The relationship between emotional intelligence and work attitudes, behavior and
outcomes
An examination among senior managers
The Authors
Abraham Carmeli, Graduate School of Business Administration, Department of
Political Science, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to thank Sidika Nihal Colakoglu for her assistance, the editor and
two anonymous reviewers of this journal for their valuable comments and
suggestions, and the participants who made this study a reality. The study was
supported, in part, by a grant from Schnitzer Foundation of the Faculty of Social
Science at Bar-Ilan University.
Abstract
The literature suggests that managerial skills in general, and emotional intelligence in
particular, play a significant role in the success of senior managers in the workplace.
This argument, despite its popularity, remains elusive. This can be attributed to the
fact that although a few studies have provided evidence to support this argument, it
has not received an appropriate empirical investigation. This study attempts to narrow
this gap by empirically examining the extent to which senior managers with a high
emotional intelligence employed in public sector organizations develop positive work
attitudes, behavior and outcomes. The results indicate that emotional intelligence
augments positive work attitudes, altruistic behavior and work outcomes, and
moderates the effect of work-family conflict on career commitment but not the effect
on job satisfaction.
Article Type: Research paper
Keyword(s): Job commitment; Job satisfaction; Altruism; Family friendly
organizations.
Journal: Journal of Managerial Psychology
Volume: 18
Number: 8
Year: 2003
pp: 788-813
Copyright © MCB UP Ltd
ISSN: 0268-3946
Introduction
What makes a senior manager successful has been a central research question of
organizational scientists for decades. Underlying this interest is the assumption or
observation regarding the impact of upper-echelon managers on important issues of
strategic vision, strategic positioning, strategic and tactical moves, among others
aimed at improving overall organizational performance (Finkelstein and Hambrick,
1996; Hambrick and Mason, 1984). Although over the years we have been exposed to
various approaches (e.g. management style) for studying this elusive question, it still
remains unanswered.
Studying managerial skills, however, seems to be one promising stream of research
that has potential for providing answers or at least shedding some light on this
enigma. As Whetten and Cameron (2001, p. 6) noted “management skills form the
vehicle by which management strategy, management practice, tools and techniques,
personality attributes and style work to produce effective outcomes in organizations”.
In the last decade or so, we have been witness to a particular growing body of
research regarding the importance of emotional intelligence for successful leadership.
Underlying this research interest is the view that people with high emotional
intelligence competencies are more likely than less emotionally intelligent people to
gain success in the workplace. Particularly, scholars have noted that social skills are
essential for executive level leaders; as individuals ascend the organizational
hierarchy, social intelligence becomes an increasingly relevant determinant of who
will and will not be successful (Hooijberg et al., 1997; Zaccaro, 2001). Though
growing evidence indicates that emotional intelligence competency has the potential
to improve performance on both personal and organizational levels, we are still only
in the initial phase of understanding the extent to which members with high emotional
intelligence would be more valued assets than less emotionally intelligent members of
their organization. As Cherniss (2000) pointed out “it is more useful and interesting to
consider how important it is for effective performance at work”. Furthermore, one of
the criticisms of the influential work of Goleman (1995, 1998) is that the main
argument stating that managers with high emotional intelligence competencies are
likely to provide their organizations with a unique contribution has not yet received
much empirical attention and support, particularly with regard to various important
work-related attitudes, behavior and outcomes that may serve as good indexes for
such investigation. As Dulewicz and Higgs (2000, p. 341 and p. 351) indicate “little
research has been conducted in an organizational context” and “there is a need for
rigorous research to underpin the assertion in an organizational setting”.
This study attempts to narrow this gap by empirically testing the degree to which
emotionally intelligent senior managers, employed in public sector organizations,
develop high job satisfaction, career commitment, job involvement and effective
commitment, diminish continuance commitment and work-family conflict, display
altruistic behavior, withdrawal intentions and better job performance. In addition, this
study examines the moderating role of emotional intelligence for the relationship
between work-family conflict and job satisfaction and career commitment.
This article is organized as follows: the next section presents the importance of
managerial skills and stresses the concept of emotional intelligence and its key
components followed by the development of the research hypotheses. The research
method is presented in the following section and the results of this study follow.
Finally, the study's results and limitations are summarized.
Theory and hypotheses
Emotional intelligence
Scholars tend to view emotional intelligence as a factor which has a potential to
contribute to more positive attitudes, behaviors and outcomes. At the same time, as
Schutte et al. (2002) note, “evidence exists that emotional intelligence can be
conceptualized as either ability (Ciarrochi et al., 2000; Mayer et al., 1999) or a
personality trait (Schutte and Malouff, 1999; Schutte et al., 1998)”. The most
comprehensive discussion about this issue is provided by a recent study of Mayer et
al. (2000). As indicated, however, this issue has not yet resolved. In this study, I
rather view emotional intelligence as a competency that is expected to augment
positive attitudes toward work, and drive positive behaviors and better outcomes.
The concept of emotional Intelligence goes back to early studies in the 1920s (for a
review, see Bar-On and Parker, 2000). In the early 1980s, scholars began to
systematically conceptualize the idea of emotional intelligence. Notably, Gardner's
(1983) conceptualization of intrapersonal intelligence and interpersonal intelligence
and Steiner (1984) work on emotional literacy were the building blocks of what
Salovey and Mayer (1989-1990) first termed as emotional intelligence. Based on BarOn's previous work, Bar-On et al. (2000, p. 1108) view emotional intelligence as a
noncognitive intelligence which is defined as an array of emotional, personal, and
social abilities and skills that influence an individual's ability to cope effectively with
environmental demands and pressures”. This study focuses on the conceptualization
suggested by Salovey and Mayer (1989-1990) and formulated in 1997 (Mayer and
Salovey, 1997).
