More on Reconstructive memory
Bartlett's
classic studies offered good support for his theory of reconstructive memory. Many subsequent
studies have further supported the theory and helped clarify some of the details. We will look at these other
studies now, as well as at the factors that influence reconstructive memory.
Other research related to reconstructive memory;
The concept of schema:
Definition: Schemas are cognitive frameworks that guide memory, aide in the interpretation of events, and influence how we retrieve
stored memories.
Schemas therefore lie at the core of Bartlett's theory because this theory states that our beliefs generate expectations and these
expectations reconstruct memory. The reconstructive nature of memory guided by our use of schemas can be seen in a number of
studies. For example:
In a classic study by Carmichael et al. (1932) two different groups of participants were shown the same set of drawings which are
shown in the table below.
However while being shown the above drawings each group was given a different set of descriptions at the side of each drawing. That
is one group was given the descriptions in condition 1 (see below) but the other group was given the descriptions in condition 2 (see
below).
Cond. 1
Curtains in
a window
Bottle
Eye
glasses
Kidney
bean
Crescent
moon
Two
Ship’s
wheel
Hour
glass
Beehive
Pine
tree
Gun
Seven
Cond. 2
Diamond
in
a
rectangle
Stirrup
Dumb bell
Canoe
Letter C
Eight
Sun
Table
Hat
Trowel
Broom
Four
When the participants were asked to recall the drawings at a later time findings showed that the descriptions they had been given
affected the drawing they subsequently produced – see examples of these below
Cond. 1
Cond. 2
This shows that the language used affected their memory. In essence, language conjures up a set of beliefs and expectations about
an object, and this expectation affects the memory. So, in Carmichael's study, we might say that memory was affected by the schema
provided.
Other studies of the effects of schema
Brewer and Treyens (1981):
In a study by Brewer and Treyens (1981), individual participants were asked to wait in an office. The
experimenter said that this was his office and that they should wait there whilst he checked the laboratory to see
if the previous participant had finished. After 35 seconds, he returned and took the participant to
another room where they were asked to recall everything in the room in which they had been waiting. Findings showed that
people showed a strong tendency to recall objects consistent with the typical ‘office schema’. For example: Nearly everyone
remembered the desk and the chair next to it. Only eight out of the 30 recalled the skull, few recalled the wine bottle or the
coffee pot, and only one recalled the picnic basket. Some recalled items that had not been there at all: 9 remembered
books. This shows how people may introduce new items consistent with the schema.
Sulin and Dooling (1974):
Sulin and Dooling gave one group of participants a story about a man called Gerald Martin which, amongst
other information, stated that 'he strove to undermine the existing government to satisfy his political
ambitions. He became a ruthless, uncontrollable dictator. The ultimate effect of his rule was the downfall of
his country'. They gave another group of participants exactly the same story apart from in this version of the
story the name of the man was changed from Gerald Martin to Adolph Hitler. Findings showed that the
participants who were given the story with the name Adolph Hitler were significantly more likely to indicate
that they had read 'He hated the Jews particularly' in the story than those whose story hade been about
Gerald Martin. We can therefore assume that it was probably their schema about Adolph Hitler that distorted
their memories of the content of the story.
The role of Stereotypes in reconstructive memory:
Definition: Stereotypes are a type of schema that we have about a particular class or group of people. However unlike other schema
stereotypes are (usually) a much more simplistic type of schema. Stereotypes are very useful as they help us to maintain relative
simplicity in our very complex social world in which we are constantly being bombarded with new information that we must try to
remember. They also help us to predict the behaviour of those around us because stereotypes enable us to resort to commonly held
beliefs about certain people so reducing the amount of information that we need to process to be ready to think about and/or interact
with people. However research has shown that while stereotypes are a useful and necessary ’rules of thumb’ that make us more
effective in our social world it has also shown that stereotypes may also lead to a reconstruction of memory. The reconstructive effects
of stereotypes on memory can be seen in a classic study by Allport and Postman (1947):
Allport and Postman (1947) had his participants take a brief look at a drawing of several people on a subway train, including a
seated black man and a white man standing with a razor in his hand (see picture below).
Findings: After a brief look at a drawing such as this
one, half of the participants reported having seen the
razor in the black man's hand and that the black man
had been threatening the white man.
Conclusion: It would appear that those participants
who reported having seen the razor in the black
man's hand and that the black man had been
threatening the white man had distorted the
information in keeping with stereotypical beliefs
about black and white men, thus supporting claims
about the reconstructive nature of memory.
Interviewing techniques and reconstructive memory:
The way in which a witness is interviewed has been shown to influence what they recall - the more leading or suggestive the
questions, the lower the accuracy. This can be clearly seen in the two studies by Elizabeth Loftus and John Palmer .
Interviewers may unintentionally communicate their expectations in various ways (facial expressions, tone of voice). Such
expectations are found to affect the reconstruction of a memory and may distort a witness's version of an event.
NB as this research relates to the effects of leading questions of memory it can also be used to support Loftus and Palmer’s findings
and conclusion.