Abraham Maslow
Need Hierarchy Theory
Preview of theory
Maslow was developing a growth-oriented psychology, which
morphed later into positive psychology as Seligman began to study it.
Maslow focused on healthy, self-actualized people in order to understand
what forces led them to that point. This is not the sort of study that can be
empirically tested, so it is not as well accepted in traditional psychology.
The theory also does not open itself to explaining less well-developed
people, except as their hierarchy of needs is not met. Maslow believed that
people develop through various levels toward their full potential. A very few
reach the highest level of development and are considered self-actualized.
Most people remain at a lower level, stuck due to needs that are not
adequately met. He particularly chose to study people who had reached their
potential, for the lessons he could learn and teach to others.
Biography
Maslow was born in 1908 in Brooklyn, NY to parents who were
Russian Jewish immigrants. He was the oldest of seven children and the
family was very poor. He was considered unattractive and so felt very lonely
and inferior. But he was gifted intellectually and he loved to read. (IQ 195!)
He studied psychology at University of Wisconsin, married his cousin,
Bertha when both were young. His wife was an artist and influenced him to
take a global approach to knowledge and human development. His
dissertation was supervised by Harry Harlow in the primate lab. Maslow
chose to study sexual behavior in monkeys, which he saw as affected by
dominance patterns. He lost interest in behaviorism, however, and began to
study psychoanalysis and Gestalt psychology, which studies perception of
patterns. It was the birth of his first child that really convinced him to
consider the human being as a whole, not a conglomeration of parts. He
taught at Wisconsin, Columbia University and finally at Brooklyn College
where he met many scientists escaping Nazi Germany- Alfred Adler, Karen
Horney, and Kurt Goldstein. Ultimately he became chair of the psychology
Department at Brandeis U. He was plagued with anxiety, even as a
successful professional. While on a leave of absence to write about
humanistic psychology’s implications for broader social issues, he died of a
heart attack at age 62. He is said to have told his wife the night before he
died, “I believe I have finally discovered the nature of evil! It will be my
next book.” He died in the night- we will never know what his conception of
evil was- maybe we are not supposed to know! He founded the Association
for Humanistic Psychology with Rollo May, Rogers and others. His ideas
about psychology were influenced by Asian traditions. He supported the
human potential movement, especially the Esalen Institute in CA. and gave
talks there for clients. He wrote his books for lay people in order to improve
society at large, not just academic interests. His later books have been
described as both “humanistic and Messianic.” His work continues to
influence writers and students of the human condition.
Maslow’s vision of psychology was outside the mainstream of empirical
scientific testing. He felt those traditional methods prevented full holistic
knowledge of human nature. He also believed most theories up to then had
not focused on the higher functions of human beings that separate us from
the animals. Certainly people function at basic levels like animals, but they
have capacities beyond that. A theory limited to these survival skills will
never explain the healthy, high functioning human. He also criticized
theories based on study of neurotic people (Freud) because he believed that
understanding the healthy person means more than just the absence of
disease.
 Method-centered- traditional science was focused on designing a
method to test a condition. Many human experiences cannot be so
well-ordered, so this methodology is inadequate, according to
Maslow.
 Problem-centered is the approach Maslow recommended- in which
the issues to be studied would be given higher priority than the
methodology.
 Experiential knowledge is the focus of existentialism- how does each
person glean the knowledge s/he will from each experience? This
includes the search for identity. Maslow wanted to understand the
“ultimate aloneness of the individual.” This so clearly reflects his own
childhood, as a brilliant but unattractive and somewhat rejected child.
 Third force in psychology-this is what was developing out of the
philosophical discussions of the various humanists at this time. They
wanted to consider the existential questions of life that higher
functioning humans grapple with from time to time. Maslow is
considered the spiritual father of this movement.
 Taoist Science was Maslow’s vision of testing existential experience.
It would be subjective and experiential, not abstract. It would honor
the subject rather than be detached and indifferent. It would be
interactive with the subject, not insisting on a false separation of
observer and subject- fusion-knowledge. And most different from
other scientific study- it would specifically concern values. He
believed this was the only way to adequately study the healthy person.
