UNIT 5
II
Guess the meaning of the underlined words through the context by choosing between the
alternatives given below.
ARE WE AFRAID TO BE DIFFERENT?
It is well known that when an individual joins a group he tends to accept the group's standards of
behaviour and thinking. He is expected to behave in accordance with these norms - in other words, the
group expects him to conform. Many illustrations could be given of this from everyday life, but what is of
particular interest to psychologists is the extent, to which people's judgements and opinions can be
changed as a result of group pressure. Some remarkable conclusions were reported by Asch and others
(1952). They noticed that people in a group will agree to statements that are contrary to the evidence of
their senses or that contradict their own beliefs. It I would be a mistake to think that only particularly
docile people are chosen to take part in experiments of this type. Usually highly intelligent and
independent people are used and this, of course, makes the results even more disturbing.
In a typical experiment this is what may happen. The experimenter asks for volunteers to join a group
which is investigating visual perception. The victims are not therefore, aware of the real purpose of the
experiment. Each volunteer is taken to a room where he finds a group of about seven people who are
collaborating with the experimenter. The group is shown a standard card which contains a single line.
They are then asked to look at a second card. This has three lines on it. One is obviously longer than the
line on the first card, one is shorter and one the same length. They have to say which line on the second
card is the same length as the line on the standard card. The other members of the group answer first but
what the volunteer does not know is that they have been told to pick one of the wrong lines. The
volunteer sees that the other members of the group unanimously choose a line which is obviously not the
same length as the one on the standard card. When it is his turn to answer he is faced with the unanimous
opinion of the rest of the group — all the others have chosen line A, but he quite clearly sees line B as
correct. What will he do? According to Asch, more than half of the victims chosen will yield to the
pressure of the group. However, Asch also found that if he allowed one correct judgements in the group
the probability of the victim conforming was dramatically decreased.
1) to behave like the group does; to behave differently;
2) differ from; are in agreement with;
3) independent; dependent;
4) the same as volunteers; not the same;
5) act as the experimenter has asked; act as they choose;
6) all the members of the group choose the same line; not all of them do so;
7) oppose pressure; not oppose it.
III
The text you are going to read introduces the essentials of Humanistic Approach in psychology.
Which of the statements below are characteristic of this approach?
a) It does not explain man's behaviour. It is concerned with developing his resources.
b) In order to understand man as a whole humanistic psychologists pay great attention to the
study of separate functions and behaviours.
c) Much of man's behaviour is dominated by unconscious motives.
d) Attitudes (установки), values and goals determine the person's choice.
e) Humanistic psychology emphasizes subjective experience rather than objective reality.
Now read the text to see whether you were right.
HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY
Humanistic psychology, exemplified by such outstanding writers as Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow,
Gordon Allport, Eric Fromm, and Rollo May, is concerned with the challenge of fully developing the
person's resources. It holds that the person's need to develop his potentials, along with his capacity to do
so, is innate — that is, as much a part of his nature as physiological needs.
Moreover, humanistic psychology focuses on the individual as a whole person. To the humanistic
psychologist the attempt to understand a person by piecing him together from various parts of his
behavior studied separately, does not yield the same results as when he is studied as a whole. In other
words, where human behavior is concerned, the whole is distinctly different from the sum of its parts.
According to Bugental (1964), now that it is becoming clear that the behaviourist's search for additional
knowledge about specific functions will not lead to an understanding of man in the world, psychology is
finally becoming the study of man - the whole man. Thus humanistic psychology accepts man's
wholeness as a given.
The Freudian view of man as dominated by unconscious instincts is rejected by humanistic
psychology. The humanistic psychologist does recognize the influence of early conditioning and of
unconscious drives. But like the modern existentialist, he does not perceive man's destiny (cyдьба) to be
so fixed by his unconscious that he has little choice; thus for him unconscious motivation is consistent
with an important degree of choice.
Man has learned to anticipate the consequences (результат) of his most complex behaviour, that is,
he has awareness, which is reflected in a focus upon his own being and in how he is related to other
persons and to social groups. Inevitably (неизбежно) this focus upon his own being influences the
choices he makes. His choices are also influenced by his philosophy of life, attitudes, and values. It is
these that make up the humanness that distinguishes man from other species. It is because of these
qualities that he feels a sense of relatedness (relation, relate, relatedness) to others.
Yet another side of man's humanness is the creative force that gives rise to his most complex and
specifically human behavior. He is capable of ordering his life into paths of his own choice. The concept
of man as involved in the process of becoming has been summarized by Rogers:
…man does not simply have the characteristics of a machine, he is not simply a being in the grip (во
власти) of unconscious motives, he is a person in the process of creating himself, a person who embodies
a dimension of subjective freedom.
Focusing on man's experience of his self, humanistic psychology has an inner-oriented,
phenomenological quality, that is, it places its emphasis on subjective experience rather than on objective
reality. Great importance is therefore attached to awareness of self - of values, goals, suffering
(страдание), joy, and striving (стремление). And in all this, humanistic psychology sees man as being
inherently good.