Salovey and Mayer (1989-1990, p. 189) defined emotional intelligence as “the subset
of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one's own and others’
feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this information to
guide one's thinking and actions”. Later on, they refined and defined emotional
intelligence as “the ability to perceive emotions, to access and generate emotions so as
to assist thoughts, to understand emotions and emotional knowledge, and to
reflectively regulate emotions so as to promote emotional and intellectual growth”
(Mayer and Salovey, 1997, p. 5). A key construct in their definition that we need to
explain is “emotions”. According to Van Maanen and Kunda (1989, p. 53), emotions
are “ineffable feelings of the self-referential sort”, and are comprehensively defined as
“self-referential feelings an actor (employee) experiences or, at least, claims to
experience in regard to the performances he or she brings off in the social world”.
States of feeling refer to basic emotions (e.g. joy, love, anger) and social emotions
(e.g. shame, guilt, jealousy, envy), as well as to related constructs as affect, sentiments
and moods (Ashforth and Humphrey, 1995).
Salovey and Mayer (1989-1990) argued that there is a set of three conceptually
related mental processes – appraising and expressing emotions in the self and others,
regulating emotion in the self and others, and using emotions in adaptive ways –
involving emotional information. The followings are brief descriptions of the content
and importance of these mental processes:
Appraising and expressing emotions in the self and others. Individuals differ in the
degree to which they are aware of their emotions (appraisal) and the degree to which
the latter are verbally and non-verbally being expressed (George, 2000). Individuals
who accurately appraise and express (perceive and respond to) their emotions are
likely to be better understood by the people they work with, and they also have the
potential to better lead and manage people when they are able to perceive the
emotions of the people around them and to develop empathy – the ability to
comprehend another's feelings and to re-experience them oneself (Salovey and Mayer,
1989-1990).
Regulating emotion in the self and others. People differ in their ability to manage
(monitor, evaluate, and adjust to changing moods) their emotions as well as in their
ability to regulate and alter the affective reactions of others (Salovey and Mayer,
1989-1990). Regulation of one's own emotions and moods results in positive and
negative affective states. Emotionally, intelligent individuals are adept at placing
themselves in positive affective states, and are able to experience negative affective
states that have insignificant destructive consequences. Emotionally astute people can
induce a positive affect in others that results in a powerful social influence (charisma),
an important component of leadership (Wasielewski, 1985).
Using emotions in adaptive ways. Individuals also differ in the ways (functional vs.
dysfunctional) in which they utilize their emotions. Emotions can:
help in generating multiple future plans (flexible planning);
improve the decision-making process due to a better understanding of one's emotional
reaction (creative thinking);
facilitate cognitive processes such as creativity on the one hand and punctuality on the
other hand (mood redirected attention); and
enhance persistence regarding challenging tasks (motivating emotions) (Salovey and
Mayer, 1989-1990).
Emotionally astute managers
Until the early 1990s, the concept of emotional intelligence received very little
research attention. The major focus of researchers at that time was on the importance
of cognitive intelligence (e.g. problem solving capabilities). Nowadays, researchers
and practitioners recognize the importance of both cognitive and emotional
intelligences for gaining success. It seems that researchers, however, attribute to
emotional intelligence a significant power of explanation of variance in performance.
As Cary Cherniss puts it: “If you're a scientist, you probably needed an IQ of 120 or
so simply to get a doctorate and a job. But then it is more important to be able to
persist in the face of difficulty and to get along well with colleagues and subordinates
than it is to have an extra 10 or 15 points of IQ. The same is true in many other
occupations”. (Emphases are not in the original text).
Scholars have also focused on relating emotional intelligence to leadership (George,
2000) or showing how components of emotional intelligence such as empathy are
important traits that contribute to leadership (Kellett et al., 2002; Wolff et al., 2002).
In addition, a growing body of research has been concerned with the degree to which
emotional intelligence can make the difference between good and poor leaders. This
stream of research is also of great interest to many organizations that seek to better
understand the variance in employees’ performance. Inspired by Daniel Goleman's
article “What Makes a Leader?” published in The Harvard Business Review in 1998,
the top management team of Johnson and Johnson decided to fund a study that
“would assess the importance of Emotional Intelligence in leadership success across
the JandJ Consumer Companies”. The study, which was conducted by Kathleen
Cavallo and Dottie Brienza on a randomly selected 358 managers, found “a strong
relationship between superior performing leaders and emotional competence…
Leaders who received performance ratings of 4.1 or greater on a 5-point scale were
rated significantly higher than other participants in all four of the emotional
intelligence dimensions of self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and
social skills by supervisors and subordinates”.
The growing body of empirical work in the leadership domain has been mainly
devoted to examining the effects of emotional intelligence on the performance of
senior executives. The problem with this work is that it hardly examines important
behavioral attitudes, behavior and outcomes that are essential for evaluating whether
one can be viewed as an effective manager and leader. In this study, emotional
intelligence was examined with respect to a set of work attitudes, work behavior and
work outcomes.