The challenge for the researcher is to be open to very different values
as s/he faces them in the subjects. We often resist beliefs that we don’t
personally share.
Hierarchy of needs – this is uniquely Maslow’s development- a diagram of
basic human needs – similar to those of animals in the beginning, but as
those needs are satisfied, it ranges into more esoteric needs. The first 4 levels
are deficiency motivations- these are essential to normal functioning, and the
final highly developed being motivation- self-actualization.
 Deficiency motivation- when these 4 levels of needs are not met,
people sense a deficiency.
 A Basic Need, if unmet, produces a craving and drives the individual
to get the need met. Fulfillment brings pleasure. Maslow believed
these 4 needs emerge in a predictable order. Each one must be met
before the next one can impose some craving and drive. Movement
was originally seen as moving upward exclusively, but today there is
awareness that people can move back down the ladder if they suffer
loss.
o Physiological needs include food, water, sleep, and sex- things
essential to survival. If they are unmet they dominate all
motivation. (Interesting dream studies have been done showing
that starving people’s dreams begin to be all about food the
longer they starve.)
 Prepotent needs are the one’s dominating motivation at
the present time. Once a need is met, it is no longer
driving or demanding attention, and another need can
arise. Interestingly, Maslow saw that those who have had
deprivation of a need at an early stage of life may always
feel they can’t get enough of that substance- food, love.
Others who have consistently had their needs met can
handle brief deprivation without being as disturbed by it.
o Safety needs concern a safe environment. This includes
familiarity so children moved often, exposed to violence and
unpredictability do not have safety needs met. Traumas,
environmental catastrophes, crime or injury affect sense of
safety, especially in children. People who engage in much ritual
are trying to get safety needs met by producing familiarity, even
if it means living a boring life. People who hoard money or
things are often trying to get safety needs met, even in irrational
ways that alienate other people.
o Belongingness and love needs include giving as well as
receiving love and affection. Inappropriate means of showing
love cause much despair in others, as well as the person being
rejected. Maslow thought sexual dissatisfaction was a major
deficiency need. (Clinton is a good example of someone willing
to sacrifice major accomplishments in life to satisfy sexual
needs inappropriately.)
o Esteem needs include need for self-respect and the esteem of
others. It should result from actual accomplishments to be
authentic. But many people have quite a list of
accomplishments but do not sense pride in that- they fear being
found out as impostors; that their success is a fluke somehow.
People must feel loved to move to this level of striving. They
may even refrain from achieving because they know on some
level that a lover could not handle their success. This used to be
very common for women who had great talent. Once esteem
needs are met, we feel self-confident, strength and adequacy. If
they are not met, we feel inferior. If all these needs are met, the
person may move up to self-actualization, a very different kind
of need.
 Being motivation is functioning beyond the deficiency level. This is
the peak of development and the area Maslow most studied.
o The need for Self-actualization – at this point the person is
driven by a need to actualize or fulfill his/her potential. “What a
man can be, he must be.” If s/he resists growth at this point one
will feel bored and restless. Interestingly, spirituality is
correlated with high boredom proneness. But because each
individual has different skills and interests, the specific
behaviors that promote self-actualization are unique to each
person.
 Differences in D-Motivation and B-Motivation- lower-order needs
are more driving and cannot be put off like higher-order needs. But
those who can live at higher levels of need show better physical health
and report greater happiness & security.
o Metamotivated- this is the term Maslow used for people living
at the level of self-actualization. They are motivated by meta-
needs, B-values (Becoming needs like truth, beauty, justice.)
