STUDENT DIVERSITY – ESSENTIAL CHALLENGES
FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING
Pierre du Plessis (University of Johannesburg)
Lloyd Conley (University of Johannesburg)
INTRODUCTION
Schools in South Africa have become more diverse, posing new challenges for
teachers and teacher education. This diversity is multifaceted, encompassing racial,
class, gender, religious, linguistic, physical and other differences. A recurring theme
in the literature is the increasing learner diversity within schools, but the continuing
lack of diversity amongst teaching staff, such as in the now rapidly-integrating
minority schools. How are teacher education institutions responding to this challenge,
both in terms of preparing students for teaching in schools different from the ones
they experienced as learners and in terms of dealing with diversity and difference
amongst learners?
The South African teacher education system has undergone major restructuring. This
restructuring is an integral part of the changes in higher education intended to
overcome the legacy of apartheid divisions and inequities, such as the inequitable
use of resources and the racial separation of institutions. A number of factors impact
on whether and how diversity is addressed, such as the restructuring of universities
and changes in national curriculum and teacher education policy.
Specific legislative and institutional changes have included making all teacher
education a national and not a provincial responsibility (Jansen 2004, Lewin et al.
2003; Parker 2003; Reddy J 2003). This has meant the closure of the college of
education system, and the incorporation of some of these programmes into higher
education. There have also been major mergers in the tertiary system. Of the three
institutions in this study, all three have incorporated colleges of education, and one
has further been involved in a university merger.
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One result of these changes is that, whatever the degree of commitment to change,
the pressure within teacher education to address diversity has been only one of
many pressing issues around transformation in the sector (see Lewin et al.
2003:363ff. for an analysis of the diverse currents at work). Those involved in teacher
education who are trying to develop innovative programmes have simultaneously
been dealing with major institutional restructuring and curriculum reform focused on a
wide range of issues, not just on diversity issues.
The restructuring of teacher education, driven by both the imperative of ending
apartheid divisions and the need for greater efficiency, has had unintended
consequences that may have impeded whether and how institutions addressed
issues of diversity (Ntshoe 2004).
A further impact on teacher education has been the process of national curriculum
change. There have been far-reaching curriculum changes related to the introduction
of outcomes-based education (OBE) and to the revision of the national curriculum on
the basis of values of human rights, social justice, inclusivity and environmental
education. Sayed (2004:258) points out that: 'teacher education providers are
expected to reorientate their own as well as school-based staff'. He notes, however,
that there is also a higher degree of curriculum autonomy.
Such changes have had a major impact on the undergraduate programmes in
particular, which have been restructured to meet the needs of the school curriculum.
To give one example of how this might impact on teaching around diversity, areas
such as technology education are required to relate issues in technology to social
differences, for example considering how both rich and poor are involved in
technology, and how different resources are mobilised in different ways to solve
problems in different social contexts.
The Norms and Standards policy (DoE 2000) sets out the requirements for
educators, and led to significant changes in the curricula of teacher education
institutions. The Norms and Standards identified seven roles for teachers. The
community, citizenship and pastora role requires that 'the educator will uphold the
Constitution and promote democratic values and practices in schools and society'
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(DoE 2000:14). The learning mediator role includes the requirement that educators
'communicate effectively showing recognition of and respect for the differences of
others' (DoE 2000:12). All roles include competencies related to a critical and
inclusive handling of diversity, such as 'understanding the impact of class, race,
gender and other identity-forming forces on learning' (DoE 2000:19).
There have thus been a series of far-reaching changes that impact on institutions of
teacher education. While some would encourage or impel teacher education
institutions to address the challenges of school integration more decisively, others
may have had unintended and contradictory effects.
Research on teacher education and diversity
The need to develop anti-racist teaching practices in the context of the increasing
diversity of former white schools led the South African Human Rights Commission
(SAHRC) report to propose that specific attention be paid to anti-racist teaching
practices in both pre-service and in-service programmes (Vally & Dalamba 1999:66),
White Paper No 6, On Building an Inclusive Education and Training System (DoE
2000), also set out a view of 'inclusion' as embracing all forms of exclusion, by
implication including those based on race, gender, class and other social identities,
and called for such an understanding to be included within teacher education.
Le Roux and Möller (2002) explore the need for teacher education generally to
address issues of racial and cultural diversity in a specific and focused way, and for
such issues to inform the whole curriculum of teacher education. Moletsane et al.
(2004:76) set the following questions as the basis for a South African research
agenda into diversity within teacher education:

What understanding of diversity underlies pre-service and in-service teacher
education?

What specific interventions are in place as a result of this understanding?

What educational processes are used in coursework, to encourage change in
attitudes and action?

In what ways is teaching practice organised and assessed to promote good
practice with regard to diversity?
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
To what extent does the understanding of diversity inform practices regarding
the different forms of exclusion on campus and in schools?