Emotional intelligence and work attitudes
Emotional intelligence and job satisfaction. Locke (1969, p. 314) defined job
satisfaction and dissatisfaction as “complex emotional reactions to the job”.
Conceptualizing job satisfaction as “feeling or affective responses to facets of the
situation” (Smith et al., 1969, p. 6), suggests that job satisfaction is positively
associated with the construct of emotional intelligence. In addition, job satisfaction is
often considered as a proxy for an employee's well being at work (Grandey, 2000).
Intelligent individuals with high emotional intelligence, through the above described
set of three conceptually related mental processes, experience continuous positive
moods and feelings that generate higher levels of satisfaction and well-being
compared to individuals who experience such feelings and moods as disappointment,
depression and anger, because they can reach a higher level of general satisfaction and
fulfillment. We suggest the following hypothesis:H1.=There is a positive relationship
between emotional intelligence and job satisfaction of senior managers.Emotional
intelligence and work commitment. Work commitment is a multidimensional
construct that comprises various forms. The multidimensionality of work commitment
has been established by researchers who argued that employees develop more than
one type of work commitment (Becker, 1960), and that types are in accordance with
the employees’ own benefits (Ritzer and Trice, 1969). This approach has been
significantly advanced by Morrow (1983, 1993), who was the first to attempt mapping
theoretically universal forms of work commitment that are relevant to as many
employees as possible (Morrow, 1993, p. 160). Morrow advocated concentrating a
research effort on five universal forms of work commitment as follows: work ethic
endorsement, career commitment, affective organizational commitment, continuance
organizational commitment and job involvement. In a series of studies, it has been
shown that in addition to most common components of organizational commitment –
affective and continuance – a third component, normative commitment, should be
investigated as well (Meyer and Allen, 1997).
This study investigates all of these forms, except for work ethic endorsement. Work
ethic endorsement is the extent to which one believes that hard work is important and
that leisure and excess money are detrimental (Blood, 1969; Furnham, 1990; Mirels
and Garrett, 1971; Morrow, 1993). It is a “relatively fixed attribute over the life
course” (Morrow, 1983, p. 495).
The research on emotional intelligence and work commitment has concentrated thus
far on organizational commitment. The latter was investigated (Abraham, 1999) in the
context with which it has traditionally been defined as “the relative strength of an
individual's identification and involvement in a particular organization” (Mowday et
al., 1982, p. 27). However, this is still a somewhat narrow approach that limits our
understanding not only of the relationship between emotional intelligence and
organizational commitment (a concept that comprises three distinct constructs), but
also regarding how the former is related to work commitment forms such as career
commitment and job involvement.
Emotional intelligence and organizational commitment. The concept of organizational
commitment incorporates three distinct constructs: affective, continuance, and
normative commitment. Continuance commitment is defined as “the extent to which
employees feel committed to their organizations by virtue of the costs that they feel
are associated with leaving” (Meyer and Allen, 1984, p. 375). Affective commitment
is “positive feelings of identification with, attachment to, and involvement in the work
organization” (Meyer and Allen, 1984, p. 375). Normative commitment refers to
“commitment based on a sense of obligation to the organization” (Allen and Meyer,
1996, p. 253). Employees with strong affective commitment remain because they
want to; employees with strong continuance commitment remain because they need
to; employees with strong normative commitment remain because they feel ought to
do so (Allen and Meyer, 1990). In this study, we examined the relationship between
emotional intelligence and two forms of organizational commitment – affective and
continuance.
Emotionally intelligent individuals are “optimistic”, a trait that enables them to focus
on the resolution, rather than the reasoning (who is at fault). The work in any given
organization imposes difficulties that may result in feelings of frustration.
Emotionally intelligent individuals would know not to hold the organization
responsible for every feeling of frustration (Abraham, 1999), as they are adept at
placing themselves in positive affective states, and able to experience negative
affective states that have insignificant destructive consequences (Salovey and Mayer,
1989-1990). This is especially true for senior managers who have to reconcile the
feelings of frustration of conflicting interest groups within and outside the
organization. This can be done effectively only when they are able to place
themselves in a positive state of mind. In addition, emotionally intelligent individuals
would know how to avoid dysfunctional emotions and use them in adaptive ways to
alleviate feelings of frustration. Furthermore, on the fundamental level, people are
motivated not only by the rational exchange approach (Vroom, 1964), but also by the
extent to which they are connected emotionally to their work and by the extent to
which its contents provide them with such experiences as joy, excitement, surprise
and frustration (Ashforth and Humphrey, 1995). Thus, emotional intelligence is
expected to augment a higher level of affective commitment to the organization, and
diminish the level of continuance commitment. The following hypotheses are
suggested:H2a.=There is a positive relationship between emotional intelligence and
affective organizational commitment of senior managers.H2b.=There is a negative
relationship between emotional intelligence and continuance organizational
commitment of senior managers.Emotional intelligence and career commitment.
Career commitment is defined as “one's attitude toward one's profession or vocation”
(Blau, 1985, p. 20). Employees may encounter difficulties of many kinds in pursuing
a career that may result in dysfunctional emotions. Emotionally intelligent individuals
are expected to recognize, manage and use their emotions to eliminate these obstacles
and advance their career horizon better than people with low emotional intelligence.
This is especially true when the profession incorporates high levels of complexity.
