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AHS OSB Tryout Packet 2013
HOW TO STUDY:
First of all, don’t panic, we don’t expect you to know everything. Second of all, and perhaps
most importantly, this packet is not perfect: it is way too specific in some places and not nearly
broad enough to cover everything. At the end of each section is a list of topics that we expect
you to do some extra research on and be familiar with. Unfortunately, you will not go very far if
all you study is this packet. Study as much as you can, study as broadly as you can.
Biology
taxonomy:
(Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species)
Domains: Eukarya, Archaea, Bacteria (Eubacteria)
Kingdoms: Archaea, Eubacteria, Protista, Plantae, Animalia, Fungi
* Protista may now be split into Chromista and Protozoa
Phylum Platyhelminthes – flatworms
Phylum Nemertea – ribbon worms – have a proboscis to capture prey
Phylum Nematoda – roundworms
Phylum Annelida – segmented worms
Polychaeta – each body segment has parapodia & setae, trochophore larval form
Oligochaeta – feed on organic matter in the sand, lack parapodia
Phylum Pogonophora – beardworms – lack a mouth and gut,have symbiotic bacteria to manufacture food
Vestimentiferans – longest, include the giant tubeworm
Phylum Chaetognatha – arrow worms – common plankton, transparent and streamlined form, voracious
carnivores that feed on small crustaceans, eggs, and fish larvae
Subclass Hirudinea – leeches
Phylum Sipuncula – peanut worms
Phylum Echiura – spoon worms
Phylum Mollusca
Class Gastropoda – largest, most common and varied of the mollusks. Includes snails, limpets, abalones
and nudibranches (sea slugs, no shell), veliger larvae
Class Bivalvia – clams, mussels, oysters, scallops, shipworms, cockles. No head or radula. Gills use to
absorb oxygen and filter and sort food particles. Inner shell is secreted by mantle, body lies in
mantle cavity. Buried clams use siphons to draw water in and out of the cavity. Mussels use byssal
threads to attach themselves to surfaces. Clam is largest bivalve. Shipworms are fouling
organisms attach themselves to the bottom of submerged structures, veliger larvae
Class Cephalopoda - octopuses, squids, cuttlefishes, nautilus. Have a funnel where water enters and leaves,
formed from leftover part of the foot. Octopuses (Octopus) – 6 arms, 2 tentacles, no shell.
Squids (Loligo)
– 8 arms, 2 tentacles. Colossal squid (Mesonychoteuthis), giant squid (Architeuthis). Cuttle fishes (Sepia) –
8 arms, 2 tentacles, calcified internal shell called cuttlebone used as calcium and for caged birds
Class Polyplacophora – chitons, have eight overlapping shell plates, uncoiled internal organs
Class Scaphopoda – tusk shells, elongated shell tapered on both sides
Class Aplacophora – formerly Caudofoveata and Solenogaster
Phylum Arthropoda - segmented body, bilateral, jointed appendages, tough exoskeleton. *multiple classification
systems exist for this phylum*
Subphylum Crustacea
Order Decapoda – ten legs, largest group of crustaceans
Lobsters – life cycle: zoea  phyllosoma  adult
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Crabs – life cycle: zoea  megalopa  adult, abdomens V-shaped in males, U-shaped in
most diverse decapods
females,
Species to know: Hermit crabs – not true crabs (Dardanus), coconut crab (Birgus latro) Giant spider
crab (Macrocheira)
Copepoda - important in plankton, life cycle: naupilus copepodite adult copepod
Cirripedia - barnacles – fouling organism, filter feeder, have typical crustacean larvae, adult looks
like molluscs. life cycle: naupilus cypris adult barnacle
Order Amphipods – laterally compressed body, under 2cm in length.
Isopods (Order Isopoda)– like amphipods, dorsoventrally flattened.
Krill(order euphausiids) – planktonic, carapace on anterior, filter feeders, common in polar waters,
exhibit vertical migration
Subphylum Chelicerata
Class Merostomata – horseshoe crabs
Class Pycnogonida – sea spiders
Halobates – marine water strider
Subphylum Hexapoda – includes insects
Lophophore links bryozoans, phoronids and lamp shells, ciliated tentacles used in suspension feeding.
Phylum - Ectoprocta – bryozoans, minute individuals called zooids, secrete skeletons
Phylum Phoronida – worm-like, build tubes made in part of sand grains
Phylum Brachiopoda – lamp shells most known only as fossils, shells made of two valves, usually attached to
rocks or burrowed in soft sediment
Phylum Echinodermata - has radial symmetry as adults, but bilateral as larvae. More specifically, they have
pentamerous radial symmetry. The side with the mouth as oral, and the other as aboral. They have complete
digestive tracts well-developed coeloms, and endoskeletons. Have water vascular systems, tube feet, ampullae
(muscular sacs) and madreporite (a porous plate, also called a sieve plate, in which an echinoderm draws salt water
into its water vascular system).
Class Asteroidea (sea stars):. Usually have 5 arms, but can have up to 100, originating from a central disk
(which contains all of the vital organs). Tube feet radiate from ambulacral grooves. Surfaces are
covered with pincer like protrusions called pedicellarie, which keep the sea star clean. They eat
whole new starfish from one arm, but it MUST have a part of the central disk.
Class Ophiuroidea (feather stars): Resemble sea stars in terms of number of arms, but the arms are longer,
thinner, and more flexible. Usually they eat particulate organic matter and small animals at the
bottom of the water. With 2,000 members, they are the largest group.
Class Echinoidea (sea urchins): To move, they use their movable spines and sucker-tipped tubes. Their
mouth is on the bottom, anus on the top. The plates can be seen if the spines and tissues are
removed. Use a series of jaws and muscles called Aristotle’s lantern to bite off algae and other
food. Other members of this class are heart urchins and sand dollars, which do no have round
tests.
Class Holothuroidea (sea cucumbers): No radial symmetry, lie on one side on five rows of tube feet.
Many are deposit feeders and have branched tentacles around their mouth that can either pick up
or scoop sediment into the mouth. They can secrete toxins through their anus or their guts
(evisceration) to ward off predators. The organs grow back.
Class Crinoidea (sea fans): Suspension feeders that have feathery arms to obtain food and water. Include
feather stars and sea lilies. Can be described as upside-down brittle stars with ambulacral grooves
and mouth upward. Some have only five arms, but most have up to 200 because of branching.
The tube feet here secrete mucus.
Phylum Hemichordata - acorn worm, link between echinoderms and chordates, larva like echinoderms, like
chordates have dorsal hollow nerve cord and openings along the gut.
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Phylum Chordata - at some point in their life have all of the following: dorsal hollow nerve cord, gill/pharyngeal
slits, notochord, tail.
Protochordates – collective group of invertebrate chordates
Subphylum Urochordata – tunicates, largest group of protochordates.
Class Ascidiacea – sea squirts. Fouling organisms, body is protected by tunic. Filter feeders,
water enters though an incurrent siphon, filtered water exits the excurrent siphon. Adults
lack notochord and dorsal hollow nerve cord. Water forced out of both when disturbed or
expelling debris. Larvae known as tadpole larvae. Shallow water sea squirt
Class Thaliacea – salps. Transparent, barrel-shaped body, abundant in warm water.
Class Larvacea – Larvaceans/appendicularians. Retain body of tadpole larvae, each secretes a
gelatinous house for protection and to filter food.
Subphylum Cephalochordata – lancelets. Second group of invertebrate chordates, laterally compressed
body, has most chordate characteristics but the backbone, soft bottoms, filter feeders
Fish – first appeared 500 million years ago, oldest, simplest and most abundant of all living vertebrates (50%)
Jawless fishes (class Agnatha) – most primitive, body is cylindrical and elongated like snakes, lack true
vertebrae
Hagfishes/slime eels (genus Myxine, Eptatretus) – feed mostly on dead or dying fishes
Lampreys (genus Peteromyzon) – found in most temperate regions, primarily freshwater. Attach
themselves to other fishes and suck their blood.
Class Chondrichthyes – Sharks, rays, skates, chimeras placoid scales, paired lateral fins, developed jaws
spiral valve increases internal surface area of intestine
Elasmobranchii – sharks, rays, skates
Holocephalii - chimaeras (order Chimaeriformes) – sometimes informally known as ghost sharks,
ratfish, spookfish, or rabbit fishes
Class Osteichthyes – bony fish 23,000 sepcies (96% of all fish, half of all vertebrates)
Have cycloid (smooth) scales, ctenoid (have tiny spines). Operculum – gill cover. Homocercal –
caudal fin same size. Fins made of bony spines called fin rays, swim bladder for buoyancy.
Stonefish (Synanceia verrucosa) – most poisonous fish in the world.
Colors come from chromatophores. Countershading is used in open water – silver/white bellies that
contrast againt dark backs.
Movement produced by contraction of myomeres along side of body in fish with a swim baldder,
stiff pectoral fins help sharks remain buoyant as well as oil in liver.
Fishes that feed primarily on seaweeds and plants called grazers
Pyloric caeca secrete digestive enzymes, cloaca = anus
Gill filaments made of lamellae, kidneys retain urea, special gland near anus that excess salts are
secreted by called rectal gland
Fish smell through nares, which are attached to the olfactory sacs
Fist have taste buds on barbells (whisker-like organism need the mouth f many bottom feeders)
Nictitating membrane – used by sharks to reduce brightness and protect the eye during feeding
Lateral line made of neuromasts.
