
Introduction
The Mongol conquest of China lasted only a century, but had enduring consequences.
Temporarily, the Mongols opened China to external influences from the other civilized
regions of Eurasia. The Mongol conquest of China was commanded by Kubilai, a grandson
of Chinggis Khan. The southern Song dynasty proved difficult to overcome. The conquest
took from 1235 to 1279. Even before the conquest was completed, Kubilai Khan changed
the name of his dynasty to Yuan. In order to retain a separate identity, however, the new
ruler passed laws forbidding Chinese from learning the Mongol script and
intermarriage.Under the Mongol Yuan dynasty, a new social order emerged. At the top of the
hierarchy were the Mongols and their allies, then the northern Chinese, then the southern
Chinese and other ethnic groups. The central administration was reserved for Mongols and
their allies, although the Chinese continued to control the local administrative network.
B.
Gender Roles and the Convergence of Mongol and Chinese Cultures
Mongol women refused to recognize the reduced status accorded females in Confucian
society. They refused to adopt the practice of foot-binding, and they retained their rights to
property and control within the household. The main influence of Mongol women after the
Mongols settled in China was Chabi, the wife of Kubilai Khan. She advised her husband in
many diplomatic and political matters.
Ultimately, living in China eroded the power and freedom of Mongol women.
C.
Mongol Tolerance and Foreign Cultural Influences
The Yuan dynasty continued to patronize a full range of scholars and artists from other lands
within the Mongol empire. Muslims and Islamic culture were particularly prominent in the
Mongol court in China. As elsewhere, the Mongol overlords of China preserved religious
toleration and admitted Nestorian and western Christians, as well as Buddhists and Daoists,
within their kingdom. It was during the reign of Kubilai Khan that Marco Polo of Italy made
his journey to China.
D.
Social Policies and Scholar-Gentry Resistance
Most of the Chinese scholar-gentry continued to regard the Yuan as barbarians. The Mongol
custom of elevating foreigners over Chinese within the central administration further
exacerbated the feeling of alienation. The Mongols also elevated the social status of artisans
and merchants, who had traditionally ranked below the peasantry in the Confucian social
hierarchy. Cities flourished during the Mongol regime in China. Urban culture catered to the
Mongols and merchants. Only with respect to his attempts to improve the social and
economic condition of the Chinese peasantry did the scholar-gentry approve of Kubilai
Khan's social policies.
E.
The Fall of the House of Yuan
Eventually the Chinese began to raise rebellions against the Mongol conquerors. Mongol
military reputation suffered after defeats at the hands of the Japanese and Vietnamese.
Decades in China softened the Mongols. Following the death of Kubilai Khan, no vigorous
successors reigned in China. As dissatisfaction with the Yuan dynasty grew, the scholargentry called on the people to oust their oppressors.
Popular dissatisfaction spawned secret societies, such as the White Lotus Society,
dedicated to the overthrow of the Yuan. When the government was unable to suppress local
violence, the Yuan rulers began to flee to central Asia. Order was restored under Ju
Yuanzhang, a peasant and the founder of the Ming dynasty.
V.
Conclusion: The Mongol Legacy and an Aftershock: The Brief Ride of Timur
Mongol invasions were devastating, but the conquests paved the way for the dominance of Moscow
in Russia, ended regimes in the Islamic heartlands, created a trading zone that linked all of the
civilized regions of Eurasia, and imposed an effective and tolerant government over much of Asia.
Following the fragmentation of the Mongol empire, a second nomadic expansion occurred under
Timur-i Lang. In the 1360s his armies devastated a wide region of the Middle East, India, and
southern Russia. There were few positive results of Timur's short-lived empire. After his death in
1405, his kingdom rapidly disintegrated.