What research is being undertaken to assess the impact on practice, and to
assess obstacles to good practice in schools?
However, little research has been published on actual programmes addressing
diversity. Lewin et al. (2002:373) refer to 'limited empirically-based studies on the
teacher education institutions themselves and their interpretations of teacher
education policies and practices', Typically, research into teacher education has
focused largely on debates about OBE in teacher education, the questions of teacher
supply and demand, the impact of HIV/AIDS, the experience of the restructuring
process, the impact of OBE, and professional identity (the last sometimes in relation
to issues of social identity).
Some published research has reported modules that address diversity and inequality
(Hemson et a!. 2001; Hemson et a!. 2003; Waghid 2004). Such modules may form
models for teachers to understand forms of privileging and exclusion within schools
and in the broader society. Another module described by Samuel (in Lewin et a!.
2003) focused on subject methodology rather than on diversity explicitly.
Nonetheless, it engaged with students' own identities, using autobiography and
problematising issues of identity while simultaneously developing skills in the
teaching of English, and illustrated how questions of diversity can be addressed
across all elements of a curriculum, A paper by Richardson (2003) focuses on a
module that addressed issues of homophobia, while Francis and Francis (2006) write
about the issues of teaching around stigma and HIV/AIDS within teacher education.
A common feature of these specific modules is the focus on autobiography and on
the constructions of identity, as well as an emphasis on the need for establishing 'a
climate of mutual trust, cooperation and confidentiality' (Samuel 2003:261).
Teaching practice is another specific area within the teacher education curriculum
that has had little scrutiny with regard to diversity, though an unpublished study by
Quin (2003) raises some critical questions with respect to the ways in which
assessment needs to engage with the handling of diversity, Ball (2000) explores the
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development, through practice, of student teachers' commitment towards teaching of
diverse learners in both the United States and South Africa.
Little research has reported whole curriculum approaches that embed these
understandings at various points in the curriculum, from subject methods to
foundational courses and teaching practice, or through the organisational culture of
the institution. Gultig 0999:70) writes about the need for a more integrated approach:
Teacher education gets caught in the trap of focussing on detail - teaching
teachers about human rights, for instance - rather than teaching a human
rights approach (in other words, focusing on the underlying disciplinary rules
and associated skills, a human rights way of thinking).
It is also important to note that preparation of teachers for issues of diversity cannot
be a simple process; obviously an ability to understand how racism and sexism may
affect learning in schools and the ability to treat learners with equity are necessary
elements, though not necessarily easy to achieve. It is not obvious what all the other
skills and understandings are that are needed to equip teachers with the abilities to
act optimally in a complex social environment distant from the university classroom and again such learnings may be achieved only with difficulty.
Teaching with Student Diversity in Mind
The changing profile of the college student brings people with different aptitudes and
experiences into the classroom. The dimensions of student diversity include age,
learning style, skill level, cultural background, physical ability, gender, race, ethnicity,
and sexual orientation. Not all of these dimensions are of equal importance in a given
teaching and learning situation, but we should be aware of ways in which
acknowledging student diversity (or failing to) affects our students' experiences.
Teaching for diversity means providing a variety of learning activities so that students
with different learning styles have a chance to succeed. And it means managing our
courses and classrooms so that all students feel welcomed and supported in their
efforts to learn. Teaching for diversity does not mean lowering standards or
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expectations for student performance, but it does mean that some students may
need different, or additional, kinds of support to meet high expectations.
Giving All Students a Chance to Succeed
The culture of the college classroom traditionally has favored individual achievement,
expository lectures, and learning by listening and reading. Students whose
experiences predispose them to nonverbal or visual forms of communication and
cooperative, rather than competitive, problem-solving may feel at odds with this
culture. To succeed in such a classroom, these students need to master not only the
explicit content of the course, but also the implicit, "hidden" curriculum. Also, the
realization is growing that the traditional college culture has not served even
traditional students all that well. The recent emphasis on active learning rests in part
on the finding that much of what is learned in school settings-at all levels-is forgotten
within a few months of the last exam. The same teaching techniques that may help
women and members of under-represented minorities to succeed are also likely to
help all students learn more meaningfully. While some faculty are concerned that
using active learning techniques will mean less time to cover content, others have
concluded that they want students to master the most important principles, even if it
means reducing the number of topics, at institutional level.
Institution-level implications
One of the enduring challenges facing institutions is to foster a culture in which the
quality of student learning and engagement is the hub that drives institutional
decision-making and activity. The rewards of such efforts are many, including
enhanced student retention, persistence and satisfaction, along with improved staff
satisfaction resulting from a sense of accomplishment at promoting students’
engagement with learning. Such a culture does not emerge without a strategic
planning and priority setting across the institution. In the first instance, this involves a
commitment to systematic monitoring of the student experience that in turn informs
responsive policy-making and guides decisions about curricular, pedagogical and
assessment matters.
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A more encompassing view of the student experience is needed: one that considers
the experience beyond the classroom to be as important as that within the formal
learning environment – whether face-to-face or virtual. In this way, the curriculum will
be complemented by targeted support programs developed to meet the particular
needs of diverse demographic subgroups. In many cases, it may be best to keep all
students together for orientation and transition programs in order to foster a sense of
belonging in the broader learning community. However, evidence suggests that there
are certainly times when custom-designed support is required. To further such an
agenda, institutions must attach premium value not only to ongoing institutional
research on the student experience, but also to ongoing, context- appropriate staff
development and an evidence-based approach to practice.
In this way, a holistic and integrated approach to the student experience may be
achieved. This involves academic and support staff working side-by-side with
administrators, institutional researchers and policy-makers, rather than in traditional
silos that work to segment the institution instead of promoting seamlessness in
students’ university experiences (Coates & Krause, 2005).
National and community level implications
No institution of higher education operates as an island. National and local
communities play a significant role in the quality of the student experience. This
includes national higher education policies and funding to promote priority areas,
such as national level monitoring of the student experience. It also includes
institutional consultation with industry stakeholders to ensure that the curriculum
underpinning student learning is representative of real-world settings and authentic
learning experiences (James, et al. 2004: 29).
Institutional engagement with local communities is another key to supporting and
enhancing student diversity in a range of ways. Universities have a responsibility to
work with communities that are under-presented in higher education to raise
aspirations with regard to higher education from early in the lives of young people.
Equally, once students from under-represented communities enter higher education,
they should have the opportunity, with their peers, to feed back into their
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communities through civic engagement and service learning opportunities so that a
cycle of success and raised aspirations gradually replace cycles of failure and lack of
motivation to attend university. These opportunities should be integrated into the
curriculum and valued as part of an institutional culture that celebrates diversity and
recognizes its rewards for all involved.
Most effective approaches in dealing with diversity
The most effective approaches to dealing with diversity in first year cohorts, as
described by the universities themselves are reported in more detail in the 1999
study (McInnis, James, & Hartley, 2000, p. 55). They include:

A student-to-student mentoring programme facilitated by staff.