Fish detect movement through movement of calcareous ear stones, or otoliths – like statocysts of
invertebrates
Anadromous – live in salt water, breed in fresh water, catadromous –live in fresh water, breed in salt
water
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Oviparous – hatched from eggs, ovoviviparous – eggs develop in parent and hatch (most bony fish
are like this), viviparous – live bearers
Class Reptilia Dry skin with scales to stop water loss, pokilotherms, first appeared 350 million years ago
Order Chelonia – sea turtles
Carapace fused to back bone, cannot retract their heads like land tortoises and turtles, only seven
species (all considered threatened. Six protected by the endangered species act – three threatened,
three endangered. Kemps ridley - most endangered. Leatherback – largest, fastest reptile.
Order Squamata - Sea snakes, marine iguana
55 species sea snakes found in tropical Indian and Pacific, ovoviviparous
Marine iguana is on Galapagos islands.
Order Crocodilia – saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus)
Inhabits mangrove swamps and estuaries in Eastern Indian Ocean, Australia and western Pacific
islands. Live on coast but do venture into open sea.
Class Aves
Homeotherms, covered with waterproof feathers to conserve body heat
Order Sphenisciformes - penguins
Flightless, denser bones, clumsy on land, amazing swimmers. Galapagos penguin (Spheniscus
mendiculus) only penguin outside southern hemisphere.
Order Porcellariformes – Tubenoses: albatrosses (widest wing spans), sheawaters, petrels
Seabirds with tube-like nostrils, have salt glands to rid themselves of excess salts
Order Anseriformes - Gulls, other related shorebirds (order Charadriiformes), largest variety of seabirds
Gulls (Larus) are both predators and scavengers and eat almost anything
Terns (Sterna) hover right over prey before catching it. Arctic tern (Sterna paradisaea) breeds in
Arctic during northern summer and travels 16,000km/10,000mi to Antarctica for southern summer,
the longest migrant of any known animal in the world
Puffins (Fratercula) have heavy beaks like parrots
Greak auks (Pinguinus impennis) are extinct ancestors of the razorbill and looked and acted like a
penguin in the North Atlantic, extinct in 1844
Order Ciconiiformes - herons
Order Gruiformes – rails, coots
Order Pelecaniformes – pelicans and related birds
Have webbing between all four toes
Pelicans (Pelecanus) have unique pouch below their beaks and catch food by plunging in the water
with the beak
Cormorants (Phalacrocorax) are black, long-necked seabirds that dive, fly low over the water
Frigate birds (Fregata) – narrow wings and long, forked tail, seldom enter water
Excrement is called guano, and is mined for fertilizer
Order Gaviiformes - loons
Order Podicipediformes - grebes
Class Mammalia
Evolved 200 million years ago, has hairs instead of feathers, most are viviparous
Order Pinnipedia – sea lions, seals, walruses
Have flippers for swimming, breed on land, use blubber as food storage and warmth.
Seals (19 species) are largest group of pinnipeds, distinguished by rear flippers that cannot move
forward. Southern elephant seal - largest pinniped
Sea lions and fur seals have external ears, can move rear flippers forward, can sit on land with head
and neck raised, female sea lions called cows
Walrus (Odobenus rosmarus) is a large pinniped with large tusks, not protected by Endangered
Species Act
Order Carnivora – sea otters, polar bears
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Sea otter (Enhydra lutris) is the smallest marine mammal, air trapped in fur aids in insulation,
protection began in 1911. Requires 7-9kg (15-20lbs) of food a day, and live in or around kelp beds
from Siberia to central california
Polar bears (Ursus maritimus) live on drifting ice in the arctic
Order Sirenia – manatee, dugong
Front flippers but no rear limbs, named after mermaids and sirens from mythology Only strict
vegetarians among marine mammals, only 4 species remain – three manatees (Trichechus) and one
dugong (Dugong dugon)
Order Cetacea – whales, dolphins, porpoises
Largest group of marine mammals, spend all of life in water. Nostrils are on top as a blowhole (two
in Mysteceti one in Ordontoceti).
Mysteceti - baleen whales. Baleen made of keratin. They are the largest whales and animals on earth.
The blue whale (Balenoptera musculus) is the largest mammal. Blue whale, fin whale, minke whale
+ five other species are known as rorquals, which feed by gulping up schools of fish and krill. Right
whales (Eubalena, Caperaea) and bowhead whale (Balena mysticetus) have the largest and finest
baleen plates. Gray whales (Eschrichtiuss robustus) are primarily bottom feeders.
Ordontoceti – toothed whales. Use teeth to hold, not chew prey. Sperm whale (Physeter catadon) is
the largest toothed whale. Sperm whale + baleen whales (Mysticeti)= great whales. Produce
ambergris, which is used in fine perfumes. Orcas (Orcinus orca) eat seals, sea lions, penguins, fishes,
sea otters and other whales. Dolphins travel in pods, herds or schools. Bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops
truncatus) is seen in marine parks. North Atlantic right whale (Eubalena glacialis) was the first
seriously depleted species, favored for floating after being killed. Narwhal (Monodon monoceros),
beluga (Delphinapterus leucas)
Cuvier’s beaked whale is longest and deepest diver, at least 2,250 m(7,380 ft). Marine mammals
have adaptations that prevent nitrogen from dissolving and the bends, and lungs collapse. Foreheads
of sperm whales have a melon with a spermaceti organ, filled with spermaceti.
Biology
o Classification of marine organisms
o Interactions between species
o Adaptations to dark/cold/extreme conditions
o Record-setting organisms
o Anatomy and life cycles of different phyla
o Interactions with the environment/oceanic habitats (e.g. hydrothermal vents, coral reefs,
kelp forests, and tide pools)
o General bio processes and ecology, concepts etc relevant to ocean organisms
Chemistry
Seawater - General Properties
High heat capacity and solvent power
Water molecules made up of covalent bonds (bond between nonmetals)
Salinity measured in part per thousand (ppt)
Average 35 ppt
Most dense at -2 °C, freezes at -2 °C (that’s seawater, pure water is most dense at 4°C and freezes at 0°C)
pH range between 7.5 and 8.4, so slightly basic, also acts as a kind of buffer solution (solution that
resists change in pH) ensuring ecological stability
Average ocean temperature around 4°C and average ocean surface temp around 16°C
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PSU=Practical Salinity Units; because now salinity is measured with a conductivity ratio, the psu was created to be a
more accurate, unitless way of describing salinity although people hardly use it
desalination – methods of making water potable, types include distillation (boiling to separate, and condense water
back, most productive), reverse osmosis (forcing solution through membrane that eliminates solute), freezing &
thawing (freezing pushes out salt), electrodialysis (electric potential difference transfers salt ions through ionexchange membrane), salt adsorption (get all the salts to stick to something else and then separate the water)
Chemicals dissolved in seawater
generally categorized into 5 categories: major constituents, nutrients, gases, trace elements, and organic
compounds
Major Constituents
because of little variation over time in most places, also called conservative properties of ocean
includes (in order of decreasing concentration) chloride (Cl-), sodium (Na+), sulfate (SO42-), magnesium
(Mg2+), calcium (Ca2+), and potassium (K+); these make up over 99% of all seawater’s solutes
Nutrients
include nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P), silicon (Si)
measured in parts per million (ppm)
plants cannot use nitrogen and phosphorous in pure forms, instead adsorb phosphate (PO43-) and nitrate
(NO3-)
oceanographers refer to these (among other things) as nonconservative properties, solutes whose
concentrations vary over time and location
Gases
most to least abundant: nitrogen (N2), oxygen (O2), carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen (H2), Argon (Ar),
Neon (Ne), and helium (He)
levels of O2 and CO2 greatly influenced by photosynthesis and respiration, and so are also regarded as
nonconservative properties
Trace Elements
chemical ingredients occurring in minute quantities in ocean
most occur in less than 1 part per billion (ppb) and even 1 part per trillion
difficult, sometimes even impossible to detect in seawater
can be critically important for either helping and promoting or retarding and killing life
include Lithium (Li), iodine (I), molybdenum (Mo), Zinc (Zn), Iron (Fe), Aluminum (Al), copper (Cu),
Manganese (Mn), Cobalt (Co), Lead (Pb), Mercury (Hg), and Gold (Au)
Organic Compounds
large, complex molecules produced by organisms
include lipids (fats), proteins, carbohydrates, hormones, and vitamins
typically occur in low concentrations, produced by metabolic and decay processes of organisms
Principal of Constant Proportion/ Constant Composition – regardless of salinity, relative
proportions of conservative properties of seawater stays constant (example: amount of chlorine compared to
amount of sodium stays the same in seawater of varying salinities)
Chlorine (Cl-) is most abundant solute in seawater
Factors regulating salinity
freshwater input of rivers, which also transports a variety of dissolved substances in ppm
evaporation, condensation, adsorption (sticking of ions to a surface)
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residence time- average length of time ion remains in solution in oceans which is equal to the concentration of
the substance times the volume of the body of water divided by the rate of input of the substance, generally, the
longer the residence time, the higher concentration and more even distribution of the solute
gradients: thermoclines (area of rapidly changing temperature), pycnoclines (density), and haloclines (salinity)
freshwater vs. seawater – seawater has a lower freezing point, higher boiling point, is denser, evaporates at a
slower rate, and contains more dissolved ions -sea ice normally contains less salt than sea water because the salt
is forced out before freezing occurs
CO2 combines with seawater to form carbonic acid, making the oceans more acidic which leads to coral
bleaching.
Osmoregulation:
The Redfield-Richardson Ratio for phytoplankton
106 C : 16 O : 1 H
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
DDT is used as a pesticide to control certain insects which carried diseases and kill pests.
Harmful Effects on Birds:
Birds lay eggs with extremely thin shells. Because they’re so thin, the adult bird can easily crush the eggs, resulting in a
declining population of a bird species
Changes in courtship behavior
Harmful Effects on Humans:
Damages the liver (may cause liver cancer)
Affects the nervous system. People may experience tremors and seizures, and may slow down development
Damages reproductive system.
