Past Questions
Specimen question
7 Assess the importance of the alliance between Scotland and France in shaping Tudor
foreign policy during the period from 1485 to 1603.
8 Which was more important in determining Tudor foreign policy: national security or
economic gains? Explain your answer.
9 How do you explain the deteriorating relations between England and Spain in the course
of the Tudor period?
January 2012
7 How consistent were the motives for English involvement in war in mainland Europe in the period
from 1485-1603?
8 ’The loss of Calais in 1558 was the main turning point in England’s relations with France.’ How far
do you agree with this view of the period from 1485-1603?
9 ‘Trade was the most important influence on relations between England and Span.’ How far do you
agree with this view of the period from 1485-1603?
June 2011
How far did the Tudors have consistent aims in their foreign policy? [60]
The main aims behind Tudor foreign policy were national security, trade agreements, continental
expansion and dynastic alliances. National security and trade agreements were consistently pursued
although, if there was a conflict of interest, trade yielded to political security. Keeping the
Netherlands neutral or out of enemy hands was also a constant objective. Dynastic and marriage
alliances were consistently pursued by Henry VII, Henry VIII and Mary, and less so by Edward VI and
inconclusively by Elizabeth – although the latter used her unmarried status as a pawn in foreign
diplomacy. Candidates should point out however that there were inconsistencies in the Tudors’
attitude towards war. Henry VII avoided war if possible but engaged in continental alliances; Henry
VIII devoted much time and money to waging war against Scotland and France; Somerset continued
this policy towards Scotland but Northumberland totally changed it; Mary was also opposed to war
but was drawn into it by Philip, and Elizabeth avoided direct conflict for as long as possible before
going to war with Spain for the last 18 years of her rule. War was a last resort for most of the Tudors
with the exception of Henry VIII and Somerset. Religious reforms also brought changes in allies and
foreign commitments although religious objectives were never key features in their policy aims. This
can be best illustrated in Elizabeth’s reign when she allied with Catholic France against Catholic Spain
but refused to side directly with Protestant Netherlands. The best candidates are likely to assess and
explain the more prevalent trends and account for any inconsistencies.
Examiner’s Comment
7 How far did the Tudors have consistent aims in their foreign policy? This was answered well by
some: almost all candidates found it very accessible; it was generally answered very well. Candidates
tended to write thematically and were largely well-informed. Most candidates were able to identify
a number of aims and to assess (at varying levels) which monarchs pursued which aims. Henry VIII’s
were probably the least well analysed as they were usually just brushed off as ‘fame and glory’.
Some weaker candidates wrote about foreign relations rather than aims. Others discussed policies
rather than aims. Some did focus on the key issue of aims, but prioritised them, which was not
required by this question, rather than evaluating their consistency. One Centre adopted a very
formulaic approach, which less able candidates clearly did not understand. This led to considerable
confusion and inaccuracy, making attempted arguments unconvincing. For example, it was stated
that few rulers aimed for national security, instead prioritising dynastic security. Some wrote
irrelevantly about domestic issues such as the Break with Rome, Henry VIII's wives and domestic
religion under Elizabeth. Many structured their answers sequentially ruler by ruler, failing to make
synoptic links between their aims. There was a common misconception, among candidates from one
Centre, that Mary I sought glory abroad like her father. Many did not clearly grasp the foreign policy
aims of Henry VII and Elizabeth I.
8 ‘The years from 1547 to 1550 were the most important turning point in England’s relations with
Scotland.’ How far do you agree with this view of the period from 1485 to 1603? [60]
A turning point may be taken to be a time of significant long-term change and candidates should
examine the years 1547-50 in the context of Anglo-Scottish relations. The Duke of Somerset
embarked on a personal mission to subdue the Scots, secure the northern border and marry Edward
to Mary Queen of Scots. None of these objectives happened. Instead a war, which Henry VIII had
begun in 1542 and which had lapsed inconclusively in 1546, was renewed at great cost. It resulted in
the entry of France, the betrothal of Mary to the French dauphin and a realisation by 1550 that
England could not defeat the Scots. English troops left Scotland, French troops poured in and
diplomacy replaced aggression in England’s attitude towards the Scots. Candidates should assess
relations between 1485 and 1547, when Scotland was England’s ‘postern gate’ which French troops
exploited and to which English armies responded in 1497, 1513, 1542 and 1547. Thereafter
Northumberland, Mary and Elizabeth adopted a more diplomatic approach. Candidates may suggest
alternative turning points such as the expulsion of the French court and troops in 1560 which saw
the installation in Edinburgh of a Protestant and pro-English faction. Coming at the same time as
Anglo-Spanish relations started to decline, Elizabeth cultivated friendly relations with the French
regent, Catherine de Medici. Alternatively the arrival in England of Mary Queen of Scots in 1568
brought a change in relations. Cecil tried to use Moray and Morton to secure a pro-English faction at
the Scottish court, which worked until 1581. The consequences of the Wars of Religion and the
Dutch Revolt might also be assessed since each had a profound effect on France and Spain
respectively, which in turn affected Anglo-Scottish relations. Expect better candidates to compare
the significance of Somerset’s policies with other periods of change before reaching a conclusion.
Examiners must be open to alternative approaches. If in doubt, they should consult their Team
Leader.
Examiner’s Comment
The big differentiator between the responses to this question was the ability of candidates to
develop the turning points. In some centres even modest candidates were successful. 1560 was seen
by most as the most significant change in relations, though 1504 was also considered. Candidates
then developed from this, according to their depth of knowledge and their ability to analyse and
compare or just to describe. The best answers made good judgements based on the extent of shortterm or long-term change. Few candidates discussed the earlier Tudor period and the Anglo-Scots
relationship under Henry VII. There seemed to be some uncertainty also about the role/importance
of the Auld Alliance. While many did compare the Mid-Tudor period with others, some wrote
narratives with an attempted focus in a final, desperate, paragraph. Those who had difficulties with
the concept of a ‘turning point’ struggled, and only a limited number had relevant and solid
knowledge of the significant events in the period 1547-50 in relation to Scotland. Few such
candidates focused on relations between England and Scotland, and instead explained events
relating to the two countries. Most undermined the quality of their analysis and evaluation by taking
a chronological approach. Some drifted too far into policy towards Scotland to be fully relevant and
some even talked about Mary Queen of Scots and domestic plots without linking to foreign policy.