Peer support programmes, where outstanding students teach first year
students who are having problems. Tutors are closely trained by the
university’s learning centre.

The introduction of a personalized access and study policy, part of which
focuses on learning needs at the point of a student’s entry to the institution.

The creation of an academic skills office that works closely with all faculties
and whose overall aim is to have study skills incorporated as core elements
into faculty/school-level programmes.

A review of orientation procedures for students that led to changes such as
greater faculty involvement, welcoming ceremonies for families, introductory
lectures, ‘Facts of Life’ seminars on administrative matters, and the
introduction of on-line enrolment.
Crucial Steps to Increase Diversity
Even some of the most effective administrative leaders may be unaware of the core
diversity challenges they confront. They may not require regular accountability
reports, so information about diversity does not move up the line. In addition, the
campus politics associated with diversity, real or perceived, can thwart leaders who
are more risk averse and loath to make bold moves for fear of encountering
resistance from administrators, faculty members, and others.
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But senior leadership, both administrative and academic, is indispensable to any
serious attempt to integrate diversity into the academy. Campus leaders need to
consider eight key points if they intend to stay true to their commitment to diversity.
They should:
1.
Be prepared to respond to external pressures when making decisions
about diversity. The people who exert such external pressures often expect
one of two extremes: major institutional reform, or complete adherence to the
status quo. Presidents must master the techniques that allow them to balance
external expectations with a commitment to core values and good decisionmaking processes.
At many institutions, the traditional strategic plan is generated with broadbased support. A leader can identify where diversity represents a "good fit"
with - not a radical change in - that plan, appealing to the treasured values of
influential groups on the campus. For instance, Robert M. Gates, a former
president of Texas A&M University and now U.S. secretary of defense,
repeatedly linked diversity to the university's Vision 2020 plan and traditional
"Aggie" values.
2.
Avoid abstract language or ambiguous meaning about institutional
change and diversity. While a leader’s associates may prepare written drafts
of diversity presentations or suggest different ways to communicate about
diversity on the campus, the ultimate responsibility for the clarity and
consistency of the message rests solely with the leader. As leaders frame and
lead diversity discussions, they should consider three factors: the public
nature of their statements, the constituents who represent the target
audiences, and language that will capture attention and make an impression.
A principal’s conversations with business leaders can specify the relationship
between diversity and work-force development or regional economic
productivity. Alumni expect to hear a message that explains the impact of
diversity on institutional image and competitive rankings. Potential donors will
listen for presidential projections about the return on investments that support
diversity efforts.
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3.
Cultivate a leadership style that alternates between seeing the big
picture and recognizing the importance of incremental improvement. A
simple axiom will do: There will be few opportunities for macro change - so
presidents should capitalize on them when they occur and many instances
where incremental innovation represents the next logical and necessary step.
Although many principals already apply that philosophy when managing
institutional operations in general, a macro-versus-micro analysis of diversity
may represent new territory for some leaders.
For example, a principal can financially support administrative internships in
the form of yearlong, mentored, training experiences for promising and diverse
faculty members who aspire to move into positions like associate dean or
associate provost. Such actions can cultivate the incremental development of
leadership skills and competencies among people and, at the same time,
create a larger pool of candidates for such positions.
4.
Let the wisdom and expertise of a wide range of experts on the campus
guide decisions about diversity. The best team of advisers about diversity
might not be listed on the formal organizational chart because it reflects
traditional roles and responsibilities. A valuable exercise is to take the chart,
expunge names and titles, and replace them with those who are the most
thoughtful and visionary thinkers about diversity - wherever they work and
whatever they do on the campus.
Indeed, faculty members who direct centers for teaching excellence have
emerged as influential contributors to academic departments and graduate
programs that wish to diversify the curriculum or improve the quality of
teaching for diverse student populations. Many academic deans have also
expanded their traditional duties to include support for programs that increase
the participation of students of color in undergraduate research.
5.
Reach a broad consensus about diversity programs before trying to
carry them out. Agreement about new diversity programs should be worked
out in advance so as to benefit everyone involved and preclude any potential
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objections. That approach will significantly enhance the speed and
effectiveness of any new programs. An alliance between student affairs and
academic affairs, for example, is an absolute necessity when considering
diversity reform.
6.
Base principles and programs about diversity on historical patterns of
institutional change. Campus rectors should identify existing structures and
values and explain the role that diversity can and should play in them. For
example, can the current general-education or core curriculum drive the
diversification of a transformed curriculum? Can the traditional policies,
practices, and regulations in human resources absorb the equitable demands
of an increasingly diverse work force?
7.
Analyze and learn from institutions where at least moderate progress
has occurred. For example, most campus leaders are familiar with the public
summaries of the 2003 Supreme Court ruling that upheld the University of
Michigan's contention that diversity in the classroom has wide-ranging social
value. However, they are much less aware, and in come cases ignorant, of the
historical context, factual background, and social and psychological
implications that provided the evidentiary basis for the case.
Finally, and perhaps most important, they should:
8.
Pay special attention to the roles and responsibilities of the chief
academic officer. The most significant and lasting gains will occur when
diversity is linked in concrete ways to the institution's teaching, learning, and
research mission. The rector, deans, and department heads should operate
together as one of the major leadership groups that campus constituencies
associate with diversity. That group should articulate how a commitment to
success and excellence is reflected across the various types of diversity racial, economic, gender, religious, ideological, and others.
In fact, the rector should develop and disseminate a public document that
describes the value of linking diversity to academic excellence and the mission
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of his or her office. That document should describe the programs, courses,
and services that demonstrate the college's success in creating and sustaining
a diverse community. The rector should also convene a regular series of
academic-affairs-sponsored forums on diversity, on topics like "scrutinizing the
academic policies and structures that enhance diversity," "diversity and
successful learning communities," and "diversity as a research agenda."
Classroom teachers should be engaged in those conversations and others about
diversity and inclusion in the classroom, and the chief academic officer and other top
administrators should identify ways to motivate faculty members to take ownership of
diversity efforts. Examples include curriculum-development grants and operatingbudget allocations to departments that excel in diversity programs and activities.
The rector and deans should also closely monitor the campus climate as it affects
underrepresented groups. Once or twice a semester, they should hold a breakfast or
luncheon meeting with one underrepresented group or engage in structured surveys
or focus groups with them. Reasons for the change must be discussed during the
luncheon.
Reasons For Change
The infrastructure, traditions, values and methodologies of tertiary institutions
combine to create massive inertia that impedes rapid change. However, many
traditions and values of tertiary teaching are facing serious challenge. External
pressures are likely to force us to change. Financial resources are likely to decline,
while "output", likely to be defined narrowly in terms of numbers of students receiving
degrees in a given time, will be expected to increase. The costs of many tertiary
teaching methods are high and in some situations insensitive to volume: it is
probable these costs can only be significantly reduced through alternative methods of
instruction. It is possible that existing university budget models support existing
methods of teaching and learning in ways that discourage change or at least
engender fears that innovation and efficiency will immediately be penalised to the
advantage of traditional approaches.
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The new world that is emerging values flexibility over rigidity, and process over
content. Yet with our complex system of faculties and departments, courses and
units, curricula and assessment, we offer under-graduate students little control over
their own learning. Our current model is predominantly didactic rather than
negotiated, and we prefer to control learning resources, rather than offer them. Our
school system is already adapting, re-structuring and adopting technology to make
the curricula more relevant to individual learners' characteristics, to make learning
more active, and to empower students to take responsibility for their own learning.
Students will come to expect no less from their tertiary experiences.
In a changing world, the perceived value of our particular university heritage
continues to fall, as students purchase their education from an increasing range of
providers. Life-long learning, retraining, distance learning and geographical isolation
all offer opportunities that a high-inertia system is ill-equipped to seize. Distance
education and open and flexible learning options are changing and expanding and
could well threaten the future of older established universities, our future. There are
now 10 tertiary level institutions in the World with enrolments of more than 100,000
students a year (total enrolment of more than 2 million students).
Large multi-national organisations are becoming involved in the provision of higher
education. These institutions are successfully exploiting technology to extend their
reach and the quality of their services. With the advent of the Internet, a student can
achieve reputable learning outcomes and take out a degree from anywhere in the
world without leaving home. In these changing times, schools must plan for the
future, because tomorrow’s schools will look different from the traditional teaching we
got used to.
The impact on the learning environment
In the light of significant changes to the context of higher education for Faculties in
South Africa, four factors impact simultaneously on the learning environment:
1.
As a result of the changing student profile, classes now evidence greater
diversity by race, gender, culture and identity. The experiences brought by
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students to the learning environment are thus far more varied, and many
students have themselves emerged from social and economic backgrounds
similar to those of patients or to the community settings where students are
being sent. Yet, at the same time, many of their middle class colleagues
encounter these socio-economic conditions and some cultural practices and
beliefs for the first time. Such differences in experiences are not exclusively
racially defined, with some black students equally new to contact with poverty
and its impact on health.
2.
The shift in the curriculum is away from white-coated curative hospital care to
activities that centre on the prevention of disease and the promotion of health.
This shift towards concern for the poor and vulnerable often induces students
to reflect on their motives for studying medicine in the first place. Furthermore,
in the group situation, such reflection can make them jump to conclusions
about their colleagues' motivations (see the vignettes cited below).
3.
Where teaching takes place in non-traditional settings in the community
(crèches, community centres, schools, non-governmental health projects)
there are increased opportunities for students to interact with people from all
walks of life, and they experience community dynamics from which they are
often insulated. In communities where crime, violence and social dislocation
are high, as is the case in many communities in South Africa, these dynamics
may pose a direct threat to students' safety.
4.
Community-oriented teaching does not have the same set of institutional rules
but requires greater flexibility on the part of students. Students have to learn to
be adaptable and accommodating to the needs of the community.
The changing student profile at schools and universities make it necessary to plan for
tomorrow’s schools and universities.
Challenge for tomorrow’s institutions