Probable human carcinogen (direct cause of cancer)
Death- at a concentration above 236 mg of DDT per kg of body weight
Harmful Effects on Fish
Affects microorganisms even in small amounts (micrograms) because the aquatic enviroment brings them in more contact with
DDT
Can slow down growth & photosynthesis in green algae
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Microorganisms don't die from DDT; they keep it within themselves, & it affects other oraganisms because they eat them, thus
consuming DDT.
Related compounds
DDE (dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene) – DDE forms from the breakdown of DDT, and has no commercial use
DDD (dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane) – was used to kill pests to a smaller extent, but no longer in use. It is also a breakdown
product of DDT; specifically, a metabolite, or a product of metabolic action
CCD (Carbonate Compensation Depth)
Basic Definition: The CCD is a depth below which all calcium carbonate dissolves.
Factors Affecting the CCD:
Supply rate of carbonate – Increasing the supply of carbonate allows for more calcium carbonate to dissolve, as
there will be more to dissolve. The depth of the CCD is depressed if more calcium carbonate is present, and
shallower if less calcium carbonate is present.
Water acidity – If the pH of the water is lower (acidic), then it will aid in dissolving the calcium carbonate,
since calcium carbonate is a basic compound. In turn, this will serve to make the CCD shallower since more
calcium carbonate is dissolved.
Water temperature – Lowering the temperature increases the solubility of calcium carbonate because it
increases the solubility of CO2, dropping the acidity of the water. The CCD will become shallower if
temperature decreases, since it will be able to dissolve more CO2 and therefore more calcium carbonate.
Water pressure – Increasing the pressure increases the solubility of calcium carbonate. The CCD will become
shallower with increased pressure again because of the way pressure changes the solubility of CO2 gas
Carbon dioxide concentration – Higher carbon dioxide concentrations increase the solubility of calcium
carbonate. As a result, the CCD will be shallower if carbon dioxide concentrations increase.
Lysocline-depth at which the rate of dissolution of carbonate increases dramatically, refers to the top of the cline, not the
cline itself (lysocline  concentration gradient  CCD)
DMS=DiMethylSulfide
DMSP=DiMethylSulfonio Propionate
DOM=Dissolved Organic Matter
Chemistry
o chemical processes in the ocean
o properties of seawater
o temperature and salinity vs. depth
o composition of seawater
o cycles in the ocean (e.g. carbonate)
o general chemical laws and principles
Physics
Two types of currents:
Surface: wind-driven
Deep-ocean: density-driven
Surface
Causes:
wind: Atmospheric Circulation -> zonal wind flow -> energy for ocean waves
pressure gradient: waves & sea-surface topography create gradients
Coriolis deflection
Circulation Gyre- easterlies @ low lat. + westerlies @ mid lat. = huge circling currents. direction = Coriolis
(Northern Hemi:Clockwise,Southern Hemi:CounterClockwise) **see below
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Ekman Spiral- currents deviate from wind and slow with increasing depth [Scandinavian physicist V. Walfrid
Ekman]
45 degree from wind- surface current
90 degree from wind- net water transport (Ekman transport)
Upwelling
can extend 100-200 m in strong, persistent wind, surface water diverges, bottom water moves up, carrying
nutrients and allowing high biological productivity
downwelling
surface waters converges and water moves down, carrying oxygen and nutrients down with it and make low
biological productivity
upwelling and downwelling is critical for large-scale circulation (thermohaline)
Water convergence -> downwelling (surface water moves down)
Water divergence -> upwelling (bottom water moves up)
Langmuir Circulation- winds of 3.5+ m/s. remember "corkscrew" [Irving Langmuir]
Convection cell 10-50 m broad, 5-6 m deep, 100s m-several km long)
Langmuir : short-term response to wind :: Ekman : long-term response to wind
Geostrophic currents- dynamic balance between Coriolis Deflection (CD) & Pressure gradient (PG)
wind + CD (up) = converging uphill mound => PG
PG (down) + CD = alongslope geostrophic current (actually back to wind's original direction)
winds indirectly cause circ. gyres. geostrophic currents deflected by landmasses create the actual gyres.
western-boundary intensification- rotation of Earth pinches the West current so it's narrower, deeper and stronger
those in the East side
it's also necessary that Coriolis deflection varies with latitude.
An alternative explanation includes vorticity ("curl" of fluid's velocity). Circulation gyres require vorticity to be
constant. In the northern hemisphere, winds create a negative vorticity input. Water going south adds positive
vorticity in the eastern boundary, but water going north in the western boundary does not, requiring a tall, narrow
current to counteract the negative vorticity.
Width (km)
Depth (km)
Speed (m/s)
Transport(Sv)
Eastern boundary
> 1000 km
< 0.5 km
< 0.3 m/s (~10
10-15 Sv
km/day)
Western boundary
< 100 km
1-2 km
< 1.5 m/s (~100
> 50 Sv
km/day)
rings- Geostrophic curr. (like Gulf Stream) are snake-like and can loop to create rings
inside gyres : warm :: outside gyres : cold **not sure if this is Gulf Stream specific (other ring sites: Kuroshio
Current & Brazil Current)
warm-core rings- C rotation. warm core
cold-core rings- CC rotation. cold core
Deep-Ocean
Thermohaline Circulation- temperature gradient + salinity gradient = density gradient => motion [difficult &
expensive to study]
Reminder: sun changes ocean's temperature, processes can add/subtract freshwater and change salinity
Seawater at the bottom is generally stable and uniform 5deg C and 35 ppt
Conservative properties are used to classify water masses
Subsurface water comes from dense surface polar waters sinking as it moves equatorward
It takes roughly 1000 years for the water to reach the surface once again.
Water masses:
Central Waters (0-1 km)
o SPCW- South Pacific Central Waters
o NPCW- North Pacific Central Waters
o NACW- North Atlantic Central Waters
o SACW- South Atlantic Central Waters
o SICW- South Indian Central Waters
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o ECW- Equatorial Central Waters
Intermediate Waters (1-2)
NPIW- North Pacific Intermediate Water
RSIW- Red Sea Intermediate Water
MIW- Mediterranean Intermediate Water
AIW- Arctic Intermediate Water
AAIW- Antarctic Intermediate Water
Deep and Bottom Waters (>2)
o CoW- Common Water (AABW + NADW)
o PSW- Pacific Subarctic Water
o NADW- North Atlantic Deep Water
o AADW- Antarctic Deep Water
o NABW- North Atlantic Bottom Water
o AABW- Antarctic Bottom Water
Large-scale Circulation- "conveyor belt" water flow. sinking at N. Atlantic and upwelling at Pacific/Indian Ocean.
o
o
o
o
o
Somewhat accurate but oversimplified
wave and crest of next wave
-wave period: time for two consecutive crests to pass a fixed point
-wave frequency: number of times one complete wave will occur per unit time (1 cycle per sec= 1 Hertz)
-wave celerity: a.k.a. phase speed; speed the wave crest moves horizontally across the ocean surface (measured in
meters/second)
Ocean surface made up of
-component waves: have different periods & directions; combine to produce “sea”: very chaotic state of sea surface
without organization, no constant direction, wavelength, or period
-ocean “swell”: individual waves, crests are more peaked & troughs more cantilevered
Classification by periods:
-capillary wave: “ripples”; smallest, generated by small puffs of wind, restored by surface tension; period= less than
0.1 of a second
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-chop: locally generated; period= 1 second
-ocean swell: period=10 seconds
-gravity waves: most common, generated by wind and storms, restored by gravity; period= between 1 second & 30
seconds (most energy around 10 seconds)
-seismic sea waves: tsunamis; caused by geological effects, not visible in deep water due to small height and long
wavelength; period= minutes & tens of minutes
-seiches: back & forth sloshing of water in harbors; period= minutes & tens of minutes
-long waves: generated by storms & earthquakes, restored by gravity & coriolis force; period= greater than 5 minutes
-tides: longest waves, generated by sun & moon, restored by bottom friction & coriolis force; period= 12 hour & 24
hour
Classification by method of generation:
-wind waves: generated when momentum is transferred from wind to water when wind blows across water surface
-impact waves: generated on water surface by earthquakes or other forms of impact (even a small one like a rock
thrown into pond) ex: tsunamis
Classification by water depth:
Wave celerity (c) is directly proportional to wavelength (L) or period (T) & water depth (d)
above sea floor & periods will travel faster
-intermediate water waves: 1/20 L> d >1/2 L
-shallow water waves: d< or equal t
near the bottom decreases, waves slow down
For intermediate and shallow water waves, the celerity is regulated by water depth since bottom friction comes into
play
Classification by generating force:
-free waves: run independent of generating force (ex: impact waves)
-forced waves: dependent upon generating force for continued existence (ex: tides)
Dispersion of waves:
Wave dispersion= sorting of waves by wavelength
longest
(when rock thrown into pond, rings of circular waves propagate away from center & longest waves out in front of
next longest wave, etc.)