Highly complex managerial work can be very demanding and lead to high levels of
stress. Emotional intelligence enables people to control this stress effectively and
prevent its negative effects on one's attitude towards her profession. The following
hypothesis is suggested:H3.=There is a positive relationship between emotional
intelligence and career commitment of senior managers.Emotional intelligence and
job involvement. Job involvement is “a belief descriptive of the present job and tends
to be a function of how much the job can satisfy one's present needs” (Kanungo,
1982, p. 342). As indicated above, employees do not get involved in the job only for
self-rational interest fulfillment; they also get involved in the job because they let
their emotions play a role. Becoming highly involved in the job is oftentimes a
response to emotional rather than rational needs. Ashforth and Humphrey (1995) cited
in Fine's (1998) work the quotes of a cook discussing the centrality of being
emotionally involved in the job: “I just love the activity …I concentrate totally, so I
don't know how I feel … it's like another sense takes over”. People are social
creatures who, through job involvement, fill the need for emotional experience.
Managerial work is often complex and challenging and senior managers with a high
emotional intelligence often get extremely involved in challenging experiences and
complex situations that may not occur elsewhere. Senior managers, for example, often
remain beyond the required working hours. They do this not for economic reward; but
because it allows them to cope with those complexities that yield an intense emotional
experience. The following hypothesis is suggested:H4.=There is a positive
relationship between emotional intelligence and job involvement of senior
managers.Emotional intelligence and work-family conflict. Work-family conflict is
defined as “a form of inter-role conflict in which the role pressures from work and
family domains are mutually incompatible in some respect. That is, participation in
the work (family) role is made more difficult by virtue of participation in the family
(work) role” (Greenhaus and Beutell, 1985, p. 77). Because this study attempted to
explore the role of emotional intelligence in the workplace, we concentrated on family
interference with work exploring a combination of three forms of work-family
conflict (time, strain, and behavior) suggested by Carlson et al. (2000). The form of
time-based family interference may occur when time devoted to one role makes it
difficult to get involved in another role. The form of strain-based family interference
proposes that strain in one role intrudes into and interferes with participation in
another role. Behavior family interference with work occurs when specific behaviors
required in one role are incompatible with behavioral expectations in another role
(Carlson et al., 2000).
Eliminating work-family conflict is the responsibility of both the organization and its
employees. Keith H. Hammonds (1996) quoted Ellen Galinsky saying that
“Companies are seeing they have all these programs (i.e. work-family policies), but
people are still really stressed out…Certainly, employees bear some responsibility for
determining their own family balance. But they need help. Companies that recognize
the need and adapt work to peoples’ lives will win workers’ loyalty – and, with that, a
competitive edge. With respect to the role of the individuals, one may expect that a
high emotional intelligence would help them balance family interference with work.
In fact, they may be more capable of preventing work-family conflict from the
beginning due to their emotional astuteness incorporates the recognition of the degree
to which the family plays an emotional role for them and those connected to them, the
insight as to how these emotions should be managed, and the ability to improve the
decision-making process. The following hypothesis is suggested:H5.=There is a
negative relationship between emotional intelligence and work-family conflict (family
interference with work) of senior managers.Emotional intelligence and organizational
citizenship behavior. Organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) is an extra-role
behavior that goes beyond formal role requirements (Smith et al., 1983). Emotional
intelligence may enhance altruistic behavior as it enables employees to comprehend
their co-workers’ feelings and to respond better than employees with low emotional
intelligence because of their ability to easily shift from negative to positive moods
(Abraham, 1999). Staw et al. (1994) suggested three explanations for the engagement
of an emotionally intelligent individual in altruistic behavior. First, being in a good
mood is reinforcing, and displaying altruism is rewarding in the sense that it enables
employees to also maintain this state of mind. Second, people in good moods may be
more socially interactive. Third, when employees are more satisfied (having positive
emotional reactions to the job) they are more likely to be engaged in helpful behavior.
The following hypothesis is suggested:
H6.=There is a positive relationship between emotional intelligence and
organizational citizenship behavior – altruism of senior managers.
Emotional intelligence and work outcomes
Emotional intelligence and withdrawal intentions from the organization. Withdrawal
of employees is a process (Mobley, 1977; 1982a, b; Mobley et al., 1978) which
comprises constructs of withdrawal intentions (thinking of quitting, intention to
search and intention to quit) as well as constructs of withdrawal behaviors (actually
quitting, absence) (Miller et al., 1979; Mobley et al., 1978). A recent meta-analysis
used the constructs of intention to quit, thinking of quitting, withdrawal cognitions
and expected utility of withdrawal as the components of withdrawal intentions
(Griffeth et al., 2000). In this study, we assess the withdrawal intentions process of
senior managers.