Assess the importance to England of Burgundy and the Netherlands in the period from 1485 to
1603. [60]
The Duchy of Burgundy, its territories and the Netherlands were important to England for economic
and political reasons, and later in the period for religious reasons. Henry VII established trade links
with Burgundy, which grew stronger as time passed and held firm in spite of interruptions in 1493-6,
1503-6, 1527-8 and 1562-4, until the Dutch Revolt in 1572. The subsequent decline led to a reassessment of overseas markets and the Elizabethan interest in transatlantic trade. Burgundian
support for the Yorkists brought political security to the fore in Henry VII’s reign. Henry VIII’s
friendship with Charles V and the absorption of Burgundy into Charles’ empire, and later Mary’s
marriage to Philip, lessened its political significance until the outbreak of the Dutch Revolt. This
necessitated Leicester’s intervention in 1586-7, which hastened war with Spain. The growth of
Calvinism in the Netherlands in the 1550s onwards brought religion as an issue – Elizabeth’s implicit
support for the Sea Beggars and Dutch rebels (explicit after Nonsuch) ensured the Netherlands after
1572 was central to Tudor foreign policy and remained important enough for Elizabeth to secure
Dutch cautionary towns in the 1590s in return for English aid after the Armada. Better essays should
assess the importance of Burgundy and the Netherlands to England and compare it with other
factors, such as responding to the more powerful states of France and Spain, or the problems caused
by Scotland. Weaker essays are likely to offer a chronological narrative and comment, with an
imbalanced assessment in favour of other determinants rather than of Burgundy and the
Netherlands.
Examiner’s Comment
9 Assess the importance to England of Burgundy and the Netherlands in the period from 1485 to
1603. This question was answered extremely well by a few but posed challenges to many
candidates. There was some confusion about the difference between Burgundy and the Netherlands
– some started in Henry VIII’s reign, so avoided mentioning Burgundy at all. Others talked about
Burgundy/Netherlands across the period as though it were a joint kingdom. Most mentioned trade,
but rarely knew the Magnus Intercursus. Some confused the collapse of Antwerp with the Sack of
Antwerp. When themes besides trade were developed, eg strategic location, religious change, a
convincing argument emerged, but this rarely was the case. Some weaker candidates wrote a
general essay on changing relations with Spain, often chronologically structured. Even if themes
were traced, there was rarely a convincing assessment of continuity and change in importance of the
region to England. Many weaker candidates seemed not to understand the relationship between
Burgundy, the Netherlands and Spain and how it changed over the period so their answers were
consequently rather muddled. Also, many students did not balance the importance of Burgundy and
the Netherlands against other nations such as France Some candidates knew little about Burgundy
beyond the backing given by Margaret to Simnel and Warbeck. They tried to compensate by being
well-informed about the Netherlands, at any rate after 1570. There was less inclination to narrate
events though the importance they sought to assess was mostly restricted to security and trade.
January 2011
7 ‘Marriage was the most important means through which the Tudors conducted their
foreign policy.’ How far do you agree? [60]
Candidates can be expected to assess a range of methods used by the Tudors in implementing
their foreign policy and arguably marriage was one of the most important. Like all early
modern rulers, the Tudors saw the benefits of marriage agreements which played an
important part in shaping and effecting the policies of Henry VII, Henry VIII and Mary. Some
marriages proved to be more significant than others – Arthur’s and Henry’s marriages to
Catherine of Aragon were more influential in firming up the Anglo-Spanish alliance with the
house of Trastamara in 1489 than Margaret Tudor’s marriage to James IV, which did not
prevent Henry VIII from invading Scotland though it did secure Anglo-Scottish relations under
Henry VII. Similarly Mary Tudor’s marriage to Philip II consolidated England’s relations with
Spain and isolated France. However, marriage as a means of conducting foreign affairs was
less effective under Edward VI and Elizabeth, though in each case it was a method of
diplomatic negotiation and Elizabeth played the ‘marriage card’ to good effect in dealing with
France and Spain. Candidates should also consider other means used by the Tudors in their
foreign policy, such as political alliances and treaties, trade agreements and
embargoes, the threat and declaration of war, state propaganda, diplomacy,
ambassadors and overseas agents. Candidates need to focus on ‘means’ rather than
‘aims’, and a good answer should compare the influence of dynastic methods with
other means evident in each of the Tudor reigns.
Examiner’s Comment
This was a popular and generally well answered question. Most candidates agreed with the
premise and illustrated their argument with a range of examples. Better responses
examined alliances, trade treaties, the threat and use of war, spies and secret agents.
Few essays, however, considered the role of ambassadors and diplomatic missions.
Weaker essays usually failed to compare marriage with other means through which
foreign policy was conducted or misunderstood what the question required. Opening
paragraphs thus began: ‘Marriage was the most important factor affecting…’; ‘dynastic
arrangements were the main spur to foreign affairs…’; ‘the main aim of marriage
alliances was…’. Another approach was to examine the fruits of the marriage alliances
and others wanted to outline the motives of elements of Tudor foreign policy.
8 ‘Spain rather than France presented a greater danger to England’s security from
1485 to 1603.’ How far do you agree? [60]
Candidates should focus on and assess both Spain and France before reaching a
conclusion. Some answers might compare the two countries thematically – perhaps in
respect of military and naval threats in peacetime and at war, the support given to
pretenders, claimants and English rebels, or the impact of making alliances against England.
Some essays are likely to assess Spain and France separately before reaching a judgement
though this approach could restrict candidates’ ability to demonstrate synoptic skills. The
strong military, naval and financial power of France, its desire to recover land held by
England, the long-standing rivalry and its commitment to the Catholic faith, might suggest
that it posed a serious threat, and every Tudor ruler went to war against France at least
once. In most cases, however, it was England that declared war on France. Better
candidates might point out that there were long periods of peace and stability between the
two countries eg 1492-1512,1527-42,1564-1603. Spain on the other hand did not present a
danger for much of the period but when it did, it might well be argued that the danger was far
greater than that posed by France. Until the reign of Philip II, Spain had been a useful if not
always reliable ally and a counter-weight to France. Only in 1527 and briefly in the 1530s did
Charles I threaten to disrupt diplomatic relations and Cromwell’s fears of a joint FrancoSpanish invasion were exaggerated. It could be argued that Mary’s marriage to Philip put
England at risk and indirectly resulted in the permanent loss of Calais. From 1560, and
especially after 1585, Spain presented a very serious danger which was borne out by its
support for Catholic conspirators and Mary Queen of Scots, two invasions of Ireland and
three attempts to invade England. Candidates may well conclude that both countries
presented rather different threats, which changed over time, before deciding in favour of one
of them.