Reason why ocean “swell” leaves behind confused “sea” present in a storm’s active wave generation area & outruns
Factors that influence formation:
-wind speed
-length of fetch: area that wind has blown over; reason why waves are bigger in the ocean than in ponds
- how long the wind has blown over an area
The greater these variables, the larger the waves
Fully developed sea: when waves can’t go longer in size under the existing wind conditions since the energy from
the wind equals the energy lost by wakes breaking and leaving the fetch
“White caps”: foaming wave crests, created when waves break & energy is turbulently dissipated; not caused by
decreasing water depth
Wave interference:
-interaction of several waves of different sizes, direction, & celerity
-constructive wave interference: several wave crests or troughs coincide, results in a composite wave with crests of
troughs “building down” wave much larger than
individual wave components; can create rogue waves: unusually large breaking waves composed of several large
waves that have merged momentarily
-destructive wave interference: crest of one wave coincides with trough of second wave & cancellation results,
producing composite wave that is smaller than individual component waves
Waves in fetch area continually merging & separating, producing seas: ever changing wave-interference patterns
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Significant wave height: average of highest 1/3 of all waves present in an area; always more than the average wave
height
Water particles move beneath waves:
-motion of the passage of one wave= orbit: anything floating in the water & water particles rotate around a vertical
circle
-bigger the wave, larger the orbit
-mass transport: slight forward movement of water with the passage of waves; moves water against the coast when
waves arrive at a shoreline, causing nearshore currents in surf zone
-wave base: depth ½ L , size of orbits not detectable since they drop rapidly with the depth below the water surface
Waves in shallow water:
celerity
-shallower the water, the slower the celerity which is regulated directly by water depth: C= 7.01rad d mph
-waves travel at their slowest rates at the time that they break on the bench
-waves “bunch up” as their wavelengths decrease since leading waves travel slower than those behind them which
are in slightly deeper water
- as approaching shoreline, height increases & asymmetric wave
-redistribution of wave energy s water depth decreases
-orbital motion of water particles changes from circular shape (deep-water waves) to elliptical shape (shallow-water
waves)
-period does not change (period of wave off a beach = to period at time of its generation in the storm area far out at
sea)
Wave refraction
-bending of wave crest in response to drag along the bottom
-different parts of the same crest (which lie at an angle to the shore & to the bottom contours) travel shoreward at
variable celerities
-inshore part of crest (in shallow water): moves more
deeper water) reorient itself by “bending” so that it becomes more parallel to shape of shoreline
Shore breakers:
Wave steepness= H/L : helps predict when and where waves will become unstable and break
-wave gets bigger & steeper before collapsing as a breaker at the shoreline
Critical wave steepness: H/L = 1/7 , crest is oversteepened & unstable; bottom friction retards the base of wave &
-spilling breaker: most common breaker, upper part of crest becomes oversteepened & “spills” down the front side of
advancing wave, continually breaking; loses energy across surf zone; forms along shores having great deal of sand
spread out over sloping sea bottom
-plunging breaker: entire wave front steepens, curls, & collapse, or “plunges” forward; releases much of its energy
instantaneously; creates narrow surf zone
-surging breaker: flat, low waves don’t become oversteepened or break, but move smoothly up & down the face of
beach; reflects much of their energy seaward; occurs when crest does not attain critical wave steepness, fails to break,
& reflects off the beach & back into sea; found off steep beaches & seawalls & sea cliffs
Collapsing breakers produce waves of translation: water tumbles forward in a foamy, bubble-filled, turbulent mass
propelled by its own momentum
Standing waves:
-do not move horizontally, but remain stationary as water moves beneath them
-waves oscillate back & forth about a node: a fixed point
-water level raised at one end, simultaneously causing water level to drop at other side
-antinodes: maximum vertical displacement, opposite of nodes
-crest loses height & becomes a trough while at the other end, water builds up & becomes a crest
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-standing wave in a lake, harbor, or estuary=seiches
-seiches have natural periods of oscillation proportional to basin length & water depth; can become dangerous under
resonance: the period of the force (wind, tides) that stacks the water on one side equals the natural period of
oscillation
Internal wave- progressive, occurs underwater; moves along the pynoclines (surfaces that separate water masses
having different densities)
-travel at much slower speeds than surface waves since difference in density between two water masses is much less
than it is between air & water
-physical size can be larger than ocean swell
-periods measured in minutes, wavelengths in hundreds
-can attain and exceed 100 meters
Tsunamis:
-travel around 760 km/hr in open ocean
-slows down in shallow water
-not dangerous to vessels in open ocean since energy (not mass) is traveling: ocean swell would hide presence of flat,
low seismic waves
- can grow to height greater than 10 meters when they reach shallow shoreline
-flood the shoreline causing catastrophic destruction
+ Group wave speed = C/2
Light attenuation(scattering):
ENSO=En Niño Southern Oscillation
NAO=North Atlantic Oscillation
ITCZ=Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone
SG=Specific Gravity; ratio of the density of a substance to the density of distilled water
Physics
o properties of waves
o types of waves
o Tides
o Coastal processes
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o
o
Ocean Circulation
Winds
Geology
Obvious need-to-knows:
the greater the depth, the denser the layer (heavy, dense stuff sinks)
the greater the depth, the greater the pressure (miles of rocks weighing on you)
for reference: the earth's radius = 6360-70 km'
these layers are assumptions, calculated through density, refraction and Snell's law.
Layers by Composition:
Layer
Crust
Mantle
Core
Composition
Size (km)
Size (%)
aluminum, silicon,
oxygen
magnesium, iron,
silicon, oxygen
mostly iron alloys, also
nickel
35-50 km
.4%
2900 km
68.1%
3500 km
31.5%
Notes:
note how the general composition of the crust is similar to continental granite's main components (Al, Si, O),
while the mantle's composition is similar to those of oceanic basalt (Mg, Si, O).
radioactive decay heats the Earth's interior.
Layers by Physical
State: Layer
Lithosphere
Asthenosphere
State
Description
Relative positions
solid
semi-liquid
hard, rigid, brittle
partially melted (weak,
plastic)
rigid
molten
dense, solid core
crust + upper mantle
mantle (ends at ~350
km)
lower mantle
core (size = 2200 km)
core (size = 1300 km)
Mesosphere
solid
Core (outer)
liquid
Core (inner)
solid
Notes:
melting temperature is directly proportional to pressure. The layer is liquid when temperature overrides pressure.
This is why the inner core is solid, pressure is greater
mesosphere is not used a lot anymore. Could be confused with the atmospheric mesosphere
movements in the outer core is what creates Earth's magnetic field.
Further Breakdown of the
Depth (km)
Other stuff
Mantle: Layer
Upper mantle
10-400 km
asthenosphere and part of the
lithosphere
Transition region
400-650 km
source of basaltic magma
Lower mantle
650-2890 km
the bulk of earth's mass, but little
activity
D'' layer
2700-2890 km
really part of the lower mantle
(see below)
Some Discontinuities:
Mohorovičić discontinuity (Moho)- boundary between crust and mantle.
Core-mantle boundary (cmb)- self-explanatory
D'' layer- ~200 km above the cmb. Sandwiched between two discontinuities, suggesting a different layer
Gutenberg discontinuity- below the D'' layer, core mantle boundary
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Lehmann discontinuity- apparently refers two different discontinuities: one between inner/outer core, and the other
at depth of between 190 and 250 km
Hydrosphere
Water = 70.8% of Earth's surface
97% sea water, 3% fresh water
90% of water on Earth is chemically bonded with minerals (not in liquid form)
Atmosphere
Layers
Altitude
Description
Exosphere
500-10,000 km
particles can move in/out of
atmosphere
Ionosphere
ionized by solar radiation
responsible for radio propagation and auroras
Thermosphere
80-640 km
thermo=heat, contains
ionosphere, where shuttles
operate
Mesosphere
50-80 km
meso=middle, where meteors
burn
Stratosphere
7/17-50 km
stratus=spreading out; ozone
layer at lower portion
Troposphere
Poles:7 km; Equator:17 km
tropo=change, most active
(weather stuff)
Boundaries
Exobase / Thermopause
Sandwiching Layers?
Thermosphere-Exosphere
Description
below:active on insolation
received; above:negligible
atomic collisions
minimum temperature
maximum temperature
dry atmosphere above
Mesopause
Thermosphere-Mesosphere
Stratopause
Mesosphere-Stratosphere
Tropopause
Stratosphere-Troposphere
Notes:
As height increases, temperature decreases in troposphere and mesosphere, and increases in stratosphere and
thermosphere.
99.9997% of the atmosphere is below 100 km.
Main composition: 78% Nitrogen (N2), 21% Oxygen (O2), Argon (Ar), Carbon dioxide (CO2), Neon (Ne)...
Biosphere
life: composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen molecules.
Earthquakes and Seismic Waves (wave list is fastest to slowest, least to most dangerous)
Body Waves (Earth's interior):
P-waves (primary)- compressional/longitudinal wave (think slinky)
S-waves (secondary)- shear/transverse waves. propagates through strike-slip motion, as a result, does not go
through liquid (it's how they found out the outer core is molten)
Surface Waves (Earth's surface...):
Love waves- transverse, but horizontal, so the wave moves left-right, not up-down.
Rayleigh waves- transverse and vertical, like ocean waves.
Shadow zone- area where body waves aren't detected. S-waves' shadow zone is greater b/c of the liquid thing
Elastic-rebound theory- earthquakes occur due plates rebounding from strain.
**** for waves less than 200 km away, dt (in secs.) b/w P/S waves * 8 km/s = distance of wave origin.
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Sediments
• Produced by weathering (Breaking down) of rock into particles and then moved by air, water, or ice; also form by
accumulation of dead organisms’ shells
• Can be made out Earth’s surface, cut at high points (mountains), fill in low points (ocean basins)
• Subdivided based on particle size and formation
• Colloids- particles smaller than clay formed from rock range break-down
• Organized from smallest to largest size: colloid, mud (formed from clay and silt), sand, and gravel
• Ocean’s most common sedimentary deposits: mud and sand; gravel very rare
Formation classification (5):
Authigenic, Biogenic, Volcanogenic, Cosmogenous, Terrigenous, Lithogenic, Hydrogenic
(Note Hydrogenic and Authigenic are sometimes interchangeable as are lithogenic and terragenous and the -ous and
–ic and often mixed up so don’t try too hard knowing which goes to which)
Descriptions
• Authigenic- formed when 2 liquids react in a chemical or biochemical reaction
• Biogenic- fine and coarse grains derived from organic decay (shells, skeletal debris), typically form lime (formed
of calcium carbonate) and siliceous (composed of silica) muds
• Volcanogenic- particles formed from volcanic ejection.