Emotional intelligence may significantly diminish employees’ withdrawal intentions
because of the ability to better regulate emotions. Emotionally intelligent individuals
are adept at putting themselves in positive affective states, and although they may
experience negative affective states at times, these do not have significant destructive
consequences. Being in positive affective states is of importance in the sense of not
becoming despondent in the face of daily and even more profound obstacles occurring
in organizational life. Rather, the individuals are likely to see the positive side of
things and use their emotions, for example, to enhance persistence at challenging
times and facilitate creativity for resolving difficulties. To a certain degree,
emotionally intelligent individuals perceive themselves as part of the solution. As
such, they feel a high level of identification and are less likely to develop withdrawal
intentions. This is especially true for senior managers who must deal with their own
difficulties as well as those of others. Those with high emotional intelligence will be
inclined to stay and deal with difficulties in adaptive ways. This, however, is not to
say that emotionally intelligent individuals do not face difficulties when encountering
job stress and changes in their job and career; rather they have more and better
capabilities than low emotionally individuals to cope with it, and thus are likely
develop lower withdrawal intentions. The following hypothesis is
suggested:H7.=There is a negative relationship between emotional intelligence and
withdrawal intentions of senior managers from the organization.Emotional
intelligence and job performance. Evidence supports a positive effect of emotional
intelligence on the success of the individual at work (for a review, see Goleman,
2001). This is of particularly importance if we believe that “management skills lie at
the heart of leadership” (Whetten and Cameron, 2001, p. 15), and specifically
recognize the need to develop and acquire skills for managing people and that
emotional intelligence may have a critical role in the creation of effective leadership.
A notable study conducted by George (2000) showed how the aspects of emotional
intelligence – appraisal and expression of emotions, use of emotion to enhance
cognitive processing and decision making, knowledge about emotions and
management of emotions – contribute to effective leadership. For the purpose of this
study, it is important to note that although it is theoretically significant to show how
each aspect affects performance, it is more accurate to recognize that skills come in
groups and clusters, and that they support one another (Goleman, 2001). The concept
of emotional intelligence seems to encompass this “critical mass” of skills (Boyatzis
et al., 2000; Goleman, 2001). The following hypothesis is suggested:
H8.=There is a positive relationship between emotional intelligence and job
performance of senior managers.
The moderator role of emotional intelligence
The literature suggests that the negative effect of work-family conflict on work
attitudes may be moderated by several variables (see, for example, Martins et al.,
2002). In this study, emotional intelligence is expected to moderate the relationship
between work-family conflict and job satisfaction, and the relationship between workfamily conflict and career commitment.
Family interference with work may have some negative consequences on the extent
which an employee will be satisfied with her work and committed to her career.
However, emotionally intelligent individuals are likely to have the ability to control
for such interferences or at least moderate them to an acceptable level. On the basis of
this logic, the following hypotheses are suggested:
H9.=Emotional intelligence will moderate the relationship between work-family
conflict and job satisfaction of senior managers. Specifically, there will be more
negative relationship between work-family conflict and job satisfaction for senior
managers who are low on emotional intelligence than for those who are high on
emotional intelligence.
H10.=Emotional intelligence will moderate the relationship between work-family
conflict and career commitment of senior managers. Specifically, for low emotionally
intelligent senior managers there will be a strong positive relationship between workconflict family and career commitment, and for highly emotional intelligent senior
managers there will be a moderate negative relationship between work-conflict family
and career commitment.
Methodology
Respondents and data collection
The population of this study was senior managers employed as chief financial officers
in the local government authorities in Israel. A direct-mail questionnaire was sent to
262 senior managers. The questionnaire was mailed from and returned to a university
address, using a self-addressed reply envelope. Ninety-eight usable questionnaires
were returned. The respondents’ average age was 46.6 years (S.D. 9.24); 11 were
women, and 79.4 percent held at least bachelor's degree. Their average tenure in their
present organization was 11.47 (S.D. 9.13). The average income of the respondents
was 2.56 (S.D. 0.54) (1=up to 10,000 New Israeli Shekel (NIS), 2=10,001 to 20,000,
and 3=20,001 and above). Note that annual average value of US$ 1 and 1 Euro in
2001 was 4.205 NIS and 3.7644 NIS, respectively. The average size of the
organizations (measured by the number of permanent residents for which the
organization is responsible to provide services, see Carmeli, 2002) was 24,729 (S.D.
54,259.37).
Dependent variables
Work outcomes. Job performance and withdrawal intentions from the organization
were used to assess employee's work outcomes:
Job performance. This measure was evaluated by a scale developed by Pearce and
Porter (1986), and used by Black and Porter (1991), and Hochwarter et al. (1999).
This measure contains five items (overall performance, ability to get along with
others, completing tasks on time, quality of performance, and achievement of work
goals) that were assessed on a seven-point scale (ranging from 1=strongly disagree, to
7=strongly agree). Although such difficulties as self-enhancement and objectivity and
reliability may be encountered, Mabe and West (1982) showed that self-evaluation
measures were more valid than pointed out in prior research (Hochwarter et al.
(1999). The Cronbach's alpha for this scale was 0.87.
Withdrawal intentions from the organization. This measure was drawn from the
measure examined by Mobley et al. (1978) and widely used in the literature (Michaels
and Spector, 1982; Miller et al., 1979). It assesses withdrawal intentions of an
employee from his/her organization and consists of three items:
I think a lot about leaving the organization;
I am actively searching for an alternative to the organization; and
As soon as it is possible, I will leave the organization.
This measure was assessed on a 5-point scale from 1=strongly disagree to 5=strongly
agree. The Cronbach's alpha for this scale was 0.90.
Work behavior:
Altruistic behavior. This variable was drawn from the multi-dimensional scale of
organizational citizenship behavior developed by Podsakoff and MacKenzie (1989)
and modified and validated by Podsakoff et al. (1990). Altruistic behavior was
measured using three items that were assessed on a five-point scale, ranging from
1=strongly disagree to 5=strongly agree. Sample items are “I help others who have
heavy workloads” “I help others who have been absent”. The Cronbach's alpha for
this scale was 0.82.