Examiner’s Comment
The most popular of this set and generally well answered. Most candidates compared Spain
and France, though not always thematically and analytically. They concluded that
initially France presented the greater danger but in Elizabeth’s reign Spain posed a far
greater danger. Weaker essays often took a chronological approach, which made
synoptic judgements hard to sustain, frequently substituted ‘greater threat’ for ‘greater
danger to England’s security’, and examined Spain and France either in turn or in
tandem. Candidates would have formulated decent answers more readily had they
considered the terms of the question.
9 Assess the impact of foreign relations on English government finances and the
economy in the period from 1485 to 1603. [60]
Candidates are likely to stress the extent to which government finances were affected by
threats to national security, the cost of defence and waging wars. Henry VII’s wars with
France and Scotland obliged him to request forced loans and parliamentary grants, and
foreign support for pretenders further weakened royal finances. Henry VIII spent lavishly on
wars and diplomatic missions: £1 million in 1512-13, £400,000 in 1522-24, and £2 million in
1542-46. The Field of the Cloth of Gold cost over £100,000. Edward VI spent £1.3 million in
his wars against France and Scotland, and the cost of defending Calais in the 1550s was
£25,000 pa. War against Spain had a dramatic impact on government finances after 1585:
the Armada cost £161,000, defences were £200,000 pa., and the total cost of war by 1603
was £3.5 million. Better essays are likely to attribute responsibility for the escalating costs,
and assess how effectively different governments managed their finances. Answers should
also examine economic issues, particularly trade and commerce, in the reigns of Henry VII,
Mary and Elizabeth, and some candidates may reflect on England’s industrial and
commercial interests that were adversely affected by Henry VIII and Edward. Candidates are
likely to discuss the role of the Hanse and Baltic trade links, trade from 1489 with Aragon,
Castile and Denmark, in 1494 with the Levant and from 1515 with the Low Countries. The
collapse of the Spanish Netherlands’ woollen trade had a severe impact on England’s
economy in the 1550s. English merchants traded extensively with Iberia until the 1580s and
the outbreak of the Dutch Revolt and Spanish war had a serious effect on Elizabethan trade.
Indeed it may be argued that trade was often a casualty of worsening diplomatic relations
and wars, as illustrated in 1493-6, 1503-6, 1527-8, 1563-4 and after 1572.
Examiner’s Comment
Neither popular nor well answered. Candidates generally lacked the factual details and
range of economic trends to produce a coherent argument. Trade and commerce in
particular were poorly treated, and knowledge of important developments in Edward’s and
Mary’s reigns was often overlooked. Most essays knew something about the financial effects
in Henry VII’s and Henry VIII’s reigns, and referred to some of the Elizabethan explorers.
Several candidates reversed the point of the question, preferring to show how poor finances
restricted foreign policy. Many discussed the importance of Antwerp in their accounts of the
ups and downs of Anglo-Habsburg relations.
June 2010
7 How far was personal ambition the main influence in shaping Tudor foreign policy?
[60]
Candidates should assess in what ways the personal ambition of Tudor rulers and
ministers influenced foreign policy making and compare its impact with other
characteristics before reaching a conclusion. Personal ambition may be seen as the aim of
rulers such as Henry VII to secure his dynasty, or Henry VIII to emulate Henry V in war
against France, or Somerset’s desire to defeat the Scots and secure the northern border.
In contrast, the foreign policies of Mary and Elizabeth could be argued to have been less
affected by ambition. However, some may argue that advancing the country’s interests
cannot be separated from the Tudors’ pursuit of personal ambition. Candidates should also
assess other possible influences such as political considerations eg national security,
maintaining at least one strong ally, ensuring that the Netherlands did not fall into the
hands of an enemy. Financial, economic and trade issues influenced each of the Tudors’
policies and might be usefully considered. Essays are likely to stress the importance of
finance which restricted the conduct of all administrations, though less so in the 1540s and
1580s. Limited finances resulted in defensive and prudent foreign policies and the
increasing importance of continental allies. Better answers could examine trade issues,
particularly in the reigns of Henry VII, Mary and Elizabeth, and some candidates may
reflect on England’s industrial and commercial interests that were adversely affected by
Henry VIII and Edward. Defending the Church was never a principal factor in shaping
foreign policy but England’s break from Rome did influence policies in the 1530s and its
Protestant condition affected relations with Spain and Scotland after 1558
Examiner’s Comments
A number of factors influenced foreign policy making and better candidates reflected this
understanding in their answers. Economic, trade and finance had a bearing as did
political considerations and good candidates emphasised the need to safeguard
national security as a consistent influence across the period. Religious factors became
increasingly important after the Reformation and some essays stressed their
importance to several Elizabethan ministers. ‘Personal ambition’ lay at the heart of the
question, and how candidates defined this concept often determined the quality of their
essay. The better responses recognised how each of the Tudors was affected by
ambition. Henry VIII’s quest to emulate Henry V figured in most essays and some saw
a change, albeit temporary, in the 1530s but good analyses of the personal aims of
Henry VII, Mary and Elizabeth also proved a fruitful line of argument. Weaker
candidates had difficulty discriminating between personal ambition and other motives.
Many found personal ambition hard to define and as a result virtually anything was
classified under it. They also gave less attention to the mid-Tudor period in general
and Edward VI’s administration in particular, although some attempted to argue, quite
successfully that Somerset and Mary did have personal ambitions. What was most
noticeable was the lack of a thematic approach in weaker responses. Most answers
went through monarch by monarch and failed to display the synthesis expected.
8 ‘Continuity rather than change characterised England’s relations with France in the period from
1485 to 1603.’ How far do you agree with this view?