• Cosmogenous- very tiny grains originating from outer space; tend to mix with terrigenous and biogenic sediment
• Terrigenous- fine and coarse grains made by rocks on land weathering and eroding; typically produce sand and
mud
• Terrigenous sediment- collection of rock and mineral fragments directly related to source rock
• Continents are principle suppliers of terrigenous debris
• 2 most important factors that determine sediment’s nature: deposition site’s energy conditions and particle-size
distribution
• Geologists can determine these two factors by examining rock’s properties
• Sediment types vary with latitude and depend on climate
• Slow rate erosion and sedimentation- water sorts grains more thoroughly according to shape, size, and density;
results in small grain size variety and uniform appearance
• Fast erosion and sedimentation- currents have little time to sort grains, poorly sorted (lots of size differences),
heterogeneous (non uniform) appearance
• Average particle size of deposition is a good indicator of environment’s energy at deposition time
• High-energy environment – swift and turbulent water; keeps fine particles suspended and resuspends those
momentarily settled; this disruption of ocean floor separates small grains from bigger ones and transports them into
quieter waters, which are typically deeper
• Coarse sand deposited under high-energy conditions
• Low-energy environment- weak currents and quiet water, muds typically accumulate here
• Larger particles need stronger currents to erode
• Tiny particles need faster currents to erode
• Small particles settle more slowly and are easily moved by weak currents
• Bulk emplacement- large quantities of sediment are transported to the deep-sea floor in a mass and not as
individual particles
• Pelagic sediment- fine-grained fall-out of terrigenous and biogenic material
• Once buried, grains compacted, cemented and slowly transformed into sedimentary rock
• Sand becomes sandstone
• Mud becomes shale if it contains clay, or limestone if it contains carbonate ooze
• In shelf sedimentation, tides, wind-generated waves, and currents provide energy for eroding and transporting
• Grain size decreases as distance form
• Relict sediment-sediments present solely because of earlier accumulation and very different depositional conditions
(under present circumstances, should not be there)
• Major Sediment Input Sources in 109 tons/yr:
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Rivers: 18.3
Glaciers and ice sheets: 2.0
Wind blown dust: 0.6
Coastal erosion: 0.25
Volcanic debris: 0.15
Groundwater: <0.48
• Obtain sediments to study from with corers
• Corers- devices that allow scientists to extract layers of sediment from the ocean floor (basic concept: drop corer,
corer sinks into the ocean floor with gravity’s help, extracts sediment, corer sealed with plastic liner, brought back to
surface)
Geology
o Mid-Ocean Ridges
o Coastal formations
o Estuaries
o Glaciers
o Tectonic processes
o Rocks, minerals and sediment types
Geography
Stare at the bodies of water/straits/major rivers of any globe. A few incomplete maps:
Arctic: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d5/IBCAO_betamap.jpg
Antarctic: http://blackmaps.files.wordpress.com/2009/03/antarctica-map.jpg
World: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/World_TLD_Map.jpg
Winds
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Currents
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Plates
Pacific Ocean
Largest of the Earth's oceanic divisions.
Name is derived from the Latin name Mare Pacificum, "peaceful sea", bestowed upon it by the Portuguese
explorer Ferdinand Magellan. (not always peaceful though)
Actually, Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa who crossed the Isthmus of Panama in 1513, was the first to
see it.
169.2 million square kilometers in area, largest division of the World Ocean.
Hydrosphere covers about 46% of the Earth's water surface and about 32% of its total surface area.
The Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench in the northwestern Pacific is the deepest point in the Pacific and in
the world, reaching a depth of 10,911 metres (35,798 ft).
Contains about 250 islands, majority of which found south of equator.
The Pacific Ocean is currently shrinking from plate tectonics, while the Atlantic Ocean is increasing in size.
Water temperatures in Ocean vary from freezing in the poleward areas to about 30 °C (86 °F) near the equator.
Salinity also varies latitudinally; water near the equator is less salty than that found in the mid-latitudes due to
precipitation.
The surface circulation of Pacific waters is generally clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere (the North Pacific
Gyre) and counter-clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.
The andesite line is the most significant regional distinction in the Pacific. Separates deeper, mafic igneous rock
of the Central Pacific Basin from the partially submerged continental areas of felsic igneous rock on its margins.
Within closed loop of the andesite line are most of the deep troughs, submerged volcanic mountains, and oceanic
volcanic islands that characterize the Pacific basin. Basaltic lavas gently flow out of rifts to build huge dome-shaped
volcanic mountains whose eroded summits form island arcs, chains, and clusters.
Outside the Andesite Line, volcanism is of the explosive type, and the Pacific Ring of Fire is the world's foremost
belt of explosive volcanism. The Ring of Fire is named after the several hundred active volcanoes that sit above the
various subduction zones.
Atlantic Ocean
Covers approximately 22% of Earth's surface; second largest ocean.
Occupies an area of 82,400,000 square kilometers
Average depths of the Atlantic, is 3,926 metres.
The greatest depth, 8,605 metres is in the Puerto Rico Trench. The width of the Atlantic varies from 2,848
kilometers (1,770 mi) between Brazil and Sierra Leone to over 4,000 mi (6,400 km) in the south.
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Principal feature of the bathymetry is a submarine mountain range called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. It extends from
Iceland in the north to approximately 58° South latitude, reaching a maximum width of about 1,600 kilometres
(1,000 mi).
A great rift valley also extends along the ridge over most of its length.
The South Atlantic Ocean (Atlantic Ocean south of equator) has additional submarine ridge, the Walvis Ridge.
Ocean sediments are composed of terrigenous, pelagic, and authigenic material.
Terrigenous deposits consist of sand, mud, and rock particles formed by erosion, weathering, and volcanic
activity on land and then washed to sea. Mostly concentrated on continental shelves and thickest off the mouths of
large rivers or off desert coasts.
Pelagic deposits, which contain the remains of organisms that sink to the ocean floor, cover most of the ocean
floor and ranging in thickness from 60 to 3,300 metres.
Atlantic averaged to be saltiest of the world's major oceans; salinity of the surface waters in the open ocean
ranges from 33 to 37 parts per thousand
Maximum salinity values occur at about 25° north and south of the equator, in subtropical regions with low
rainfall and high evaporation.
Because of the Coriolis effect, water in the North Atlantic circulates in a clockwise direction, whereas water
circulation in the South Atlantic is counter-clockwise.
The south tides in the Atlantic Ocean are semi-diurnal. Generally moves from south to north, but in latitudes
above 40° North some east-west oscillation occurs.
Bermuda Triangle found in the ocean.
Arctic Ocean
Arctic Ocean located in the northern hemisphere and mostly in the Arctic north polar region
Smallest and shallowest of the world's five major oceanic divisions.
Occupies a roughly circular basin and covers an area of about 14,056,000 km²
The coastline length is 45,390 kilometers
Connected to the Pacific Ocean by the Bering Strait and to the Atlantic Ocean through the Greenland Sea and
Labrador Sea.
Arctic Ocean is largely covered by sea ice throughout the year. Temperature and salinity vary seasonally as the
ice cover melts and freezes.
Salinity is the lowest on average due to low evaporation, heavy freshwater inflow from rivers and streams, and
limited connection and outflow to surrounding oceanic waters with higher salinities.
Temperature of the surface of the Arctic Ocean is fairly constant, near the freezing point of seawater, slightly
below zero degrees Celsius.
In the winter the relatively warm ocean water exerts a moderating influence, even when covered by ice. This is
one reason why the Arctic does not experience the extremes of temperature seen on the Antarctic continent.
Considerable seasonal variation in how much pack ice of the Arctic ice pack covers the Arctic Ocean. Much of
the ocean is also covered in snow for about 10 months of the year. The maximum snow cover is in March or April,
about 20 to 50 centimeters
The polar ice pack is thinning, and there is a seasonal hole in ozone layer in many years. Many scientists are
presently concerned that warming temperatures in the Arctic may cause large amounts of fresh meltwater to enter the
North Atlantic, possibly disrupting global ocean current patterns.
Indian Ocean
Third largest of the world's oceanic divisions, covering about 20% of the water on the Earth's surface.
Indian Ocean is delineated from the Atlantic Ocean by the 20° east meridian running south from Cape Agulhas,
and from the Pacific by the 147° east meridian.
Ocean is nearly 10,000 kilometres wide at the southern tips of Africa and Australia
Area is 73,556,000 square kilometres if including the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf.
The ocean's volume is estimated to be 292,131,000 cubic kilometers
Ocean's importance as a transit route between Asia and Africa has made it a scene of conflict.
Because of its size, however, no nation had successfully dominated most of it until the early 1800s when the
United Kingdom controlled much of the surrounding land. After the decline of the British Empire, the ocean has
since been dominated by India and Australia.
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Climate north of the equator is affected by a monsoon or tornado wind system. Strong north-east winds blow
from October until April; from May until October south and west winds prevail.
The Indian Ocean is the warmest ocean in the world.
Youngest of the major oceans. Has active spreading ridges: Carlsberg, Southwest Indian Ridge, Southeast Indian
Ridge and the Mid Indian Ridges
Southern Ocean:
Aka Great Southern Ocean, the Antarctic Ocean and the South Polar Ocean
Comprises the southernmost waters of the World Ocean south of 60° S latitude.