XIII
Pick out sentences with the gerund from the text and translate them. Give as many variants as
you can. The notes below will help you.
HOW TO BECOME HEALTHIER
One of the ways in which mentally healthy people grow is in being successful while developing
social, intellectual, and vocational (профессиональный) competences. Involved are such factors as hard
work, learning how to concentrate, and the willingness to make long-term efforts at the expense (зд.
вместо) of immediate reward. Success experiences at school, at work, and interacting with others are thus
vital (существенный).
Another method involves contact with new ideas, new philosophies and new personalities. This can
occur through reading and through reacting to drama and music. It can also happen through travelling and
meeting new people.
In addition, it seems evident that people need expressing their emotions fully. But many people are
afraid of experiencing basic human feelings. Involvement in any relationship or activity that allows a
person to be himself is also helpful. Hobbies, deep relations with friends, or even walks in the park alone
can facilitate (облегчить) the release (выражение) of basic emotions.
There is no doubt that one cannot become healthier without achieving independence. Accepting more
responsibility, whether it be in the home, at work, or in school, seems to facilitate the feeling of
independence. Freely expressing views, when it is appropriate, strengthens a personality. Questioning
(сомнение) some of the values of parents or society also helps. Becoming independent is a process that
involves forming one's own set of values. Ideally each independent person is unique; there is no one else
quite like him.
XX
Read the text and decide who it might be of interest to:
- philosophers or psychologists?
- psychiatrists or psychotherapists?
- the theoretically-minded or the practically-minded?
THE «THIRD FORCE» IN PSYCHOLOGY
The «third force» in clinical theory and practice is humanistic psychology and «the human potential
movement». Humanistic views became popular during the 60s, reflecting in part the protest against
establishment practices in all fields of endeavor (зд. исследование). But it was in the 70s that this
movement truly flourished, attracting media (средства массовой коммуникации) attention and support
from among those in the mental health professions who felt dissatisfied with behaviorism and
psychoanalysis.
Humanistic therapists begin on a highly optimistic note, asserting (утверждать) that each person,
irrespective (независимо) of native ability or life circumstances, is capable of achieving complete selfawareness and self-acceptance. Each one of us can be liberated, enabled to fulfill our creative potential
and experience life more fully if we can be helped to overcome internal barriers.
Carl Rogers is often cited as the progenitor (основатель) of humanistic views. He said that only
negative evaluations made by significant others in the life of the individual limit the individual's potential
for growth. Rogers regarded optimal mental health as a state of total congruity (congruent, congruity) between the self as it currently is, and the self as one would like to be, or «ideal self». Such congruity would
create unconditional feelings of self-worth which would translate into positive regard (уважение) for
others and a full range of development of one's capacities.
Rogers thought of therapy as an opportunity to lessen any incongruity between the self and the ideal
self, which requires that therapist and client have a true person-to-person relationship, not one that
amounts to a physician administering a cure (лечение) (the analytic model), or a scientist manipulating a
laboratory object (the behaviorist model). Rogerian therapists advocate a therapeutic atmosphere of
warmth, permissiveness (снисхождение) and egalitarianism. In such a setting, a person could receive
more favourable evaluations –«stroking» (поглаживание) some have called it — that would free him to
take chances in life, to self -actualize.
(to be continued in XXIII).
XXI
2. Now read the text and do all the assignments while reading the text paragraph by paragraph.
AN INVESTIGATION INTO STUDENT PERSONALITY
AND ACADEMIC ATTAINMENT
The problem.
The starting point of this project was the realization that many students in universities either fail their
course or do not achieve their full potential. In some universities failure rates are alarming for both
students and staff. Apart from those students who fail, lack of achievement is often evidenced by those
who change from one course to another or show signs of boredom (тоска). There could be many reasons
for these phenomena but it occured to us that two questions were particularly relevant. Are students
accepted for courses which are most suitable (подходящий) for them? How can they be helped to
overcome their academic problems? By narrowing these questions down and interpreting them from a
psychological point of view, a research design emerged (возникать).It was decided to investigate the
characteristics of students entering the universities and relate these to their academic success.
The object of study
a) Find answers to the following questions:
b) Why was it necessary to define personality?
c) What are the two main dimensions underlying human behavior?
c) What personality types are mentioned?
It was decided that the most important variables relevant to academic success would be motivation,
study habits, personality and the students' reactions to the physical environment in the institution. We
were particularly interested in the students' personality. As a way of distinguishing the range (ряд) of
factors that this term covers, we decided to adopt a working definition of personality. Among numerous
definitions we found the following by Allport (1963) which referred to the dynamic organization within
the individual of those psychological systems that determine his characteristic behavior and thought. If
this definition is accepted, it appears inevitable that personality will be an important factor in academic
success. The measurement of personality is, however, far from simple.
Eysenck hypothesized two important yet distinct dimensions underlying human behavior:
extroversion and neuroticism. On one dimension we can describe people as neurotic or stable. On the
other dimension, people range from extroverts to introverts. It is useful to identify individuals with above
and below average scores (оценка) on each characteristic and describe four personality 'types' - stable
extroverts, stable introverts, unstable extroverts and unstable introverts.