The focus of the question is on continuity and change and candidates should be rewarded
where they are able to pin-point and explain moments of change as well as account for
more consistent trends. Each of the Tudors went to war with France but for different
reasons. Henry VII tried to avoid war but felt the need to restrain Charles VIII from
overrunning Brittany and threatening England. Henry VIII liked war and wanted to extend
English lands in France but was rebuffed by the equally prickly Francis I, who used the
Scots to the advantage of France. The Protestant inclined Edward VI had to contend with
the war-minded Henry II, who was determined to recover Boulogne, and Mary, ever loyal
to her husband, was forced to surrender Calais to France in 1558. Elizabeth, eager to
avoid financing a war, sought a rapprochement with France after 1564, and was aided by
their expulsion from Scotland in 1560. Thereafter, she did her best to befriend the French
without ceding to their demands. Long-standing rivalry, France’s support for and interest in
Scotland, and England’s possession of Calais gave the generally hostile relationship from
1485 to 1558 more continuity than change but the period was not one of continuous
enmity. The loss of Calais and outbreak of the French Wars of Religion, however, reduced
the threat of a French invasion and made an alliance (signed at Blois in 1572) more
feasible. The growing power of Spain under Philip II, the decline of the Guises and the rise
of Henry of Navarre led to more continuity in the later years of the period. Candidates are
likely to agree with the proposition but should discuss changes as well as examples of
continuity. Anglo-French relations were affected by a number of factors, such as the
personality of English and French monarchs and ministers, changing political
circumstances, and the outbreak of civil disturbances eg 1549 in England and 1562 in
France.
Examiner’s Comments
8 This question produced some very good essays and was the best answered in the set.
Candidates generally argued that Anglo-French relations were characterised more by
continuity than by change but acknowledged the early years of Elizabeth I as a critical
turning point. Events in France, the Netherlands and Scotland were evaluated by
better candidates to show how England’s foreign relations changed at this time but
from 1572 relations became more stable again. The key to a successful essay was to
produce a thematic analysis of Anglo-French relations throughout the period to point to
continuing trends such as their respective friendship/enmity with Scotland and Spain,
as well as changing perspectives such as the personal aims of various Tudor and
Valois kings. Surprisingly few essays commented on the personal rivalry between
Henry VIII and Francis I. The best candidates argued that though there were
underlying features of continuity throughout the period, there were also numerous
examples of change as if to prove the point. They avoided a narrative chronological
account, which was the hallmark of weaker candidates, and instead organised their
essays synoptically.
9 Assess the importance of the Netherlands in England’s relations with the Burgundian and
Spanish Habsburgs in the period from 1485 to 1603.
Candidates should be aware that Burgundy and then the Netherlands were important to
England throughout the Tudor period for economic, military and political reasons, and their
answers should focus on the importance in Anglo-Spanish relations rather than for
England internally. Henry VII established trade links with Burgundy, which grew stronger
as time passed and held firm in spite of later interruptions, until the Dutch Revolt in 1572.
The subsequent decline in relations led to a re-assessment of overseas markets and the
Elizabethan interest in transatlantic trade. Burgundian support for the Yorkists and its close
proximity to London brought political security to the fore in Henry VII’s reign but Henry
VIII’s friendship with Charles V (who was also Archduke of Burgundy), and Mary’s
marriage to Philip, lessened its political significance until the outbreak of the Dutch Revolt.
This necessitated Leicester’s intervention in 1586-7, which hastened war with Spain. The
growth of Calvinism in the Netherlands in the 1550s onwards brought religion as an issue
Elizabeth’s implicit support for the Sea Beggars and Dutch rebels (explicit after Nonsuch)
ensured the Netherlands after 1572 was central to Tudor foreign policy and remained
important enough for Elizabeth to secure Dutch cautionary towns in the 1590s. Better
essays should compare the Netherlands with other factors (eg responding to the more
powerful states of France and Spain, securing dynastic alliances, the changing political
circumstances in Scotland, the effects of English privateers). Weaker essays are likely to
offer a chronological narrative and comment, which might assess the Netherlands and
other factors but not in the context of Anglo-Spanish and Anglo-Burgundian relations.
Examiner’s Comments
9 The changing nature of England’s relations with the Burgundian and Spanish Habsburgs
was well understood by many candidates and the question consequently produced several
very good answers. The best essays focused on the importance of the Netherlands in this
relationship and evaluated its political and economic significance to England and to Spain
across the period. Most answers saw the accession of Charles I as King of Spain, Archduke
of Burgundy and Holy Roman Emperor as a pivotal moment but also understood the growing
importance of the Netherlands to England as relations with France and Spain changed under
Elizabeth I. Several candidates wrote too much on the later Tudors and not enough on
developments under Henry VIII. Weaker responses were often confused about the
relationship between Burgundy and Spain and either gave only limited attention to the
importance of the Netherlands or wrote about how England was affected domestically rather
than in the context of Anglo-Spanish and Anglo-Burgundian relations. Some candidates
wrote general answers about Anglo-Spanish relations without analysis or assessment. Many
simply did not know what was required and there was little focus on the Netherlands as against
other factors in relations with the Habsburgs. This was the weakest of the foreign policy answers and
the least popular.
January 2010
‘The aims and methods of Tudor foreign policy were characterised more by change
than by continuity.’ How far do you agree with this judgement? [60]
Some candidates may well focus on either aims or methods but better essays should
examine both elements in terms of continuity and change. Some candidates may
assess Tudor relations with particular countries such as Spain, France, Scotland and
Burgundy/ the Netherlands. Some might adopt a chronological approach though this
may make sustaining a synoptic analysis more difficult. The main aims behind Tudor
foreign policy were national security, trade agreements, continental expansion and
dynastic alliances. National security and trade agreements were consistently pursued
although, if there was a conflict of interest, trade yielded to political security. Keeping
the Netherlands neutral or out of enemy hands was also a consistent objective. To this
end, France and Burgundy were seen as England’s main enemies at the start of the
period but had been replaced by Spain at the end. Dynastic and marriage alliances
were pursued by Henry VII, Henry VIII and Mary, but less so by Edward VI and
inconclusively by Elizabeth – although the latter used her unmarried status as a pawn
in foreign diplomacy. There were inconsistencies, however, in the Tudors’ attitude
towards war. Henry VII and Elizabeth avoided it if possible but engaged in continental
alliances; Henry VIII and Edward devoted much time and money to waging war against
Scotland and France; Mary was opposed to war but was drawn into it by Philip.