The International Hydrographic Organization has designated the Southern Ocean as the fourth largest oceanic
division encircling Antarctica (most recently defined, 2000).
Southern Ocean has typical depths of between 4,000 and 5,000 meters.
Antarctic continental shelf appears generally narrow and unusually deep, its edge lying at depths up to 800 meters
compared to a global mean of 133 meters (436 ft).
Equinox to equinox in line with the sun's seasonal influence, the Antarctic ice pack fluctuates from an average
minimum of 2.6 million square kilometers in March to about 18.8 million square kilometers in September, more than
a sevenfold increase in area.
The Southern Ocean's greatest depth of 7,235 meters occurs at the southern end of the South Sandwich Trench, at
60°00'S, 024°W.
Sea-temperatures vary from about −2 to 10 °C.
Cyclonic storms travel eastward around the continent and frequently become intense because of the temperaturecontrast between ice and open ocean.
Geography
o Surface Currents
o Major straits and rivers
o Bodies of water, major seas and lakes
o Major islands and peninsulas
o Prevailing winds and wind cells
Social Sciences
Voyages
1000-600 B.C. – Phoenicians explore the Mediterranean Sea, sail to Cornwall, England
325 B.C. – Pytheas becomes the first to circumnavigate England and estimate the length of its shoreline. Possibly
reached Norway and Iceland.
982 – Eric the Red becomes the first to cross the Atlantic, and discovered the Baffin Island in Canada.
1487-1488 – Bartholomew Diaz rounded the Cape of Good Hope
1492 – Christopher Columbus discovers North America, but believed it was India (note: he was not the first to
discover it, the Vikings were, but he is given credit)
1498 – Vasco de Gama – Sails around the Cape of Good Hope all the way to India
1499-1502 – Amerigo Vespucci makes trips to South America and discovers that it extends further than originally
believe. The Americas are named after him, and is the first to demonstrate that Colubmus had discovered a new
continent, and not a part of Asia
1500 – Pedro Alvares Cabral discovered and explored Brazil
1519 – Ferdinand Magellan attempts to circumnavigate the globe, but dies in the Phillipines, and Sebastian del Cano
completes the voyage in 1522. The only remaining ship was the HMS Victoria
1768 – James Cook makes his first major voyage on the HMS Endeavour, and charted the coast of New Zealand. He
also reached as far as Australia.
1772-1775 – James Cook, this time aboard the HMS Adventure and the HMS Resolution, sails around the Cape of
Good Hope and circumnavigates the globe, staying around 60 degrees south latitude.
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1778-1779 – James Cook’s final voyage, he discovers many islands, including the Hawaiian Islands, and then north
to the Bering Sea. In doing so, be became the first man to sail the polar seas of both hemispheres.
1817-1818 – Sir John Ross goes into the Arctic Ocean to explore the Baffin Islands and sounds the bottom at a depth
of 1.8km, digging up starfish and mud worms.
1831-1836 – The HMS Beagle, captained by Robert Fitzroy, with Charles Darwin aboard as a naturalist, made a five
year voyage, where Darwin developed his idea of natural selection through the study of the Galapagos Islands and
other life around South America.
1838-1842 – United States Exploring Expedition (aka Ex. Ex., the Wilkes Expedition) an expedition by the United
States Navy, was led by Lt. Charles Wilkes to explore the Southern Seas. The ships included the commanding
Vincennes, the Peacock, the Porpoise, the Relief, the Seagull, and the Flying Fish. This was significant in that they
discovered a part of Antarctica west of the Balleny Islands, later named Wilkes Land. The expedition helped spur
scientific experimentation in the ninth century.
1872-1876 – C. Wyville Thomson, on the HMS Challenger, refuted Edward Forbes claim that life could not exist at
depths below 550m. After 360+ soundings and twenty-three years of research, their findings were published into
fifty volumes.
1893 – Fridjof Nansen on the Fram attempted to be the first to reach the North Pole. They were trapped in Siberia,
400km from the pole. Frederick Johansen left with Nansen to reach the pole, but failed. The Fram is now on display
in Oslo, Norway.
1925-1927 – The German Meteor Expedition, using three ships, sounded the ocean floor. Their efforts were the most
complete examination of the sea floor of their day, and their pattern is still copied today.
1958 – The submarine, the USS Nautilus, reaches the North Pole, from under the ice.
1959-1965 – International Indian Ocean Expedition by the UN
1960 – The submersible Trieste becomes the first craft to reach Challenger Deep (10,900m)
1970s – International Decade of Ocean Exploration supported by the UN and NSF.
1968-1975 – The Deep Sea Drilling Project aimed to confirm sea-floor spreading and plate tectonics by drilling into
sediments. The Glomar Challenger had the latest equipment and performed much of the drilling.
1985 – Joides Resolution replaces the Glomar Challenger
1986 – Alvin, a submersible, discovers the wreck of the RMS Titanic. It also discovered the USS Scorpion, a
Skipjack class submarine.
2008 – China launches the largest expedition to date, with 145 scientists for a 250 expedition to explore the deep-sea
bottom and diversity in the Indian Ocean.
Explorers
Robert Ballard (1942 – present day) – Best known for discovering Titanic, pioneer in early use of deep-diving
submarines
Polynesians (1800 BC – 700 AD) – used navigation to routinely make long voyages of thousands of miles of
open ocean, journeying to small inhabited islands using only their own senses and knowledge passed down through
oral tradition from navigator to apprentice.
Vikings (late 8 to early 11th century) – used longships to travel as far east as Constantinople and Volga River in
Russia and as far west as Iceland, Greenland, and Newfoundland.
Bartholomew Diaz (1450-1500) – Portuguese explorer who sailed around the southernmost tip of Africa in 1488
and the first European known to have done so.
Vasco de Gama (1460-1524) – Portuguese explorer that made a journey in 1497 that lasted for over 3 months and
sailed over 6,000 miles of open ocean, making it the longest journey out of sight of land made by the time. After this
first trip, only 1/3 of his men returned to Portugal in 1499, since the rest died on the trip. He was the first to sail to
India.
Ferdinand Magellan (1480-1521) – Portuguese maritime explorer who tried to find a westward route to the Spice
Islands of Indonesia. He became the first person to lead an expedition across the Pacific Ocean and this was also the
first successful attempt to circumnavigate the Earth. Even though Ferdinand Magellan was the one who named the
Pacific Ocean, he technically wasn’t the first person to see the Pacific. That would be Vasco Nunez de Balboa, so
just keep that in mind.
Sebastian del Cano (1476-1526) – Accompanied Magellan in 1519 and led the expedition after Magellan’s death.
He completed the first world circumnavigation which had been led by Ferdinand Magellan after Magellan died.
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Scientists
Fridtjof Nansen (1861-1930) – Norwegian explorer, led first crossing of Greenland by ski. In 1893, sailed to
Arctic in the Fram; Fram designed to deliberately drift north through the sea ice and this journey took more than 3
years.
Charles Darwin (1809-1882) – known for natural selection or “survival of the fittest” and making a 5-year
voyage on HMS Beagle along with Robert Fitzroy. In 1859, wrote a book called On the Origin of Species about
evolution theory through natural selection. Formed theory about atoll formation.
James Cook (1728-1779) – an English explorer, navigator, and cartographer. He was the first to map
Newfoundland and achieved the first European contact with the eastern coastline of Australia and the Hawaiian
islands as well as being the first to circumnavigate New Zealand. Ultimately rose to the rank of captain of the British
Royal Navy and in 1766 became commander of HMS Endeavour.
Matthew Fontaine Maury (1806-1873) – His nicknames included “Pathfinder of the Seas, “Father of modern
Oceanography and Naval Meteorology”, and “Scientist of the Seas”. He wrote the first extensive and comprehensive
book on oceanography to be published, titled Physical Geography of the Sea in 1855.
Charles Wyville Thompson (1830-1882) – He persuaded the Royal Navy to let him use HMS Lightning and
HMS Porcupine for deep sea dredging in the summers of 1868 and 1869. He became chief scientist of the HMS
Challenger in 1872, and collected a vast amount of data on this particular voyage, which was compiled to fill a 50volume Challenger Report.
Alfred Wegener (1880-1930) – Known for his continental drift and plate tectonics theory. He proposed that the
continents had drifted or rifted apart gradually from the supercontinent of Pangea over time, and his first edition of
The Origins of Continents and Oceans outlined this theory and was published in 1915
Other
Jacques-Yves Cousteau (1910-1997) – He was commonly known as “le Commandant Cousteau” or “Captain
Cousteau”. He and Emile Gagnan developed the aqualung in 1943; the aqualung was the original name for the first
open-circuit scuba diving equipment.
Shale Niskin – inventor of the Niskin bottle, which was the successor to the Nansen bottle. The Niskin bottle was
patented in 1966.
Sir Francis Beaufort (1774-1857) – a hydrographer and officer in Britain’s Royal Navy; he is the creator of the
Beaufort scale for indicating wind force.
Sir Robert Alexander Watson-Watt (1892-1973) – Considered the “inventor of radar”; though radar development
was started elsewhere, he worked on some of the first workable radar systems.
Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) – He became interested in North Atlantic Ocean circulation patterns and he learned
enough to chart the Gulf Stream; it got published in 1770.
Juan Ponce de Leon (1474-1521) – Joined Christopher Columbus on his second voyage to the New World as a
“gentleman volunteer”. He is widely credited with discovering Florida, but he may not have been the first European
to reach the peninsula. He is also known for searching for the Fountain of Youth. He was also the first one to
describe the powerful Florida current.
Vasco Nunez de Balboa (1475-1519) – He is best known for crossing the Isthmus of Panama in 1513, becoming the
first European to see the Pacific Ocean.