Schools as lifelong community resource centres
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In many part of the world governments, like businesses, are decentralizing and
school-based management systems are on the agenda. That agenda should include
transforming the traditional school into a lifelong, year-round community resource
centre.
In an age of instant information, every community will need an information resource
center. And well-organized schools and universities can fill that role. Even if homebased, individually-paced, interactive, electronic learning methods proliferate – as we
believe they will – community resource centers will be in even more demand.
Universities and schools must act as a model for community involvement. If schools
do not lead the educational changes, and centers for lifelong learning, then the world
is well served by other innovators waiting to fill the gap.
Leadership
The quality of school leadership is fundamental to cohesive education for diversity. In
schools where we saw prominent diversity education, its success relied on the
commitment, drive and energy of the headteacher and leadership team and on their
ability to inspire and support other senior staff. Headteachers set the strategic
direction for their school. Without their support, education for diversity will not be
embedded at its heart.
However, there is evidence that issues of 'race' and diversity are not always high on
schools' agendas. As a baseline requirement, the Race Relations (Amendment) Act
2000 requires schools to have a 'race' equality policy. Yet according to the
Commission for Racial Equality, only 65% of schools have fulfilled this statutory duty.
This raises questions not only about the checks and balances at school and local
authority level, but also about the commitment of some headteachers and governors
to even the basics of education for diversity. This situation must be rectified.
The General Teaching Council for England (GTC)" identified two main barriers to
teachers using their creativity to deliver a more diverse curriculum, both of which
were driven not just by national policy but also by headteachers:
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a.
national testing the nature of which encourages some teachers to 'teach to
the test, thus narrowing their teaching methods and content
b.
the way in which some school leaders and middle managers blocked the
development of an ethos of flexibility, cross-curricular working and trust in
teachers' skills and creativity
While we accept that schools are rightly under enormous pressure to reach targets, it
is crucial that headteachers create an environment where ideas can flow. We accept
that the agenda for headteachers and leadership teams is extensive and that all
schools need distributed leadership. But there is also an onus on them to actively
engage with education for diversity.
It is therefore fundamental to our vision that headteachers and leadership teams
inspire and support staff to make diversity awareness and celebration a part of their
daily routines. Only then will pupils receive consistent high quality education for
diversity, throughout the school.