Work attitudes.Four work commitment forms (career commitment, job involvement,
affective commitment and continuance commitment) and job satisfaction were used to
assess employee's work attitudes. In addition, work-family conflict was examined, as
follows:
Career commitment. This measure was assessed by a scale developed by Blau (1985).
Sample items are: “I like this profession too much to give it up”, and “I am
disappointed with being a CEO” (reverse scored). The measure was assessed on a
five-point scale (ranging from 1=strongly disagree, to 5=strongly agree). The
Cronbach's alpha for this scale was 0.74.
Job involvement. This measure is based on a 10-item scale developed by Kanungo
(1982). Sample items are: “The most important things that happen to me involve my
present job”, and “Most of my personal life goals are job-oriented”. The measure was
assessed on a seven-point scale, ranging from 1=strongly disagree to 7=strongly
agree. The Cronbach's alpha for this scale was 0.82.
Affective organizational commitment.This measure is based on the scale developed
and validated by Allen and Meyer (1990). Sample items are: “I really feel as if this
organization's problems are my own”, and “I do not feel like “part of the family” at
my organization” (reversed item). The measure was assessed on a seven-point scale
(ranging from 1=strongly disagree, to 7=strongly agree). The Cronbach's alpha for
this scale was 0.73.
Continuance organizational commitment.This measure is based on the scale
developed and validated by Allen and Meyer (1990). Sample items are: “Right now,
staying with my organization is a matter of necessity as much as desire”, and “Too
much in my life would be disrupted if I decided I wanted to leave my organization
now”. The measure was assessed on a seven-point scale (ranging from 1=strongly
disagree, to 7=strongly agree). The Cronbach's alpha for this scale was 0.82.
Job satisfaction. This measure was estimated by a 6-items scale employed by Tsui et
al. (1992). Sample items are: “How satisfied are you with the nature of the work you
perform?” and “Considering everything, how satisfied are you with your current job
situation?” The measure was assessed on a five-point scale (ranging from 1=very
dissatisfied, to 5=very satisfied). The Cronbach's alpha for this scale was 0.68.
Work-family conflict. This measure was based on a measure developed and validated
by Carlson et al., 2000). Since this study examines the role of emotional intelligence
in the workplace, we concentrated on family interference with work exploring a
combination of three forms of work-family conflict (time, strain, and behavior), which
consisted of three items each. Sample items are “The time I spend on family
responsibilities often interferes with my work responsibilities” (time-based family
interference); “Due to stress at home, I am often preoccupied with family matters at
work” (strain-based family interference); “The behaviors that work for me at home do
not seem to be effective at work” (behavior-based family interference). All items were
ranged from 1=strongly disagree to 5=strongly agree (5=presents high conflict). The
nine items were loaded onto a single factor. The Cronbach's alpha for this scale was
0.79.
Independent/moderator variable
Emotional intelligence. Over the years, considerable research effort resulted in
various instruments for measuring emotional intelligence (EQi of Bar-On, 1996;
Executive EQ of Cooper and Sawaf, 1997; EIQ Dulewicz and Higgs, 1999; MSCEIT
of Mayer et al., 2000; ECI of Boyatzis and Goleman, 1998).
In this study, emotional intelligence was measured with the self-report measure of
emotional intelligence developed by Schutte et al. (1998) for several reasons: First,
this measure is based on the framework of emotional intelligence developed by
Salovey and Mayer, 1989-1990 and later formulated (Mayer and Salovey, 1997)[1].
Second, previous study found some limitations in early self-report measures of
emotional intelligence such as insufficient reliability and connections with personality
factors (Davies et al., 1998). Third, studies that evaluated the measure of Schutte and
her colleagues (1998) in both adult and adolescents population indicate that this
measure seems to overcome the observed difficulties in other measures of emotional
intelligence (Ciarrochi et al., 2000; Ciarrochi et al., 2001). Finally, in macro level
studies, self report measure of emotional intelligence which is brief, validated and
based on a cohesive and comprehensive model of emotional intelligence (Salovey and
Mayer, 1989-1990; Mayer and Salovey, 1997) is very useful.
The measure used in this study consists of 33 items. Sample items are “I know when
to speak about my personal problems to others”, and “I am aware of my emotions as I
experience them” (appraisal and expression of emotion); “I present myself in a way
that makes a good impression on others”, and I have control over my emotions”
(regulation of emotion); “when I feel a change in emotions, I tend to come up with
new ideas”, and I use good moods to help myself keep trying in the face of obstacles”
(utilization). All items were ranged from 1=strongly disagree to 5=strongly agree. The
Cronbach's alpha for this scale was 0.90.
Control variables
We control for:
Organizational size. Measured by the number of permanent residents for which the
organization is responsible for provision of services (Carmeli, 2002);
Tenure in the organization. Measured by the number of years the respondent is
employed in the current organization;
Gross income. (1=up to 10,000 NIS, New Israeli Shekel; 2=10,001 to 20,000 NIS;
3=20,001 to 30,000 NIS; 4=30,001 to 40,000 NIS; and 4=above 40,000 NIS);
Respondents’ age.
Because the vast majority of the respondents were male, differences between male
and female respondents could not be established.