There is more psychological freedom to seek these experiences
rather than being driven by deficiency. So B-motivation is less
aggressive in search of its desire- it is more receptive and open
to what life presents. Self-actualization interests come up earlier
in the hierarchy in the form of curiosity and creative tendencies
and talents. But they don’t dominate behavior until the lower
needs are fulfilled. Also they often come as a result of hardship
or loss. Robin Williams said that Christopher Reeve
transformed after his accident- from a Superman to a Buddha,
in that he found ways to give back and be concerned for others
within his own suffering and disability and loss.
o In love relationships the behaviors change:
 B-love is non-possessive and enjoyable, celebrating the
partner’s differences and successes. It allows the partner
more freedom to grow and supports that growth
regardless of the turns it may take.
 D-love is often afflicted by jealousy and fear. It tries
harder to control the partner.
 Research testing the Need Hierarchy- anecdotal evidence often flies
in the face of Maslow’s hierarchy, as people in prison camps show
concern for others even though their own needs are not being met,
people in poverty still give what they can to their children, sacrificing
their own needs. People commit suicide even when basic needs are
met in some fashion, and starving people will refrain from
cannibalizing a dead compatriot in spite of their great physical need.
Other studies find that mental health is higher when basic needs are
satisfied. They also score lower on neurosis scales and higher on
internal locus of control scales. Higher need satisfaction relates to
higher self-esteem.
Self-Actualization as used by Maslow, refers to the full development of
human potential. He also believed that people would often get sick if the
person denied his inner potential too long. Following this path of inner
knowing and greater congruence with the true self, the person will develop
greater unity of personality and values. So he chose to study healthy, selfactualized people to understand what was different about them. Studying
3000 college students, he only found 1 subject who was considered selfactualized. But that would be normal for that age group, since many have not
met their deficiency needs yet. He estimated only 1% of people are self-
actualized. He used Rorschach tests, self-reports, as well as applying his
general measures of health to historical people. Maslow chose to study
Albert Einstein, Abraham Lincoln, Thomas Jefferson, Eleanor Roosevelt,
Jane Addams, William James, Albert Schweitzer, Aldous Huxley, and
Benedict de Spinoza. The danger with public figures is equating worldly
success with self-actualization. There is no correlation.
Characteristics of self-actualized people
 Efficient perception of reality- they easily detect the fake or
dishonest in personalities and judge people fairly correctly.
 Acceptance- they are more accepting of themselves and others than
most people. They even accept their animal nature, accepting both bad
and good, so they are more tolerant of life’s vagaries. They have less
fear of death as a result of this life view.
 Spontaneity – they are in touch with their inner nature, so they
behave more authentically in tune with their desires. They do not
access a social mask in the interest of public acceptance, so they act
with childlike glee, even when others are embarrassed.
 Problem-centered –they focus on problems outside themselves, not
being as narcissistic as others.
 Need for privacy (Solitude)- this is often to recharge emotionally, as
they enjoy high levels of concentration. They are willing to make
decisions for themselves without aid or advice from others.
 Independence of Culture and Environment (Autonomy)- they are
self-contained, not needing others people to entertain or amuse them.
They are motivated to solve their problems in independent ways that
others may not understand.
 Freshness of appreciation is the sense of awe and wonder at life.
Even their sexual experiences are akin to spiritual experiences for
them, encompassing more than mere physical pleasure.
 Peak experiences are mystical experiences that are more common in
this group of people. They experience great power with great
helplessness, ecstasy and wonder, loss of time and space, even being
transformed by these experiences. These experiences may be triggered
by nature, religious experiences, during meditation, through music.
Not all self-actualized people report peak experiences- they are more
pragmatic, willing to work for change within political or religious
systems. A peak experience is characterized by “joy, fulfillment, and
lasting significance…spiritual…clarity of process marked by
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absorption, intention, sense of self, freedom, and spontaneity.” It often
has a transforming effect on the person’s life and goals. Some people
have peak experiences in childhood or youth, when they are not selfactualized, but these experiences are more common with selfactualized people.
Human kinship – self-actualizing people identify with all humanity,
not one group over others, so they have little or no prejudice.
Humility and respect – they are humble even in the face of great
accomplishments (Mother Teresa), insisting they learn from all other
people and their way is not the only way. They don’t flaunt their
status as giving them greater authority over others. (Dalai Lama
encourages people to find their way to their spiritual practice
regardless what denomination that might be.)