Religious reforms also brought changes in allies and foreign commitments eg AngloScottish relations. The best candidates are likely to explain the more prevalent trends
and account for changes in aims and methods. Examiners must be open to alternative
approaches. If in doubt, they should consult their Team Leader.
Examiner’s Comment
7 A large number of candidates attempted this question and produced some very good answers. The
best essays examined foreign policy thematically, sometimes treating aims and methods
together but usually separately. They considered how particular aims were implemented and
most argued that there was much continuity in both areas and, where differences occurred,
they were often due to the personalities involved. Many candidates wrote general accounts of
foreign policy punctuated by noting that Spain became an enemy during the reign of Elizabeth.
Weaker candidates produced a chronological survey of events, made no distinction between
aims and methods, and generally felt that foreign policy was characterised more by change.
Few candidates looked at how far religious issues affected foreign policy aims particularly
during Elizabeth’s reign when confessional politics assumed a more prominent position
8 Which presented the greater threat to England’s security in the period from 1485 to
1603: Scotland or France? Explain your answer. [60]
Candidates should focus on and assess both Scotland and France before reaching a
conclusion. Some answers are likely to compare the two countries thematically – perhaps in
respect of military and naval threats in peacetime and at war, the support given to
pretenders, claimants and English rebels, or the impact of making alliances against England
and often together (Auld Alliance). Some essays might assess Scotland and France
separately before reaching a judgement though this approach could restrict candidates’
ability to demonstrate synoptic skills. The strong military, naval and financial power of
France, its desire to recover land held by England, the long-standing rivalry and its
commitment to the Catholic faith, might suggest that it posed a serious threat, and every
Tudor ruler went to war against France at least once. Better candidates, however, should
point out that there were long periods of peace and stability between the two countries eg
1492-1512, 1527-42, 1564-1603. Scotland though much smaller and less powerful than
France also presented a threat to England: it supported Warbeck, invaded northern counties
at will and had a long-standing arrangement with France of embarrassing English
governments. The deaths of James IV and James V after military conflicts weakened
Scotland but left it open to a French presence and capacity to intrigue against England,
which was not removed until 1560. Thereafter, Scotland did not present a serious threat.
Candidates may well conclude that both countries presented rather different threats, which
changed over time, before deciding in favour of one of them.
Examiner’s Comment
This was a popular question and well answered if candidates adopted a direct comparison.
Scotland and France were interpreted as having each threatened England’s security at
various times, but France was the more enduring problem. Knowledge of Scotland was
variable, particularly under James VI, and weaker candidates focused too much on the
threat presented by Mary Stuart after she arrived in England. Better candidates noted
the preoccupation of France with Italy and Spain and her handicap during the wars of
religion. The best essays explained the interrelationship between the two countries in
the Auld Alliance and identified the 1510s and 1540s as the most perilous decades for
England. Some candidates questioned whether there really was a serious threat and
how far England was responsible for precipitating political and military crises.
Assess the ways in which Spain affected English domestic affairs during the period
from 1485 to 1603. [60]
Candidates are likely to suggest that Spain had a considerable impact on English domestic
affairs but should also be aware that the nature of its influence changed over the period. One
approach that candidates might take is to look at each of the Tudors in turn and comment on
developments that led to continuity and change. Another would be to assess the impact
thematically. The main areas of discussion are likely to be political issues – Henry VII’s
alliance of 1489 against pretenders and the betrothal of Arthur (and later Henry) to Catherine
of Aragon; the influence of the Aragonese faction at court in the 1520s and 1530s, and
Charles V’s pressure not to proceed with a divorce; hostility towards Philip in England in the
1550s at the court, council and parliament surfaced in Wyatt’s rebellion; putative Spanish
support for Mary Stuart and Catholic plotters. Religious issues – pressure to remain a
Catholic country after the break from Rome. This may have curtailed Henry VIII’s reform
programme, compromised Somerset, supported and aided Mary’s restoration of the Church,
influenced Elizabeth in determining the Settlement of 1559 and her subsequent treatment of
Catholics. Economic issues – trade links since 1489 with Aragon and Castile, and from
1515 with the Low Countries. The collapse of the Spanish Netherlands’ woollen trade had a
severe impact on England’s economy in the 1550s. English merchants traded extensively
with Iberia until the 1580s and privateers became a source of friction from the 1560s. The
outbreak of the Dutch Revolt had a serious effect and Elizabeth faced political pressure to
intervene. Military issues – war with Spain against France in 1542 and 1557 and against
Spain from 1585 had serious financial, economic and political consequences. Spain also
intervened in Ireland in the 1580 and 1601 rebellions.
Examiner’s Comment
9 Neither popular nor well handled, this question produced few good answers. Too many
essays presented a chronological narrative with supplementary comments on Anglo-Spanish
relations and failed to produce a thematic or synoptic assessment. Some candidates
considered some of the political, religious and economic consequences; most essays were
drawn towards the Elizabethan military and naval conflict but offered little in the way of
analysis of English domestic events.
Legacy Scripts
June 2009
10 Assess the importance of economic factors in influencing Tudor foreign policy
Focus: Assessment of economic factors in the wider context of affecting Tudor foreign
policy
No set conclusions are to be expected, but candidates must answer the question and
address the theme over the full period.
Candidates are likely to assess a range of economic factors and compare them with
other influences that affected foreign policy making. Essays are likely to stress the
importance of finance which restricted the conduct of all administrations, though less
so in the 1540s and 1580s. Limited finances resulted in defensive and prudent foreign
policies and the increasing importance of continental allies. Better answers should
examine trade issues, particularly in the reigns of Henry VII, Mary and Elizabeth, and
some candidates may reflect on England’s industrial and commercial interests that
were adversely affected by Henry VIII and Edward. To go beyond Band III, candidates
must compare economic with other factors to gauge its relative importance. Areas for
assessment may include religious, political, personal and dynastic factors. Some of
these influences were at times more important than economic and of course some
candidates may argue that economic factors were never predominant. The best
essays may assess economic factors thematically or chronologically before reaching
an argued conclusion.