Guarantee customer satisfaction
Evert successful business in the world is based on building and keeping satisfied
customers. Nearly every good manufactured product comes with a written guarantee.
But very few schools offer the same type of guarantee. Why not? If public schools
are going to survive, we have to be held accountable for the product we turn out.
Schools and universities must be strongly based on values, character, development,
high technology and a strong emphasis must be placed on positive, bold, creative
thinking. It must also aim to share great learning principles with schools and
universities worldwide.
Schools and universities must ensure that students must achieve academically. It
must be driven by a powerful and compelling vision and the mission must ensure that
students will be knowledge workers of the 21st century – young people of academic
excellence and noble character.
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
Cater to all intelligence traits and learning styles
In many ways, this is probably the most important single information innovation that
could be made to greatly reduce school and university dropout rates. Dropouts do not
learn best in schools and universities that are geared almost exclusively to only two
of the seven or more “intelligence traits”. And most, too, are unfairly handicapped in
an environment which encourages kinesthetic learning. Classrooms must develop a
setup with seven learning centers: a building and moving center for kinesthetics, a
reading center, a maths and science center, a working-together center (to develop
interpersonal intelligence), a personal work center (for intrapersonal intelligence) a
music and art center. This can help students to develop all their talents.
Eddy (1999) describes a learning style as the way in which we prefer to organize,
classify and assimilate information about the environment. That is how do we like to
learn. There is a great deal written on learning styles – and probably as many
theories as there are writers on the subject. However, in their most basic form, there
are three main learning styles (Eddy, 1999):

Auditory learners prefer to receive ideas and information by hearing them.
These students may struggle with reading and writing, but excel at memorizing
spoken words such as song lyrics. They often benefit from discussion-based
classes and the opportunity to give oral presentations.

Visual learners prefer to receive information by seeing it. Typically these
students pay much attention to detail. They are less likely to speak in class
than their auditory peers, and generally use few words when they do. Outlines,
graphs, maps and pictures are useful in helping these students learn.

Kinesthetic-Tactile learners tend to learn best via movement and touch. These
students are often labeled "hyperactive" because they tend to move around a
great deal. Because they like movement, they may take many notes and learn
best when allowed to explore and experience their environment.
It is important to note that the various styles are those preferred by learners. If we
looked at complete descriptions of each style, we would probably see some of
ourselves in each. But we could also probably identify our dominant style. The fact
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that we learn in many ways is further justification for utilizing variety of teaching
approaches is so important. (Moore, 1990).
Understanding learning styles can help you create more inclusive classrooms where
everyone has a chance to succeed. For instance, a student from a culture that
teaches children to listen quietly in a classroom (or a visual learner who is
uncomfortable with speaking) can be at a disadvantage when a portion of the grade
is based on participation in class. Sensitive teachers can allow for group work during
class to create smaller, safer environments for these students to speak and for their
classroom performance to be evaluated.
Our students are diverse in their cultures and ethnicity, their experiences, their
learning styles, and many other dimensions. All these dimensions shape who they
are and how they learn. Effective teachers understand this and use a variety of
teaching methods to promote student learning.
As teachers, it is important that we recognize our own learning styles and cultural
assumptions, because these styles and assumptions influence how we teach and
what we expect from our students. Being aware of them allows us to develop a more
inclusive teaching style. As teachers plan their course, and each class they must
prepare multiple examples to illustrate their point. These examples must reflect
different cultures, experiences, sexual orientations, gender, etc. to include all
students in learning (Moore, 1990). Teachers must help students between abstract,
theoretical knowledge and concrete, specific experiences, to expand everyone’s
learning. Teachers must also use different teaching methods (lectures, small groups,
discussions, collaborative learning) to meet the variety of learning needs.