Data analysis
To assess the relationship between emotional intelligence and work attitudes,
behavior, and outcomes, we performed a series of separate hierarchical regression
analyses. Each model had two steps. The first step involved entering the control
variables and the second step involved entering the independent variable.
To examine the interaction hypotheses, the variables were entered into the regression
equations in three steps. The control variables were entered in the first step. In the
second step, we entered the “main effects” (work-family conflict and emotional
intelligence). Finally, the work-family conflict X emotional intelligence product term
variable was entered in the third step. Both variables were mean-centered as is
suggested for variables that are to be constituents of product terms (Aiken and West,
1991).
Results
Table I reports the means, standard deviations, and correlation coefficients of
variables used in the analysis. Though several variables are related, Table I indicates
no severe problems of multicolinearity as none of the related variables exceeded the
value of 0.60. Furthermore, we performed separate hierarchical regressions for the
effect of emotional intelligence on each one of the dependent variables. Table I also
provides a preliminary support for the significant relationships between emotional
intelligence and work attitudes, work behavior and work outcomes.
Table II presents the results of hierarchical regression. Emotional intelligence was
positively and significantly related to job satisfaction (β=0.32, p < 0.01), supporting
H1. This finding is consistent with the argument according to which emotionally
intelligent individuals are likely to display higher overall satisfaction in the
workplace.
Supporting H2a, we provide evidence that when senior managers have high emotional
intelligence they tend to develop high affective commitment (emotional attachment)
to the organization for which they work (β=0.23, p < 0.05). H2b, on the other hand,
was not supported as the relationship between emotional intelligence and continuance
commitment was not significant (β=−0.12, p=ns). The beta coefficient, though not
statistically significant, was in the expected direction.
We found support for H3. Emotionally intelligent senior managers develop high
commitment toward their career (β=0.34, p < 0.001). However, contrary to H4,
emotional intelligence was statistically unrelated to job involvement. It may be that
the involvement of senior managers is more complex than we assumed, and is
affected by other important factors not examined here. Though no prediction was
made, we found that job involvement was significantly related to tenure in the
organization (β=0.20, p < 0.10) as well as to gross income (β=0.25, p < 0.05).
The results support H5, stating that senior managers who have high emotional
intelligence are more likely to effectively control work-family conflict (β=−0.31, p <
0.01). Compared to low and middle-level position employees, senior managers may
encounter a higher level of job demands that result in work-family conflict. The
results indicate that senior managers who have high emotional intelligence may better
and more carefully handle the inherent work-family conflict than those who have low
emotional intelligence.
H6, which states that emotionally intelligent senior managers will display higher
levels of altruistic behavior, was strongly supported (β=0.54, p < 0.001). In addition,
H7, which states that emotional intelligence will be negatively related to withdrawal
intentions from the organization, and H8, which states that emotionally intelligent
senior managers will perform the job better than senior managers with low emotional
intelligence, were supported (β=−0.20, p < 0.10; β=0.32, p < 0.01, respectively).
These results indicate that emotional intelligence is an important predictor of both
contextual performance and task performance. Note, however, that H9, which states
that the higher a senior manager is on emotional intelligence, the weaker will be the
negative effect of work-family conflict on job satisfaction was not supported (see
Table III). The interactive effect of work-family conflict and emotional intelligence
on job satisfaction was not significant (β = 0.03, p=n.s.).
H10 postulated that the higher a senior manager is on emotional intelligence, the
weaker will be the negative effect of work-family conflict on career commitment. The
interactive effect of work-family conflict and emotional intelligence on career
commitment was significant at the 0.05 level (see Table III) and explained an
additional 3.4 percent of explained variance in the career commitment.
In accordance with convention for plotting interactions (Aiken and West, 1991;
Cohen and Cohen, 1983), the cut values for the high and low states on the moderator
variable (emotional intelligence) were plus and minus one standard deviation from the
mean. Figure 1 presents the interaction of work-family conflict and emotional
intelligence in predicting career commitment. As shown in Figure 1, the interaction of
emotional intelligence with work-family conflict affects both the strength and
direction of this relationship. For senior managers who are low on emotional
intelligence there is a strong positive relationship and for those who are high on
emotional intelligence there is a moderate negative relationship. That is, when senior
managers with low emotional intelligence experience high work-family conflict, they
manage to maintain high career commitment. When highly emotionally intelligent
senior managers experience high work-conflict, they reduce their career commitment
to a more reasonable level to deal with work-family conflict.
Discussion
The major goal of this study was to examine the extent to which a critical component
of managerial skills – emotional intelligence – augments positive work attitudes and
the contextual and task performance of senior managers employed in a public sector
setting. This study advances the literature pertaining to emotional intelligence by
empirically demonstrating the importance of emotional intelligence for developing
positive work-related attitudes and contextual and task performance.
These findings are especially of importance for organizations which recognize the
critical role the top management team plays in their success (see Finkelstein and
Hambrick, 1996; Hambrick and Mason, 1984). The effectiveness of the top
management team is a function, inter alia, of the management skills (Whetten and
Cameron, 2001) possessed by the senior managers from which it is comprised. Skills
of managing people are of unique importance for the creation of effective
management and leadership, and emotional intelligence as “the subset of social
intelligence” (Salovey and Mayer, 1989-1990) may be the most critical component of
this class of skills. Hence, having senior executives with high emotional intelligence
is a necessity for attaining sustainable results.