Otto Neumann Sverdrup (1854-1930) – He joined Fridtjof Nansen’s 1888 expedition of crossing Greenland. In 1893,
he was put in charge of the Fram while Nansen tried to reach the North Pole.
Robert Fitzroy (1805-1865) – He was the captain of HMS Beagle during Charles Darwin’s voyage.
Sylvia Alice Earle (1935-present day) – From 1990-1992, she was the chief scientist of NOAA. She is sometimes
called “Her Deepness” or “The Sturgeon General”. She set a women’s depth record of 1250 feet (381 meters), as
well as holding the women’s record for a solo dive in a deep submersible of 3,280 feet (1000 meters).
Ed Ricketts (1897-1948) – an American marine biologist, friend of author John Steinbeck.
Henry Cavendish (1731-1810) – a British scientist, he is noted for discovering hydrogen, which he called
“inflammable air”.
James Clark Ross (1800-1862) – a British naval officer and explorer. In 1812, he entered the navy under his uncle
Sir John Ross and went with Sir John and William Parry on Sir John Ross’s first Arctic Journey searching for the
Northwest Passage in 1818. On 1831 of this trip, Sir John Ross located the position of the North Magnetic Pole on
the Boothia Peninsula in the far north of Canada.
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Harald Sverdrup (1888-1957) – a Norwegian oceanographer and meteorologist who made many important
theoretical discoveries in these fields. The sverdrup, a unit of volume flux, was named after him.
Sir John Ross (1777-1856) – a Scottish rear admiral and Arctic explorer. In 1818 he received command of an Arctic
expedition organized by the Admiralty, the first of a new series to solve the question of a Northwest Passage leading
from Europe to West America. In 1850 he journeyed to the Arctic regions searching for Sir John Franklin and his
expedition, but he didn’t find them.
Edmond Halley (1656-1742) – an English astronomer, geophysicist, mathematician, meteorologist and physicist. In
1686 he published the second part of his results from his St. Helena expedition, which consisted of a paper and chart
on trade winds and monsoons. In this, he identified solar heating as the cause of atmospheric motions. He also
established the relationship between barometric pressure and height above sea level.
George Hadley (1685-1786) – English lawyer and amateur meteorologist who proposed the atmospheric mechanism
by which Trade Winds are sustained.
Jacques Piccard (1922-2008) – Swish oceanographer and engineer known for developing underwater vehicles for
studying ocean currents. He is the only other person besides Don Walsh (and now James Cameron Mar 25 2012, in
the Deepsea Challenger with 3D cameras) to have explored Challenger Deep.
Robert Boyle (1627-1691) – British scientist. He is probably most famous for Boyle’s Law, which states that as
pressure increases, volume increases; pressure and volume are inversely related.
Rachel Carson (1906-1964) – an American marine biologist. She is most famous for her book Silent Spring,
published in 1962 that documented the horrors caused by pollution in the living world.
Hugo Grotius (1583-1645) – He is the most famous in ocean management for popularizing the term freedom of the
seas through his treatise Mare Liberum.
Also Some more Dates
1903=Scripps Institution of Biological Research, later Scripps Institution of Oceanography, founded at UC San
Diego. First Oceanographic Institute established.
1912=Alfred Wegener proposed his theory of continental drift and the Titanic sank.
1985=JOIDES Resolution replaced the Glomar Challenger.
1998= International Year of the Ocean
IDOE=International Decade of Ocean Exploration; 1970s, improve our scientific knowledge of all
aspects of the oceans.
IGY=International Geophysical Year; 1957-1958; international effort to coordinate the geophysical
investigation of Earth.
EPA=Environmental Protection Agency; 1988; to preserve the Gulf of Mexico
FAO=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
NASA=National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NOAA=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; a federal agency focused on the condition of the oceans
and the atmosphere
GEOSECS=Geochemical Ocean Sections project, begun in 1972. Studies chemical make-up and
properties of water. Analyzes water for 23 chemicals, 15 isotopes, and particulates. In order to explain the nature of
ocean circulation, mixing, and the biogeochemical recycling of chemical substances.
GLOBEC=Global Ocean Ecosystem Dynamics-will increase our understanding of the causes of
variations in the populations of marine organisms resulting from global climate change.
Social Science
o Notable explorers and expeditions
o Notable discoveries
o Famous ships
o Uses of ocean resources
Marine Policy
Concepts:
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Ocean provides about 97% water supply, 99% of world’s habitat, almost 75% of world’s oxygen
Territorial seas – waters that extended from low tide for a distance of 3 nautical miles
Common-pool resource – controlled by a community that imposes limits on the use of it
Open-pool resource – no limits placed on the resource
EEZ (Exclusive Economic Zone) – area that extends 200 miles from a coast
Integrated Coastal Management (ICM) – must be organized at an ecological and governmental level
Sustainable development – can be achieved by insulating the system and its part from disruptions by human
activities
World fish catch nearly doubled from 50M tons in 1975 to 95M tons in 1995
UNEP (United Nations Environment Program) – reported in 2000 that 60% of the world’s fisheries (and of
the top 200 fish species) are becoming depleted due to overfishing
o 47-50% of the world’s fisheries are fully exploited, another 15-18% are overexploited, and 9-10%
are either depleted or recovering from depletion
By-catch wastes about 27 million tons of fish annually (about 1/3 of total catch)
Overfishing mostly due to: overcapitalization, open-access fishing regimes, and poor knowledge about
fisheries
Maximum (sustainable) yield – an idealistic goal to regulate fishing so the greatest amount of fish are taken
without impairing a fishery’s ability to produce more fish
FAO (UN Food and Agriculture Organization) – establishes a framework in which regional fisheries can
work together to manage fishing and insure fisheries will remain plentiful
TAC – total allowable catch
Sea level has been rising 2 mm per year since the mid1800s
o Tuvalu, Maldives, coastal-dwellers would all be in danger
o 70% of the worlds beaches are eroding, partly due to rising sea levels
Events:
 1609 – Hugo Grotius wrote Mare Liberum, “the freedom of the seas,” which said that the ocean could not be
owned by any person or nation
 UNCLOS – United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea – first one in 1956-58 in Geneva, Switzerland
(four treaties made, many problems remained), the second in 1960 in Geneva again (nothing decided again)
and the third took place from 1973-82 in New York (resulted in current LOS policies)
 1972 - CZMA – Coastal Zone Management Act – places first 3 miles of ocean within the jurisdiction of the
state
 Oceans Act of 2000 – intended to create a unified ocean and coastal policy
 FSA (Fishery Stock Agreement in 2002) – allows one state to interfere with the fishing vessels of another
state, only applies to migratory and straddling fish
 1946 International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling - created International Whaling Commission (IWC)
 Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972.
 IWC declared moratorium on commercial whaling in 1985, Norway, Japan and Iceland continued in 1988 as
scientific research.
 North Atlantic Marine Mammals Commission (NAMMCO) – est. in 1992, want to reclaim commercial
whaling under scientific wildlife management models
 1992 – United Nations Frameworks Convention on Climate Change – nations had to come up with a plan to
reduce global emissions, later introduced the Kyoto Protocol in 1997
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EEZ – economic control. Coastal nation responsible for pollution, taxation, immigration policies.
US Marine Sanctuaries: Channel Islands, Cordell Bank, Flower Garden Banks, Fagatele Bay, Florida Keys, Gulf of
the Farallones, Gray’s Reef, Hawaiian Island Humpback Whale, Monitor, Monterey Bay, Olympic Coast,
Stellwagen Bank, Thunder Bay.
Other Policies: Oil Pollution Act, Magnuson-Stevens Act, OILPOL, MARPOL, Submerged Lands Act
Know what NOAA is responsible for
Know about oil spills and how they are dealt with, as well as other pollution problems
Know about invasive species policy.
Marine Policy
o Marine Sanctuaries
o Important policies for management and conservation
o Organizations and institutions for management and policymaking
o Human impact on oceans
Technology
Instrumentation
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acoustic oceanography: the use of underwater sound to study the sea
Acoustic Recording Packages (ARPs) - long-term, autonomous devices which record marine mammal calls
ASIMET - Air-Sea Interaction METeorology, set of seven very precise sensors that measure how energy and water
move between the ocean and atmosphere
BIOMAPER I/II - set of sensors on a long aluminum frame that resembles the tail of a World War II airplane, used
to study phytoplankton and zooplankton over areas that are too large to study with the traditional net-and-microscope
method
(bongo paired) zooplankton net - one of the simplest biological samplers, advantages = lightweight/easy to operate,
disadvantages = nets do not open/close
echo sounding: measuring depth by timing reflection of sound wave from seabed
triangulation: The location of an unknown point, as in navigation, by the formation of a triangle having the unknown
point and two known points as the vertices.
Sound Surveillance System (SOSUS) antisubmarine warfare system established by U. S. Navy which consists of a
network of hydrophones in Northern Hemisphere (so sensitive can detect # of propellers), geophysical applications
include seismic reflection/refraction
swallow floats: instruments that sink to predefined depth then follow current sending signals with pinger
acoustic Doppler current profiler: measures water current velocities over a depth range using the Doppler effect of
sound waves
acoustic tomography: uses acoustic travel time to determine physical character of oceanic region of propagation
bathythermograph (BT): torpedo-shaped instrument used to record temperature changes of seawater with depth
while ship is underway; expendable BT (XBT) in greater use today
box corer: heavy boxes with cylinders on the bottom which collect sediment samples up 100 cm deep (when lead
weights are added); little perturbation
chronometer - mechanical clock engineered to high precision and used to keep time over sea; John Harrison
famously built 4 models
Coastal Zone Color Scanner (CZCS): satellite remote sensing instrument flown aboard U. S. satellite Nimbus 7
between 1978-86. Detected the absorption of wavelengths by chlorophyll, mapped suspended sediments, and
measured changing surface temperatures
Compass: origins unknown, used in China/Europe by 12th century, magnetized needles point north, magnetic north
pole not lined up perfectly with true north; early 12th century saw gyrocompass, 2 gyroscopes detect motion,
orienting 3rd to true north
Crittercam: implemented by National Geographic where cameras are attached to animals, used on whales, emperor
penguins, etc.