Interpersonal relationships – these people are capable of greater
love, less arbitrary boundaries with other people. They have deeper
relationships with fewer people rather than many shallow
relationships. They tend to attract followers, but self-actualized people
don’t encourage veneration of themselves.
Ethics and values- their standards are clear and not always
conventional, but their values come from their acceptance of human
nature and potential. (Nuns arrested for violating the security of the
nuclear weapon site by painting these weapons with their own blood.)
Discrimination between means and ends- they find the goals to be
preeminent, above the means used to accomplish the goals.
Senses of humor- these people have a broad sense of humor- not at
the expense of other people. They find the oddities of life amusing.
Creativity- their creativity emerges out of qualities of their
personality- spontaneity, resistance to cultural demands or attitudes,
freer perceptions, seeing the beauty in life and nature.
Resistance to enculturation – these people do not adapt to society’s
demands at the expense of their personality. They maintain a certain
detachment from social expectations, so they are refreshing in their
attitudes.
Resolution of dichotomies – they resist seeing life in black and white
terms, recognizing that life poses ambiguities to challenge our
attitudes and growth. Even in the face of bipolar opposites- reason vs.
emotion, masculine vs. feminine, they can see how the two function
together- the yin and yang of life.
o Eupsychia was Maslow’s conceptualization of a perfect or
better society, one that fuses self and social interests. Highly
developed people can find unique solutions to problems that
more polarized people have struggled with to no avail. Even
self-actualized people are not perfect- yet they have awareness
of their failings. It may give them a certain detachment from
relationships that appears uncaring to other people- letting go of
long-term relationships when they become burdensome or
negative. They may not seem to grieve suitably when a partner
dies, or in the face of divorce.
o Other writers have interpreted Maslow’s characteristics of the
self-actualized person as simply descriptors of mental healthwhat people incorporate as they follow their potential. Others
have said these are the consequences of the open personality,
taking in experiences non-judgmentally.
Measurement and research on self-actualization – Maslow and his wife
devised the Maslow Art Test to test holism in perception, as well as
intuition. This is not dependent on art training, but merely ability to detect
patterns within abstract works. This is indicative of self-actualization.
 Personal Orientation Inventory is a multiple-choice inventory that
gives 2 scores related to Maslow’s theory:
o The Inner Directed Supports scale measures how much the
subject gains support from self, rather than depending on
others.
o The Time Competence scale measures how much the person
lives in the present.
o There are subscales that measure self-actualizing values,
existentiality, response to emotions, spontaneity, self-regard
and acceptance, synergy, and capacity for intimacy. Shostrom
developed this scale and found changes in scores as a result of
therapy. This seems to be a good measure of general mental
health. Self-actualization according to this scale is also related
to greater spirituality. Married couples who score high on this
scale also report greater sexual enjoyment.
Obstacles to Self-Actualization- so why aren’t all people cheerfully
moving toward personal growth, if it is an instinctive drive?
 Choice between safety and growth
o Intrapsychic pull against self-actualization- Because life
presents choices between safety, familiarity and growth, which
appears dangerous, fraught with risk, embarrassment or failure.
Safety choices look much more appealing, so we are prone to
choose comfort. But it is the growth choices – the scarier, more
unfamiliar choices that give us opportunities to see what we’re
made of and develop accordingly. Parents can encourage this
way of doing life by allowing children to confront choices and
think about possible consequences of many choices. These
parents are careful not to intervene to overprotect their children
(Reinforcing the value and interest in safety) or expect their
children to desire their approval (reinforcing dependence on
others for validation.) These parents help their children find the
delight and unexpected pleasures to be found in making less
comfortable choices. Ultimately the child learns the safety
choice leads to boredom, not comfort. IN undergraduates, it
was found that students who scored higher on self-actualization
had lower boredom measures.
o Higher-order needs only emerge when lower-order needs
are satisfied- this requires fairly favorable environmental
conditions. Not everyone living in a nice home is experiencing
a favorable environment. It is very hard for others to assess the
health of a person’s lifestyle from the outside. Also lower-order
needs are more powerful and driving than higher-order needs.