The hypotheses
Early research in the area indicated that in general the neurotic introverts seem to make the most
successful students. More recent research, however, has altered the picture. Introversion is constantly
related to good degree results but the effect of neuroticism is far from clear. Thus in a previous study in
this university it was found that students of psychology tended to have a high degree of neuroticism,
while students of engineering appeared in general to be stable. We therefore formulated two main
hypotheses:
Preliminary results
On the whole (в целом) our hypotheses were substantiated (подтвердиться). Introversion did seem
to be closely related to academic success. This was particularly noticeable with mathematicians and with
pure scientists generally. It was least true of students of engineering and languages, where there was
practically no difference between the percentage of successful extroverts and introverts. Neuroticism, too,
seemed to be a significant factor and was related to the students' own area of study. For example, applied
scientists (ученые-прикладники) contrast with pure scientists (ученые-теоретики) in that the former
(первые) have a much higher degree of neuroticism. Successful language students, too, have particularly
high scores on the neuroticism scale. The outstanding characteristic of social scientists, on the other hand,
is their emotional stability.
We hope that our results, if confirmed by further research, could be taken into consideration when
advising students on their choice of field of study. We would recommend that all students should be given
personality tests and that they should be advised to study subjects in which they are most likely to be
successful.
XXII
1. Read the text and identify the topic (timed activity).
Everyone has a need to understand other people. Much of everyone's lifetime is spent interacting with
other individuals, and it is through these human relationships that people attempt to satisfy many of their
own personal needs. For this reason, an individual's ability to skillfully develop and promote
(способствовать) human relationships becomes very important.
Related intimately to people's success in developing these meaningful relationships is their ability to
understand or perceive others accurately. The individual's ability to understand and predict
(предсказывать) the behaviours of others is a crucial (решающий) factor in responding to other people
in a way that is both appropriate to the situation and personally satisfying. It is because of this need to
understand others that human beings have a tendency to form impression of those with whom they come
in contact. This tendency is an attempt to give meaning to others so that inferences (вывод) concerning
their personal characteristics can be made.
The process by which we form an impression or develop an understanding of another individual is
that of interpersonal perception. Usually, when we form impressions of others, we respond to a great
number of observable stimuli. We may take note of such diverse (разнообразный) aspects of physical
appearance as skin colour, hair style, facial features and body build. The other person's actions,
mannerism, dress, vocal mode, and tone of voice may also be observed. On the basis of these cues
(намеки), we usually form a rather complete idea, or percept, as to what the other person is like. But the
percept that is formed is by no means (никоим образом) limited by the available (доступный)
observable information; indeed, the percept will typically be completed to include inferences concerning
the other person's feelings, motives and other facets (характерная черта) of personality.
The basis for the inferences one person makes about another is rooted (коренится) in the person
making inferences. Obviously, such inferences may or may not be correct, and the degree of their
accuracy will more or less determine the correctness of the percept that results from them. The individual
who is generally capable of accurate interpersonal perceptions - who can perceive accurately the feelings
and the meanings of those feelings of another person is referred to here as the «Empathic Perceiver». It is
this person who is in the best position to enjoy meaningful interpersonal relationships.
XXIII
The following text is the criticism of Humanistic views given in ex. XX, Exchange opinions of
the author's arguments. (Groupwork). Use the following phrases for the discussion:
There is no denying that ... What is missing in this interpretation is ... I’m afraid it's too much to say...
As far as I am concerned ... I have reason to believe that...
Agree with the true statements, reject the false ones.
Humanistic psychologists' ambitions (стремление) are far too noble, but far too frequently they fail
to be realized. The failure to reckon- (учитывать) with the social external barriers to self-fulfilment —
economic strain (напряженность), violence and a weakening of our society, as well as vanishing
(исчезающие) opportunities to become productive and creative — condemns (сводит) humanistic
treatments to therapy successes, and then only among those who start out with such advantages like
money, education and personal contacts.
The humanistic psychologists suggest, for instance, that we can achieve self-confidence
(уверенность в себе), complete happiness, love, even financial success, as a result of an intensive,
usually marathon group weekend. Some of these approaches resemble nothing so much as the new
religious movements, cults or any other forms of fetishism (like sports-preoccupation, for instance) which
are diversions (зд. последствия) from the material and spiritual decline (упадок) of our social system.
One is reminded, in assessing the humanistic treatments, of B.F. Skinners's approach to the education
of children, in which a central goal is to minimize the number of times one must say «no» to a child's
wishes. The problem as it turns out later, is that the world-at-large says «no» all the time. In such a case
no amount of good feeling can survive very long. Studies have shown, for instance, that long-term
joblessness can undermine (подорвать) the self-esteem and emotional well-being of the strongest among
us. Humanistic treatments, like their behaviorist and psychodynamic counterparts (аналогии), will
continue to fail in their mission to liberate human potential until they take full, scientific cognizance
(понимание) of what it is about life in our country that gives so many of us emotional troubles.
(Political Affairs)