Use the world’s best teaching techniques
No school or university, lifelong learning resource center or business training unit can
exist without skilled teacher-facilitators. No changes in education will be successful
without a major emphasis on teacher training and continual retraining. The future of
education? If we had to paver – and we do – number one would probably be teacher
training. It is not enough to only read of these new techniques. Teachers and
18
students have to be trained in them, in the same way an actor or poet is trained. Only
then can one transfer it to others. We need to encourage universities to introduce the
principles of integrative accelerative learning. This is the wave of the future.
We need to encourage much more collaboration between classroom teachers and
specialists – to break down the barriers.
Motivate learning as much as possible, relate the material being presented to what
has come before and what is still to come in the same course; relate it to material in
other courses, and particularly to the student's personal experience. Provide a
balance of concrete information! (facts, data, real or hypothetical experiments and
their results (sensing) and abstract concepts (principles, theories, models). Balance
materials that emphasize practical problem-solving methods (sensing/active) with
material that emphasizes fundamental understanding (intuitive/reflective). Provide
explicit illustrations of intuitive patterns (logical inference, pattern recognition, and
generalisation) and sensing patterns (observation of surroundings, empirical
experimentation, attention to detail). Encourage students to exercise both patterns.
Do not expect either group to be able to exercise the other group's immediately.
Follow the scientific method in presenting theoretical material: provide concrete
examples of the phenomena the theory describes or predicts (sensing/inductive);
then develop the theory or formulate the model (intuitive/inductive/sequential); show
how the theory or the model can be validated and deduce its consequences
(deductive/sequential): and present applications (sensing/deductive/sequential).
Use pictures, schematics, graphs and simple sketches liberally before, during and
after the presentation of verbal material (sensing/ visual). Show films (sensing/
visual); provide demonstrations (sensing/ visual), hands-on if possible (active)
(Felder, 1993). Use computer-assisted instruction when possible sensors respond
very well to it (sensing/ active). Do not use every minute of class time lecturing and
writing on the board. Provide intervals, however brief, for students to think about what
they have been told (reflective). Provide opportunities for students to do something
active besides transcribing notes. Small-group brainstorming activities that take not
more than 5 min are extremely effective for this purpose (active). Assigning some drill
exercises to provide practice in the basic methods being taught (sensing/active/
sequential), but do not overdo them. Also provide some open-ended problems and
19
exercises that call for analysis and synthesis (intuitive/reflective/global). Give
students the option of cooperating on homework and class assignments to the
greatest possible extend (active). Active learners generally learn best when they
interact with others; if they are denied the opportunity to do so they are being
deprived of their most effective learning tool. Applaud creative solutions, even
incorrect ones (intuitive/global). Talk to students about learning styles, both in
advising and in classes. Students are reassured to find their academic difficulties
may not all be due to personal inadequacies. Explaining to struggling sensors or
active or global learners how they learn most effectively may be an important step in
helping them reshape their learning experiences so that they can be successful (all
types).
Whenever possible, use course content and material whose language is genderneutral and free of stereotypes.
Aim for an inclusive curriculum. Ideally, a curriculum should reflect the perspective
and experiences of a pluralistic society. At a minimum, creating an inclusive
curriculum involves using text and readings that reflect new scholarship and research
about previously underrepresented groups, discussing the contributions made to your
field by women or by various ethnic groups, examining the obstacles these
pioneering contributors' had to overcome, and describing how recent scholarship
about gender, race, and class is modifying your field of study. This minimum,
however, tends to place women, people of colour, and non-European or nonAmerican cultures as "asides" or special topics. Instead, try to recast your course
content, if possible, so that one group's experience is not held up as the norm or the
standard against which everyone else is defined. (Coleman et al., 1983)
So not assume that all students will recognise cultural literary or historical references
familiar to you. As the diversity of the student and faculty population's increase, you
may find that you and your students have fewer shared cultural experiences, literary
allusions, historical references, and metaphors and analogies. If a certain type of
cultural literacy is prerequisite to completing your course successfully, consider
administering and diagnostic pre-test on the first day of class to determine what
20
students know. Of course, teachers may choose to refer deliberately to individuals or
even students may not know to encourage them to do outside reading.
Emphasise the importance of considering the approaches and viewpoints. One of the
primary goals of education is to show students different points of view and encourage
them to evaluate their own beliefs. Help students begin to appreciate the number of
situations that can be understood only by comparing several interpretations, and help
them appreciate how one's premises, observations, and interpretations are
influenced by social identity and background. For example, research conducted by
the Institute for the Study of Social Change (1991) shows that while students and
African-American students tend to view the term racism differently. Many white
students, for example, believe that being friendly is evidence of goodwill and lack of
racism. Many African-American students, however, distinguish between prejudice
(personal attitudes) and racism (organisational or institutional bias); for them,
friendliness evidences a lack of prejudice but not necessarily a wholehearted
opposition to racism.
Make it clear that you value all comments. Students need to feel free to voice an
opinion and empowered to defend it. Try not to allow that own difference of opinion
prevent communication and debate. Step in if some students seem to be ignoring the
viewpoints of others. For example, if male students tend to ignore comments made
by female students, reintroduce the overlooked comments into the discussion (Hall
and Sandier, 1982).
Encourage all students to participate in class discussion. Encourage students to
listen to and value comments made from perspectives other than their own. Teachers
may want to have students work in small groups early in the term so that all students
can participate in non-threatening circumstances. This may make it easier for
students to speak up in a larger setting.
Be sensitive to students whose first language is not English. Most colleges require
students who are non-native speakers of English to achieve oral and written
competency by taking ESL courses. Ask ESL specialists on your campus for advice
on how to grade papers and or information about typical patterns of errors related to
21
lour students' native language. For example, some languages do not have two-word
verbs, and speakers of those languages may need extra help - and patience as they try to master English idioms. Such students should not be penalised for
misusing, say, take after, take in, take off, take on, take out, and take over.
Suggest that students form study teams that meet outside class. By arranging for
times and rooms where groups can meet, teachers can encourage students to study
together. Peer support is an important factor in student persistence in school
(Pascarella, 1986), but students of colour are sometimes left out of informal networks
and study groups that help other students succeed (Simpson, 1987). By studying
together, students can both improve their academic performance and overcome
some of the out-of-class segregation common on many campuses.
Assigning group and collaborative activities. Students report having had their best
encounters and achieved their greatest understandings of diversity as "side effects"
of naturally occurring meaningful educational or community service experience
(Institute for the Study of Social Change, 1991). Consider increasing students'
opportunities for group projects in which three to five students complete a specific
task, for small group work during class, or for collaborative research efforts among
two or three students to develop instructional materials or carry out a piece of a
research style. Collaborative learning can be as simple as randomly grouping (by
counting off) two or three students in a class to solve a particular problem or to
answer a specific question.
Give assignments and exams that recognise students' diverse backgrounds and
special interests. As appropriate to your field, teachers can develop paper topics or
term projects that encourage students to explore the roles, status, contribution, and
experiences of groups traditionally underrepresented in scholarly research - studies
or in academia (Jenkins et al., 1983). For example, a faculty member teaching a
course on medical and health training offered students a variety of topics for their
term papers, including one on alternative healing belief system. A faculty member in
the social sciences gave the students an assignment asking them to compare
female-only, male-only, and male-female work groups.
22