So a certain competition of drives is set up until a person
experiences enough consistency of need satisfaction. (This is
also why people can move down the hierarchy under stress or
loss, trauma.)
 Instinctoid- human instincts have weakened with the detachment
from our original primitive environment. So these higher-order
instincts have lost some power to lead us into healthy choices. They
can be drowned out by others’ demands, fear of disapproval,
socialization.
 Jonah complex occurs when people see themselves as so weak and
lacking power to influence life, that they give up trying to develop to
their full potential. Maslow pushed his followers to aspire to their
greatest potential, citing the uniqueness of each person’s potential and
inner gifts – if they don’t use them, they are lost to humanity.
Applications of Maslow’s theory
 Human potential movement tries to foster individual development to
one’s highest potential through personal training and change within
social institutions- schools, political institutions, and workplaces.
o Therapy can meet needs at the love and belonging level, since
that is usually the need that drives a person into therapy.
Transpersonal therapists draw from several therapies, but
they also include spiritual traditions, alternative venues of
healing, meditation, and openness to psychic realms to usher a
person into joy and love and serenity. This includes
transformation of various institutional values and ethics.
o Growth centers are places that offer group experiences,
communal living, and individual experiences that can put a
person deeper in touch with his/her potential and deep values.
People make important life changes when they really
understand what they need and want at a deep level of
awareness.
o Workplace is an area where people can learn to function at
their higher levels of potential, which can aid productivity as
they meet their higher needs in service of their work. People
who are frustrated at work are not very productive and they
pollute the environment of others with their dissatisfaction.
Self-actualized managers who believe in and trust their workers
are more productive. Unfortunately many managers are driven
by desires for control, micromanaging workers and setting up
environments of hostility, passive aggressiveness and sabotage.
Businesses need to see how meeting workers’ various needs for
respect and autonomy can benefit their bottom line. The book
makes the valid point that most self-actualized people are not
particularly drawn to management, however.
o Consumerism is an interesting area for application of
Maslow’s theory, as many products meet needs on a variety of
levels of the hierarchy. So they need to be marketed in a variety
of ways to appeal to people. But the book also makes a valid
point, that as people become more self-actualized, having more
basic needs met, turn away from consumer values. They seek
satisfaction in realms that have nothing to do with consuming
designer goods. People often choose to simplify their lives,
focusing on the arts and education or politics and the
environment in an effort to benefit the world.
o Religion and Spirituality – Maslow believed psychology
needed to embrace a more spiritual approach to therapy and
training. He particularly believed there was benefit in studying
religions of the East to insights into peaceful living.
Interestingly, Christian-oriented therapists prefer theories that
are more cognitive or behaviorist in nature, while those who
hold more mystical or Eastern beliefs embrace more humanist
or existential approaches to therapy. Maslow opposed any
dogmatic views in religion, but saw experiences of the prophets
as peak experiences. These experiences changed the person, the
prophet himself or herself, even as they were useful to
followers. Unfortunately he saw religions filled with people
who cannot make use of higher visions, but remain comfortable
with dogmatic rigidity, since it places few autonomous
demands on the worshiper.
 Desacralization of human experience was unfortunate,
in Maslow’s view- the removal of a sense of the sacred or
divine from human life. This results in treating humans
as robots or animals, just another evolved species, instead
of profoundly different from any other creature. Surely
this is the feeling gained from the behaviorists, as they
apply findings from simpler animals to humans. He
hoped psychology would find some way back to the
sacred in relationship to man. (But so far I see no
evidence of that, as psychology is wedded to pulling
apart the human experience and studying it in the most
incremental forms in order to be supremely “scientific”
and not be accused of any ideological bias.)
o Education encouraged drastic changes in educational practice,
much like Rogers. He believed that humanistic education
should foster curiosity of children, not enforce robotic
obedience to the teacher. This does not produce creative minds,
but conforming adults with a minimum of fact-based
knowledge. Colleges would be more self-directed in the
learning process, with students meeting one-on-one with
professors and in small seminars to report findings of personal
exploration. Obviously this is not cost-effective for most
students or colleges, but it’s a fine idea to hold as an ideal.