Alternative explanations are possible and examiners must be open to alternative
approaches. If in doubt, consult your Team Leader.
Examiner’s Comments
There were several good answers that looked at themes and made synoptic
judgements accordingly. They compared economic with other factors such as dynastic,
religious and personal issues but also considered trade and commerce as well as
finance. Candidates often suggested that economic factors were usually sacrificed
when the Tudor dynasty was threatened. Weaker answers looked solely at financial
factors and approached the topic chronologically making little attempt to address the
question synoptically. Some focused on economic policy rather than on its impact on
foreign policy and foreign policy decisions.
11 How do you explain the changes in Anglo-Scottish relations during the period from
1485 to 1603?
Focus: Explanation for the changing relations between England and Scotland.
No set conclusions are to be expected, but candidates must answer the question and
address the theme over the full period.
In 1485, and for much of the early period, Scotland was England’s ‘postern gate’ that
French troops might exploit and they were present in Scotland until 1560. English
armies invaded Scotland in 1513, 1542, 1547 and 1560, and threatened invasion in
1497. Much of this enmity was traditional but under Henry VIII and Somerset, war was
a result of personal Candidates may suggest the expulsion of the French court and
troops in 1560 brought major changes since a Protestant and pro-English faction was
installed in Edinburgh. Coming at the same time as Anglo-Spanish relations started to
decline, Elizabeth cultivated friendly relations with the French regent, Catherine de
Medici. Similarly the arrival in England of Mary Queen of Scots in 1568 brought a
change in relations. Cecil tried to use Moray and Morton to secure a pro-English
faction at the Scottish court, which worked until 1581. Relations with James VI were
uneasy but never poor. He toyed with conversion to Catholicism and welcomed his
French cousin Esmé Stuart to his court between 1579-81. Elizabeth was reluctant to
acknowledge James as her heir; he was reluctant to abandon his mother. Matters were
only resolved in 1586-7 when he accepted a pension and Mary was executed.
Candidates should assess various reasons for change, including Henry VII’s Treaty of
Ayton, Henry VIII’s and Somerset’s determination to wage war, the Scottish
Reformation, the arrival of Mary Stuart in England, and the consequences of the
French Wars of Religion and the Dutch Revolt. Expect better candidates to cover most
of these developments thematically.
Alternative explanations are possible and examiners must be open to alternative
approaches. If in doubt, consult your Team Leader.
Examiner’s Comments
Not a very well answered question. Many candidates produced a narrative and chronological
account of Anglo-Scottish relations but failed to address the issue of explaining the
‘changes’. Few examined how France affected the relationship and international affairs
in general were overlooked. Some candidates asserted that there were several
turning-points but did not explain or assess their origins. A few candidates failed to
understand what a turning-point was, merely comparing policies rather than key
events. Knowledge of Somerset’s relations with Scotland was often sleight and a
surprisingly large number of candidates knew nothing about Anglo-Scottish relations
after 1568.
12 How far was Henry VIII’s divorce from Catherine of Aragon the main turning-point
in Anglo-Spanish relations in the period from 1485 to 1603?
Focus: Evaluation of the impact of the divorce on Anglo-Spanish relations
No set conclusions are to be expected, but candidates must answer the question and
address the theme over the full period.
A turning-point may be taken to mean a significant change and candidates should be
expected to assess the consequences of the divorce for Anglo-Spanish relations, as
well as suggest alternative turning-points, such as Spain’s acquisition of the
Netherlands and policies towards it that were adopted by Philip II after 1556; or
Drake’s plundering of Spanish colonies and ships after 1570; or improvements in
England’s relations with Scotland and France after 1560, which placed less emphasis
on England retaining her friendship with Spain. The divorce harmed dynastic relations
until the accession of Mary but her marriage to Philip proved that amity could be
restored albeit superficially. However the divorce also sparked Henry VIII’s break from
Rome and England’s subsequent establishment of a Protestant church which led to
hostility under Philip II. Some candidates may play down the significance of the divorce
in favour of other turning-points, such as the Scottish rebellion, the French wars of
religion, the Dutch Revolt and Drake’s piratical activities, with perhaps the personalities
of Elizabeth and Philip as pivotal. This approach is fine provided any elements of
continuity and change are assessed from 1485 and beyond 1533.
Examiner’s Comments
12 This was the least popular question of the trio and was generally poorly answered. AngloSpanish relations were frequently viewed in terms of economic, marital and political
links by better candidates who assessed the divorce against other key developments.
Most notable were the Scottish rebellion, the French wars of religion, the Dutch revolt
and the activities of Drake. The best essays assessed how the divorce changed
relations since 1485 and argued that Mary’s marriage to Philip showed that good
relations could be restored. Most argued that the definitive shift occurred under
Elizabeth following the onset of the Dutch revolt. Weaker essays tended either to overemphasise the divorce or to ignore it completely in favour of explaining other turningpoints in greater detail.
January 2009
10 How far did the Tudors have consistent aims in their foreign policy? [60]
Focus: Evaluation of foreign policy aims across the period
No set conclusions are to be expected, but candidates must answer the question and
address the theme over the full period.
The main aims behind Tudor foreign policy were national security, trade agreements, continental
expansion and dynastic alliances. National security and trade agreements were consistently pursued
although, if there was a conflict of interest, trade yielded to political security. Keeping the
Netherlands neutral or out of enemy hands was a constant objective. Dynastic and marriage
alliances were consistently pursued by Henry VII, Henry VIII and Mary, and less so by Edward VI and
inconclusively by Elizabeth – although the latter used her unmarried status as a pawn in foreign
diplomacy. Candidates should point out however that there were inconsistencies in the Tudors’
attitude towards war. Henry VII avoided war if possible but engaged in continental alliances; Henry
VIII devoted much time and money to waging war against Scotland and France; Somerset continued
this policy towards Scotland but Northumberland totally changed it; Mary was also opposed to war
but was drawn into it by Philip, and Elizabeth avoided direct conflict for as long as possible before
going to war with Spain for the last 18 years of her rule. War was a last resort for most of the Tudors
with the exception of Henry VIII and Somerset. Religious reforms also brought changes in allies and
foreign commitments. The best candidates are likely to explain the more prevalent trends and
account for any inconsistencies.