Plan the Curriculum
Computer-based programs, interactive video discs and personalized
telecommunications make it increasingly possible for everyone to plan one’s own
continuing study program. Schools and universities as community resource centers
will provide a wide range of courses and resources for a wide range of student
groups, particularly as planning one’s continuing lifelong education becomes as
normal and as easy as watching television.
Institutions will also be required to continue their present role as core-curriculum
providers. A four part curriculum is strongly needed in school and university
classrooms.
1.
A personal-growth curriculum, involving self-confidence, motivation,
communications skills and relationship skills.
2.
A lifeskills curriculum, including self-managing, creative problem-solving,
career planning and replanning, economics, conflict-management and
computer-based technology.
3.
A learning-to-learn and learning-to-think curriculum, including the type of
brain-compatible "how to" skills covered extensively in this book, so that
lifelong learning can be fun-filled, fast and effective.
4.
A content curriculum, with integrated themes. Although all are interrelated,
we have purposely placed I content last - reversing most current school
practices.

Nearly everyone has learning blocks, but traditional schooling has
succeeded in only one major way: in turning most people off, at a time
when their enthusiasm for learning is vital.

Emotion is the gateway to learning - and each person's emotional state is
affected by communications skills, relationship skills, motivation and selfesteem: the personal-growth skills. If those aspects are not addressed,
the gate will close.

Real listening and speaking skills are of high importance in all aspects of
life and work, yet are downplayed in many educational institutions.
23

Self-confidence and self-esteem are vital to all learning, and education
that fails to address them will fail in its other tasks.
In a world where everyone needs to be a self-manager, practical lifeskills training
also needs to be included in all education, from pre-school to advanced business.
In specific content courses, the great need is for integration: to link art with science
and all other subjects; to integrate all studies into more global understanding, so that
Russian or French language training, or Chinese or African cooking, becomes linked
with an understanding of others' cultures, In this way, the world emerges as an
interactive whole.
Change the assessment system
It would take another book, or a large part of a book, to report on worldwide moves to
gain better educational assessment systems. In a summary of key principles for
school reform, these are the main points:

Too much traditional teaching and too much traditional testing have been
directed to only two segments of overall intelligence.

Most people who have emerged successfully through the school system have
been strong in those two "intelligences". These have gone on to become the
arbiters of future teaching and testing methods.

Just as new learning methods should involve the whole person, so should
assessment methods.

The search for excellence is a justifiable goal, in personal life, school and
business - and much of our present schooling is aimed at "success" rates that
fall far short of excellence.

Pencil-and-paper test assignments test only a very small part of anyone's
ability in almost any subject, except perhaps for mental mathematics or
handwriting.

In a world where self-management will be required of all, continuing selfassessment is needed – another reason that confidence-building should
include the confidence to continually assess one's own improvement.
24

Excellence will often come from joint efforts with others, so peer-assessment
should be encouraged. In fact, it can often be linked with self-assessment:
evaluating yourself, then discussing that evaluation with the people you work
with.

It is one of the great truisms that we all learn from our mistakes - and a
positive attitude towards mistakes and risk-taking is a positive part of growth:
seeing mistakes as steps toward excellence. No examination system should
penalize risk-taking or creativity, or imply that there is only one right answer to
any problem, except perhaps for simple arithmetic (even then Einstein would
not have produced his theories of relativity had he not challenged basic
mathematics).

Critical thinking is a vital skill. Free and open-minded contributions to problemsolving are essential in all aspects of life. Any assessment methods should
encourage this, not pigeonhole anyone in the "only one right answer" mode.

Teacher assessment is at least as important as student assessment. Every
professional seminar presenter hands out evaluation forms. They're vital selfcorrecting feedback. And all teachers following this pattern are modelling a
positive attitude toward continual growth by the free, fair and frank exchange
of opinions.

Competent school teachers and administrators will apply the same principles
to parent-teacher relationships: sending home teacher-evaluation forms
regularly as part of the school-home confidence building, part of the new
customer-service concept.

In fields where competence can be measured at specific levels, this generally
involves performing the task in practice: typing at 65 words a minute, playing a
piano, riding a bike, running or swimming at a certain speed. In all cases, the
real test is competency in the task, not competency in writing about it.

The Japanese have used the excellent American-developed Deming methods
of total quality management, to produce cars and electronic components of
excellence. All school systems would be wise to take heed.
25