Some courses in philosophy, political science or environmental
science might be approached in such a way.
o Gender – Maslow believed that self-actualized people were not
restricted by rigid, socially defined gender roles. He suggested
the androgynous approach, finding one’s strengths within both
the masculine and feminine model would be more useful in
creating a life that is more productive and fulfilling. From his
years of doing sexuality research, he did believe there were
biologically based sex differences, but he believed they were
exaggerated by socialization. He believed there would be
slightly different paths to self-actualization for men and
women.
Maslow’s challenge to traditional science – Maslow didn’t see how
traditional scientific methodology could really explore and validate
humanistic premises. Even so, there have been some interesting scientific
tests of such things as the effect of prayer on physical recovery from illness.
Other scientists have accused Maslow of being blinded by his own values,
even to the point of describing self-actualization in terms of his own values
system. The values represented in the need hierarchy have also been
suggested to be Western values, not applicable to other cultures. Certainly
more communal cultures find great self-actualization in sacrifice for the
common good, not for individual interest. Other writers believe that this
theory is “one of the most positive and life-affirming concepts ever proposed
within psychology.” (Daniels, 1988) Interestingly, Maslow proposed that his
approach to human motivation would make humans less predictable, as they
determined their life paths idiosyncratically, not in line with others’
expectations. This is not the way of science, as it attempts to understand
people as part of a theoretical viewpoint or paradigm. Also Maslow believed
that psychology should not consider itself merely a descriptive science, but
step out as a prescriptive science- one that provides moral values that should
guide human behavior- that almost sounds cult-like in its implications. Few
psychologists would agree with such a future for psychology. Maslow
envisioned a Fourth Psychology- where self-actualized people would
transcend their individual needs in favor of promoting universal values like
justice and truth. If we don’t embrace such a future for our field, Maslow
fears we will descend into the “sick, violent, and nihilistic, or else hopeless
and apathetic.” (1986)
Other Growth themes in psychological theory
 Self-determination theory and intrinsic motivation – Deci
describes self-determination theory around the concept of intrinsic
motivation – doing an activity for the sheer satisfaction of the activity
itself. It operationally defines more clearly some of Maslow’s
concepts. This theory suggests that people have 3 basic needs:
o Competence
o Autonomy
o Relatedness
o All these needs must be satisfied if a person is to grow. As they
are satisfied, people will be more self-motivated. They will
work more persistently, perform better and be more creative.
They will develop higher self-esteem and general sense of wellbeing. When basic needs are not satisfied, people will lose that
internal sense of motivation. Specific types of rewards can
encourage intrinsic motivation- feedback about performance
and particular ways of improvement is powerful. Attachment
also improves performance, as people who develop more
independent motivation don’t become independent of others.
They often work hard within those attachment relationships.
Independence of spirit is actually nurtured by accepting
relationships with others.
 Positive psychology is a growing part of the psychological field, as
theorists emphasize health and self-actualization which the humanists
first studied. One important part of this development has to do with
remaining in the present moment. Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi are
the best known proponents of this idea. Positive psychology embraces
the subjective experience of the individual as regarded in well-being,
satisfaction in the past, and optimism regarding the future, flow and
happiness in the present. It is about capacity for love and satisfying
work, courage, relational skills, love of beauty and nature,
perseverance, forgiveness, creativity, vision, spirituality, talent, and
wisdom. Communally it is about developing institutions that
encourage citizenship, altruism, civic responsibility, tolerance and
work ethic. Positive psychology explores and promotes proactivity in
service of health, aiding the less fortunate, and understanding the
meaning and development of happiness. Happiness is developed
through supportive relationships, as well as finding meaning in one’s
life. This is all the mission of this branch of psychology.