Examiner’s Comments
execution of that policy. There were other misconstructions of the question: some took
consistency for continuity; others ignored the ‘extent’ element in the question and wrote
about whether there was consistency in the foreign policy; yet others wrote about
consistency within each reign. The best answers dealt with themes across the period,
though curiously even these answers rarely mentioned marriage alliances. Some chose to
concentrate on a couple of factors, generally omitting trade, and as a result presented an
unbalanced response.
11 Assess the impact of the personalities of English monarchs on relations with
France from 1485 to 1603. [60]
Focus: Evaluation of personalities as a factor affecting Anglo-French relations
No set conclusions are to be expected, but candidates must answer the question and
address the theme over the full period.
Anglo-French relations were affected by a number of factors, one of which was the personality of
English monarchs. Candidates should consider the Tudor rulers, all of whom went to war with
France, and where appropriate French rulers, some of whom were particularly aggressive and
ambitious towards England and Scotland. Henry VII tried to avoid war but felt he needed to restrain
Charles VIII from overrunning Brittany and threatening England. The vain Henry VIII liked war and
wanted to extend English lands in France but was rebuffed by the equally prickly Francis I, who used
the Scots to the advantage of France. The weak and Protestant inclined Edward VI had to contend
with the war-minded Henry II, who was determined to recover Boulogne, and Mary, ever loyal to her
husband, was forced to surrender Calais to France in 1558. Elizabeth, eager to avoid financing a war
to recover Calais, sought a rapprochement with France after 1564, and was aided by their expulsion
from Scotland in 1560. Thereafter, she did her best to befriend the French without ceding to their
demands. Candidates are likely to argue that although personalities were important, additional
factors influenced relations, especially the role of Spain as an ally and later an enemy of England,
and the changing religious and political conditions in France, England and Scotland. A balanced
argument is expected from the better candidates.
Examiner’s Comments
11. This was answered quite well, with better answers assessing personality alongside other
factors. Many answers were restricted by failure to confront personality, except to assert that
Henry VIII was a ‘war munger’ (sic) and that Elizabeth was keen on the Duke of Anjou until
he died. There were a number of answers which dealt at length with Somerset and
Northumberland, and dismissed Edward as a ‘youth’. Only a minority of essays mentioned
the personal rivalry of Henry VIII and Francis I, and references to other French rulers were
notable for their absence.
To what extent was Tudor foreign policy influenced by English interests in the
Netherlands? [60]
The Netherlands was important to England throughout the Tudor period for economic and political
reasons. Henry VII established trade links with Burgundy, which grew stronger as time passed and
held firm in spite of interruptions in 1493-6, 1503-6, 1527-8 and 1562-4, until the Dutch Revolt in
1572. The subsequent decline led to a re-assessment of overseas markets and the Elizabethan
interest in transatlantic trade. Burgundian support for the Yorkists brought political security to the
fore in Henry VII’s reign but Henry VIII’s friendship with Charles V, and Mary’s marriage to Philip,
lessened its political significance until the outbreak of the Dutch Revolt. This necessitated Leicester’s
intervention in 1586-7, which hastened war with Spain. The growth of Calvinism in the Netherlands
in the 1550s onwards brought religion as an issue – Elizabeth’s implicit support for the Sea Beggars
and Dutch rebels (explicit after Nonsuch) ensured the Netherlands after 1572 was central to Tudor
foreign policy and remained important enough for Elizabeth to secure Dutch cautionary towns in the
1590s in return for English aid after the Armada. Better essays should assess the importance of the
Netherlands to England and compare it with other factors, such as responding to the more powerful
states of France and Spain, and securing dynastic alliances. Weaker essays are likely to offer a
chronological narrative and comment, with an imbalanced assessment of the Netherlands and other
determinants.
Examiner’s Comments
12. Generally this question was well answered. Weaker candidates often concentrated on
the reign of Elizabeth to the exclusion of the rest of the period or limited their answers to
descriptions of the ways in which England related to the Netherlands. Better responses were
able to show through developing themes how Burgundy affected English foreign relations
and appreciated why its transition to the Netherlands changed that relationship.
June 08
10 Assess the importance of royal marriages to foreigners in shaping English foreign
policy from 1485 to 1603. [60]
Focus: Evaluation of dynastic factors and comparison with other factors.
No set conclusions are to be expected, but candidates must answer the question and
address the theme over the full period.
A full evaluation of dynastic factors requires both an assessment and comparison, even if
implicit, with other influences. Marriage treaties and links with foreign houses of Trastamara,
Stuart and Habsburg may well overlap with political issues such as national security. The
Tudors, like all early modern rulers, saw the benefits of marriage agreements and they
played an important part in shaping the policies of Henry VII, Henry VIII and Mary but less so
Edward VI and Elizabeth.
However, some unions were more important than others. For instance, Arthur’s and Henry’s
marriage to Catherine were more influential in firming up the Anglo-Spanish alliance of 1489
than Margaret Tudor’s marriage to James IV, which did not prevent Henry VIII from invading
Scotland. Similarly, Mary Tudor’s marriage to Philip II influenced her relations with France
whereas dynastic concerns were less significant for Elizabeth, even though she played the
‘marriage card’ to good effect when dealing with France and Spain.
Candidates should examine how far royal marriages ‘shaped’ (i.e. formed and influenced)
foreign policy by comparing them with factors such as religion, the economy and
personalities.
Examiner’s Comments
10. This was the least popular of the three questions in this set and was also the least
successful. Many candidates had difficulty interpreting the word ‘shaping’, or wrote very little
on royal marriages and wanted to get writing about other reasons. Some argued that
marriage was often simply a confirmation of existing policy, while others suggested it was
important, particularly to Henry VIII and Mary. Most candidates however suggested that
there were other more important factors in shaping policy. For Henry VIII personal glory,
which can also be seen under Somerset. Under Elizabeth some candidates argued that
national security was the most important reason but that she used marriage negotiations to
help achieve this. There was generally more known about Elizabeth than other monarchs.
The key to a good response was to link royal marriages to other factors and to gauge the
extent to which they shaped foreign policy.
11 Assess why relations between England and Scotland changed during the period
from 1485 to 1603. [60]
Focus: Assessment of the reasons for the changing relations between England and
Scotland.