Use tomorrow’s Technology
We have already made our views clear on one other matter: new methods of instant
communication are bringing with them the biggest change in civilization in centuries.
This revolution will soon provide each person with the tools to obtain all the
information he or she needs, whenever it is needed and in whatever form: print,
photograph, videotape, television screen or facsimile transmission.
In South Africa it is the ideal, but many schools in South Africa is still lacking the
infrastructure and resources to be prepared for the technology of tomorrow. In poorer
schools many learners haven’t seen a magazine yet. There is very little South African
supportive material that can be used across different universities, and that is a
limitation.
But highly-advanced computers have the ability to serve as both tutors and libraries,
providing instant information and feedback to individual students. Virtual reality
technology already enables anyone to participate in experiences as varied as history
and space travel. This type of technology will make it possible for each student of any
age, to tailor an individual curriculum and eventually to actually experience each
lesson. Interactive computer-satellite-video-television and electronic games
technology provide the combined catalyst that will finally force a much needed
change in the teacher’s role: from information to transformation. And every school
system in the world, if it is not already doing so, should be matching every
progressive company in keeping up with the full scope of technology and its impact
on society and education.
The reasons underpinning the use of mobile technology in education have been
explored by Kukulska-Hulme (2005), who identified the three main motivations as
being: improving access, exploring the potential for changes in teaching and learning,
and alignment with wider institutional or business aims. Where the emphasis is on
changing teaching and learning, practitioners and researchers are interested in
collaborative learning, students' appreciation of their own learning process,
- consolidation of learning, and ways of helping learners to see a subject differently
than they would have done without the use of mobile devices. Just-in-time learning
26
and support for managing learning are also key interests. There is awareness that
the new technologies may have a role in reducing cultural and communication
barriers, and that they are altering attitudes and patterns of study.
The diversity of reasons for use of mobile technologies in education makes it difficult
to make any generalisations about requirements. Nevertheless, there are attempts to
characterise these requirements, including in relation to interface design and
usability. Nielsen (2001) has remarked that although general usability standards
apply equally to e-Iearning, there are additional considerations, for example the need
to keep content fresh in learners' minds so that they do not forget things whilst trying
to accommodate new concepts. User-centred system design and evaluation have
traditionally been driven by the concept of a 'task.' To a certain extent, it is possible to
list the kinds of tasks that learners engage in. For example Rekkedal (2002) has
suggested that mobile learners in distance education need to be able to perform
tasks such as studying the course materials, making notes, writing assignments,
accessing a forum, sending and receiving e-mail, and communicating with a tutor.
The process of learning, however, is not always easily broken down into tasks, and
something like 'studying course materials' is no more than a label that conceals great
complexity in how the materials might be studied. Ryan and Finn (2005) have
commented on the difficulty of task analysis in relation to mobile learning 'in the field,'
in the course of their attempts to define the generic requirements of users who
typically operate out in the field (e.g., geologists, archaeologists, journalists,
technicians, police). It is also very challenging to design and evaluate tools that
support learners' development and interactions with others over time.
Conventional approaches to usability tend to be limited to metrics relating to time
taken to complete a task, effort, throughput, flexibility and the user's attitude.
Syvanen and Nokelainen (2005) have attempted to go beyond this by combining
technical usability criteria (such as accessibility, consistency, reliability) with
pedagogical usability components such as learner control, learner activity, motivation
and feedback. Kukulska-Hulme and Shield (2004; Shield and Kukulska-Hulme, 2006)
have also argued that usability needs to be understood differently when it is being
evaluated in the context of teaching and learning, and that the concept of
pedagogical usability can be helpful as a means of focusing on the close relationship
27
between usability and pedagogical design. Exploring this concept raises the question
of whether there are aspects of pedagogical usability that are discipline-specific; this
is examined by Kukulska-Hulme and Shield (2004) in relation to the discipline of
language learning. In websites that support language learning, usability might
depend on whether the site uses the first or target language, and on its ability to
support multimodal and intercultural communication. The ways in which language
experts conceptualise user interfaces may also be specific to the culture and subcultures of their discipline. These aspects can be hard to quantify and measure, but it
does not mean that they are less important.
If schools do not lead the educational changes, and make themselves the new
community resource centers for lifelong learning, then the world is well served by
other innovators waiting to fill the gap. The coming changes will be dictated by
another inevitable fact of life; the growing one world economy and the consumers
right to choose. The whole world now is not only one giant electronic, automobile,
fast food and financial services market; it is also a major one-world educational
market. It is now possible for the works of our most brilliant educators and schools to
be translated into forms that can, in turn, be made available instantly to anyone who
wants them, anywhere, any time. The day of the school monopoly on education is
rapidly ending.
This presents organizations with the world’s biggest business challenge; and possibly
the most exciting marriage in history.
CONCLUSION
Addressing issues of diversity effectively must involve critical examination of the
purposes of the education, process of learning, methods of teaching, forms of
knowledge that are privileged, and the role of the education. Teacher education faces
major challenges from school integration, and there are limited resources. The task
of preparing teachers for the challenges is not easy defined, and it requires constant
research, as well as strategies for addressing limitations that arise from the context.
The framework for teacher education should include attention to the full range of
questions revealed by research into school integration. Critical multiculturalism or
28
critical antiracism, social justice education and anti-oppressive education are all
frameworks that meet these requirements. Part of a student’s time in teacher
education should be spent in contexts that differ significantly from those which they
are familiar.
Excellence of learning opportunities and outcomes depends on the quality of the
teaching and learning experience. To provide a high quality experience for students
requires an environment that fosters critical inquiry as well as innovation and
creativity. The environment must build a depth of knowledge that will provide a
foundation for later endeavour and support independent learning that will allow a
graduate to adapt to new challenges and situations.
To achieve these results some areas must be given high priority. We must ensure
that facilities and resources are available to support students and staff. These include
high-quality and flexible teaching and learning spaces including laboratories and field
facilities, libraries with a range of resources accessible on and off-campus, and
access to information and communications technology for classes and independent
study. Beyond these resources, academics and other professional staff need the
ability to develop their teaching and learning expertise, with support and expert
advice where necessary, and recognition and encouragement for expertise applied
and innovation tried.
Without these resources, the quality of the teaching and learning experience is likely
to be impaired. Yet these resources will not ensure the outcomes we seek. The
circumstances for our students and for staff have changed in the last few decades.
The student population is increasingly diverse. Student engagement with the campus
experience that underpins our teaching and learning strategies varies and cannot be
assumed to be high or constant during the students’ programs.
If schools and universities are open for changes and challenges in teaching and
learning, student diversity challenges should not be a problem.
29
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