CTD profiler: measures conductivity (by induction), temperature (by resistance thermometers or thermistors), and
depth (strain gauge) as it descends towards seabed
current meter: records speed/direction of ocean currents, modern developments include vector-averaging current
meters (VACMs) and Aanderaa current meters
Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP): first program to conduct worldwide sampling of sediments & rocks deep beneath
the seafloor; ran from 1968-83 then replaced by ODP
ODP: Ocean Drilling Program. Involves 20 countries and spends more than $50 million/year. Drills
holes using JOIDES Resolution. Goal: to discover the geological histories of the ocean basins and their margins. Ran
from 1985 to 2003 Replaced by IODP
IODP: Integrated Ocean Drilling Program;
JOIDES: Joint Oceanographic Institution for Deep Earth Sampling
Dredge: device for scraping or sucking the seabed
drift net: allowed to drift free in a sea or lake; controversial, up to 50 km; when lost they are called 'ghost nets'.
Earth Observing System: program of NASA comprising a series of artificial satellite missions and scientific
instruments in Earth orbit designed for long-term global observations; inludes Jason 1 (TOPEX/Posiedon follow-up),
ICESat (Ice, Cloud, and Land Elevation Satellite), Aquarius (global sea surface salinity)
energy from the sea - tidal power (good for Britain, only 20 sites in world identified as possible sites), waves, OTEC
(ocean thermal energy conversion), hydro-electric...
flow cytometer: measures amount of microscopic particles in flow
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fluorometer: device which measures parameters of fluoresence in turn giving presence and the amount of specific
molecules in a medium.
GPS: 'constellation' of satellites and stands for Global Positioning System
grab sampler: double-shovel maw designed to collect an accurate representative sample of the sediment bottom
hydrophone: underwater microphone to record/listen to sounds
LBL: long base line sonar. acoustic positioning system used to track underwater vehicles and divers. USBL (UltraShort Base Line Sonar) is more accurate.
light-dark bottle method: measures photosynthesis of e.g. phytoplankton by placing 2 samples in light/dark bottles
long-lining: thousands of hooks single line for fishing.
LVP: Large Volume Water Transfer Systems, designed to collect particulate matter, in-situ, in support of oceanographic
research projects and environmental monitoring programs.
Magnetometer: instrument used to measure the strength and/or direction of the magnetic field in the vicinity
MOCNESS: Multiple Opening/Closing Net and Environmental Sensing System, much-improved, high-tech version
of the humble sampling net
moored profiler: makes repeated measurements of ocean currents and water properties up and down through almost
the entire water column, attached to cable
Nansen bottle: device for obtaining samples of seawater at a specific depth; superceded by Niskin bottle
Nootka buoy: offers scientists the equivalent of a wireless hotspot in the middle of the deep ocean
Ocean Bottom Seismometer (OBS) - measure movement in the Earth's crust, since about 90 percent of all natural
earthquakes occur underwater, use inertia
Ocean Drilling Program - 1985 successor to DSDP. 2004 + "Integrated"
piston corer - along with gravity corer (shallowest) and platform drilling (deepest)
quadrat: measured and marked rectangle, often 100 squares, used in ecology to isolate a sample.
radar altimeter - measures altitude above the terrain presently beneath an aircraft or spacecraft
radiometric dating - isotopes, long-term (uranium-lead) to short-term (carbon-14)|
RAFOS - floats which use acoustic tracking to map mean currents and measure the velocity of currents; also called
Deep Lagrangian Drifters, or DLDs.
reversing thermometer - as long as it's upside down, keeps current temperature until flipped upright
Rosette sampler - probably the most commonly used water sampler
Salinometer: measures salinity using: electrical conductivity (ec meter), specific gravity (hydrometer)
SCUBA (self-contained underwater breathing apparatus) – developed by Jacques-Yves Cousteau & Emile Gagnan,
originally called the Aqualung
SEASAT: first satellite designed for remote sensing of oceans and had onboard the first spaceborne synthetic
aperture radar (SAR) - form of radar in which the large, highly-directional rotating antenna used by conventional
radar is replaced with many low-directivity small stationary antennas scattered over some area near or around the
target area
Secchi disk: measures water clarity, drop it down and wait until its not visible (Secchi depth), pattern alternating
shaded quadrants, nephelometer - light beam / particle measurer more accurate
sediment traps: containers that scientists place in the water to collect marine snow falling toward the sea floor.
Seine: large net that hangs vertically in the water by attaching weights along the bottom edge and floats along the top
sextant - instrument generally used to measure the altitude of a celestial object above the horizon
side-scan sonar - create efficiently an image of large areas of the sea floor
SOFAR (sound fixing and ranging) - sofar bomb is a long-range position-fixing system which uses explosive sound;
sofar channel is where sound speed is minimum and sound carries thousands of miles
SONAR (sound navigation and ranging): technique that uses sound propagation (usually underwater) to navigate,
communicate or to detect other vessels
spray glider - robotic submarines used to take vertical profiles of temperature, salinity, and turbidity
TED: Turtle Exclusion Device, really effective
transmissiometer - measures beam attenuation coefficient
trawl: large net dragged behind fishing
trolling (angling): multiple lines fishing for pelagic fish
trepanging - collection / harvesting of sea cucumbers
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longlining - single line many hooks
dredging - scraping bottom sediments
Eulerian measurement: fixed place. finds current direction w/ wind vanes, velocity w/ impeller (rotating propeller)
Lagrangian measurement: tracking buoys to measure water flow and velocity. makes spaghetti diagrams
otter board: means for opening net mouths
Towed Camera System "TowCam" - provides very high quality digital imagery of seafloor terrains to 6,000 meters
depth with the capability to collect rock/lava samples and water samples concurrently.
Video Plankton Recorder (VPR) - underwater video microscope system.
SOSUS=Sound SUrveillance System
SCUBA=Self-Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus
ROV=Remotely Operated Vehicle
FLIP=FLoating Instrument Platform; 100 meter hollow tube with a research station at one end; it is
towed out to a research site, its ballast tanks are filled with water, and then it flips from horizontal to perpendicular,
allowing scientists to conduct underwater tests. Created in 1963 by Scripps, Woods
Hole, and Columbia University.
GCM=Global Circulation Model
GLORIA=Geological LOng Range Inclined Asdic; towed at a shallow depth
JAMSTEC=JApan Marine Science and TEchnology Center
Satellites
AVHRR - advanced very high resolution radiometer. sense sea-surface temperatures using infrared radiation
JERS- Japanese Earth Resource Satellites. environmental and resource observation program
ERS - European Environmental Remote Sensing. all-weather radar and microwave systesms that can see even when
satellite's view is obscured by clouds and darkness
SEASTAR - carries a color scanner known as SeaWiFS or sea-viewing wide-field-of-view sensor (works like CZCS)
ADEOS - Advanced Earth Observing Satellite
TOMS - Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer
SEASAT (1978) - first Earth-orbiting satellite designed for remote sensing of the Earth's oceans and had onboard the
first spaceborne synthetic aperture radar (SAR)
TOPEX/Poseidon (1992) - joint satellite mission between to map sea surface topography, Walter Munk described it
as most successful ocean experiment ever, radar altimeter provided the first continuous global coverage of the
surface topography of the oceans
HiSeasNet - new satellite communications network designed specifically to provide continuous Internet connectivity
for oceanographic research ships and platforms
Jason-1 (2001) - satellite oceanography mission to monitor global ocean circulation, study the ties between the ocean
and the atmosphere, improve global climate forecasts and predictions, and monitor events such as El Niño and ocean
eddies. Successor to TOPEX/Poseidon
Aqua (2002) - multi-national NASA scientific research satellite in orbit around the Earth, studying the precipitation,
evaporation, and cycling of water
Aquarius - planned NASA satellite mission to measure global sea surface salinity to better predict future climate
conditions; scheduled for launch on September 5, 2009
National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System (NPOESS) - US next-generation satellite system
that will monitor the Earth's weather, atmosphere, oceans, land and near-space environment
Terra: NASA scientific research satellite in a sun-synchronous orbit around the Earth, flagship of the Earth
Observing System (EOS); holds ASTER (Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer),
CERES (Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System), MISR (Multi-angle Imaging SpectroRadiometer), MODIS
(Moderate-resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer), and MOPITT (Measurements of Pollution in the Troposphere)
GEOSAT- Geodetic Satellite. US. Navy. 1985. geoid info. more closely repeated path than Seasat. pretty good
resolution.sar
Stations & Underwater Habitats
Martha's Vineyard Coastal Observatory (MVCO) - place that keeps careful track of the North Atlantic, day and
night, every day of the year
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Aquarius - underwater habitat located in the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, one of the only underwater
research facilities in the world
SEALAB I, II, and III - experimental underwater habitats developed by the United States Navy to prove the
viability of saturation diving and humans living in isolation for extended periods of time, 1964, -65, -69
GLOSS=Global Sea Level Observing System
GOES=Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites
GOOS=Global Ocean Observing System; international air-ocean interaction observance
Technology
o Underwater Vehicles
o Sampling equipment/methods
o Fishing equipment/methods
o Satellites
o Drilling Ships and Programs