This study went beyond the simple premise of the importance of emotional
intelligence to demonstrate the extent to which the latter augments favorable attitudes
and outcomes. The results indicate, for example, that emotionally intelligent senior
managers develop emotional attachment to their organizations and are also more
committed to their career. In addition, findings also indicate that emotionally
intelligent senior managers tend to be more satisfied with their work. Retaining
talented and knowledgeable senior managers becomes a major concern for many
organizations. Selecting senior managers who have high emotional intelligence may
have a positive impact on the extent to which an organization succeeds in retaining its
most critical workforce. Research findings revealed that occupational commitment
(Lee et al., 2000) and organizational commitment (Mathieu and Zajac, 1990) are
significantly related to withdrawal intentions, and that job satisfaction and
organizational commitment are by far the main predictors of turnover (Griffeth et al.,
2000). Interestingly, however, emotional intelligence was not significantly associated
with job involvement. It may be that senior managers exhibit high involvement in
their jobs because of the role itself, which demands much time and effort. Another
possible explanation is manifested by the relationship between income and job
involvement (β=0.25, p < 0.05), suggesting that economic factors influence the
subjective felt of job involvement. Emotional intelligence may help an individual to
better handle demanding managerial work. Nevertheless, we are still in need of
further investigation regarding the factors that foster an individual's high level of
involvement in her job (Brown, 1996).
Another important relationship examined in this study is the relationship between
emotional intelligence and work-family conflict. Work-family policies adopted and
implemented by an organization may not provide the whole solution, especially with
respect to family interference with work, simply because employees have some
responsibility in determining their own family balance. The results of this study
advance the literature by indicating that emotionally intelligent employees may better
handle this conflict. An integration of work-family programs and an emotionally
intelligent workforce can better attain the desired balance. This study indicates that
compared to emotionally intelligent senior managers, low-emotionally intelligent
senior managers are not less able to be sensitive enough to acknowledge how work is
affected by family matters, and, thus, feel no need to reduce their career commitment.
Senior managers who are high on emotional intelligence recognize having important
responsibilities at work, and at the same time realize that they may neglect their
family and their needs. In other words, they are equally sensitive to what they feel
when they are consumed with my work all the time. This recognition help them
balance their career commitment to a healthy mid point (not very high but not very
low either). Further examination of the interactive effect of work-family conflict and
emotional intelligence on career commitment and job satisfaction revealed that
emotional intelligence moderated only the negative influence of work-family on
career commitment. Clearly, this finding should receive further investigation but it
illuminate the kind of role emotional intelligence may play in the relationship of
“work stress” and work attitudes.
We found a direct and significant relationship between emotional intelligence and
withdrawal intentions from the organization. This intensifies the important role that
emotional intelligence may have in retaining valuable organization members. The
results of this study also indicate that emotional intelligence augments both contextual
(altruistic citizenship behavior) and task performance. Contextual performance of
senior managers is valued, because the latter oftentimes serves as a “role model” and
“character” for the organization's members to follow. This process may have a
positive effect on the organization since organizational citizenship behavior has the
potential, for example, to enhance co-worker and managerial productivity, freeing the
management from work-related problems so that it can deal with more productive
tasks, and enhancing the sustainability of the organization's performance. In addition,
the finding that emotionally intelligent senior managers perform better on the job
provides clear evidence to the question asked by Cherniss (2000) regarding “how
important it (emotional intelligence) is for effective performance at work”, and is
consistent with Cavallo and Brienza's findings of a “strong relationship between
superior performing leaders and emotional competence”.
Limitation and directions for future research
Several limitations constrain the interpretation and application of the study's findings.
The aim of this study to explore the role of emotional intelligence among senior
managers is also a weakness, because it has not included non-managerial employees.
Future studies may be benefited from an exploration of a wider range of employees at
different organizational levels. One should also be cautious while generalizing the
results of this study to other cultures or sectors. Prospective research should be
directed to explore differences among for-profit, governmental and not-for-profit
organizations.
Validated and usable measures were employed to reduce the possibility of bias in
general method variance, and data was collected from a large number of
organizational units to allow for better external validity and increased generality of
the results (Cook and Campbell, 1979). Still, the reader is cautioned to recognize the
limitations of relying on self-reported data. This may carry a bias of general method
variance. As can be seen results of hierarchical regressions provided a relatively small
proportion of the explained variance of the dependent variables. We also compared
subjective-reported data to objective data on organizational size and the comparison
yielded no difference. And, as Xie (1996) indicated, there is no theoretical foundation
to expect that interactions are associated with common method variance. Future
studies may benefit from a longitudinal research design. One, however, must
recognize that collecting data from a large number of organizations is problematic.
Finally, this study used a relatively new measure of emotional intelligence and though
studies reported good reliability and evidence of validity, it would be useful to
conduct a study which compare results of this study with those used other acceptable
measures of emotional intelligence .
Figure 1Interaction between emotional intelligence (EI) and work-family conflict
(WF) predicting career commitment (CC)
Table IMeans, standard deviations, and correlationsa
Table IIResults of hierarchical regression analysis: the influence of emotional
intelligence on work attitudes, behavior and outcomes
Table IIIResults of the moderating role of emotional intelligence (EI)
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Further Reading
Cavallo, K., Brienza, D. (n.d.), "Emotional competence and leadership excellence at
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manuscript, Michigan State University, MI, .
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Hochschild, A.R. (1983), The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human
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