No set conclusions are to be expected, but candidates must answer the question and
address the theme over the full period.
In 1485, and for much of the early period, Scotland was England’s ‘postern gate’ that French
troops might exploit and they were present in Scotland until 1560. English armies invaded
Scotland in 1513, 1542, 1547 and 1560, and threatened invasion in 1497. Much of this
enmity was traditional but under Henry VIII and Somerset, war was a result of personal
ambition.
Conversely, Henry VII, Mary and Elizabeth adopted a more diplomatic approach. Candidates
may suggest the expulsion of the French court and troops in 1560 was a turning point since
a Protestant and pro-English faction was installed in Edinburgh. Coming at the same time as
Anglo-Spanish relations started to decline, Elizabeth cultivated friendly relations with the
French regent, Catherine de Medici. Some candidates will point to the arrival in England of
Mary Queen of Scots as a key change in relations. Cecil tried to use Moray and Morton to
secure a pro-English faction at the Scottish court, which worked until 1581. Relations with
James VI were uneasy but never poor. He toyed with conversion to Catholicism and
welcomed his French cousin Esmé Stuart to his court between 1579-81. Elizabeth was
reluctant to acknowledge him as her heir; he was reluctant to abandon his mother. Matters
were only resolved in 1586-7 when he accepted a pension and Mary was executed.
Candidates may assess reasons for the following moments of change, including the Treaty
of Ayton, Henry VIII’s and Somerset’s determination to wage war, the Scottish Reformation,
the French Wars of Religion, the Dutch Revolt and rise of Spain, and the arrival of Mary
Stuart in England.
Examiner’s Comments
11. This was a very popular question and generally well answered. Most candidates offered
a number of reasons why relations changed. The better essays analysed them and made
comparisons over the whole period. Weaker responses narrated changing relations, while
some looked at the factors that shaped Anglo-Scottish relations rather than why they
changed. Many simply assumed that there was only one change, which occurred in
Elizabeth’s reign, and did not consider the amity that existed under Henry VII following the
Treaty of Ayton and the subsequent breakdown under Henry VIII. Candidates were often
well informed but limited in their ability to use their knowledge effectively.
12 ‘Defence of the realm was the main reason why England went to war.’ How far do
you agree with this view of the period from 1485 to 1603? [60]
Focus: Evaluation of reasons why England went to war with particular reference to national
defence.
No set conclusions are to be expected, but candidates must answer the question and
address the theme over the full period.
The Tudors went to war on a number of occasions: in 1489-92, 1512-14, 1522-24, 1542-50,
1557-59, 1562-64, 1585-1604. Defence of the realm could be argued in 1492 when Henry
VII attacked Boulogne to prevent France from keeping Brittany and supporting Warbeck. In
1497 he also prepared to invade Scotland to nullify the threat from Warbeck. Henry VIII sent
armies to Scotland in 1513 and 1543 to pre-empt an invasion of the north, and Elizabeth
found herself defending England from Spain in Ireland in 1580-81 and 1601, and in the
Armada in 1588.
Candidates may argue that some of the Scottish wars were caused more by personal
ambition (in 1543 and 1547), and the war of 1513 was only a sideshow to the main event in
France. Indeed candidates may claim that Henry VIII went to war mainly to indulge his love
of campaigning and to strut the battlefields of Europe with Charles V and Francis I. Somerset
can be viewed as having taken war to the Scots to conclude his unsatisfactory earlier
campaigns. Mary went to war with France in support of her husband though it may be
claimed that it was also in defence of Calais.
Candidates may argue that Henry VIII and Elizabeth were imperialists: Henry aspired to
extend English lands in Normandy and Picardy; and Elizabeth tried to recover Calais and in
the 1590s garrisoned ‘cautionary’ towns in the Netherlands in return for aiding the Dutch.
Candidates might also refer to trade wars in 1493-6 and 1503-6 against Burgundy, 1527-8
and 1563-4 against Spain, and argue that a major motive for fighting Spain was economic
rivalry in the Atlantic and the periodic seizure of English ships, supplies and men.
Examiner’s Comments
12. Another popular question that produced a mixed response. Some answers that took a
thematic approach and compared defence with other reasons across the whole period were
excellent. Weaker essays often took each reign chronologically and explained why each
monarch went to war, which prevented any substantial level of synthesis. Many candidates
ignored the ‘went to war’ and simply considered defence of the realm as the main factor that
influenced foreign policy. Some even rejected ‘defence’ as a silly idea. Better answers often
concluded that defence of the realm was the main factor for both Henry VII and Elizabeth,
but was certainly of less importance under Henry VIII who went to war for glory. The reigns
of Edward and Mary proved more controversial. Some argued that Somerset was concerned
with security while others suggested it was to consolidate his position. As far as Mary was
concerned, some argued that it was to support her husband while better responses
suggested it was in response to the French threat following support for Stafford.
January 2008
10 Assess how far changing relations with Spain affected English domestic
developments from 1485 to 1603. [60]
Focus: Evaluation of the impact of Spain upon English domestic affairs.
No set conclusions are to be expected, but candidates must answer the question and
address the theme over the full period.
Candidates should look at how Spain influenced various English domestic developments to
show that there were elements of continuity and change over time. The main areas of
discussion are likely to be political issues – Henry VII’s alliance of 1489 against pretenders
and the betrothal of Arthur (and later Henry) to Catherine of Aragon; the influence of the
Aragonese faction at court in the 1520s and 1530s, and Charles V’s pressure not to proceed
with a divorce; hostility towards Philip in England in the 1550s at the court, council and
parliament surfaced in Wyatt’s rebellion. Religious issues – pressure to remain a Catholic
country after the break from Rome. This may have curtailed Henry VIII’s reform programme,
compromised Somerset, supported and aided Mary’s restoration of the Church, and
influenced Elizabeth in determining the Settlement of 1559 and her subsequent treatment of
Catholics. Economic issues – trade links since 1489 with Aragon and Castile, and from 1515
with the Low Countries. English merchants traded extensively with Iberia until the 1580s and
privateers became a source of friction from the 1560s. The outbreak of the Dutch Revolt had
a serious effect and Elizabeth faced political pressure to intervene. Military issues – war
against Spain from 1585 had serious financial, economic and political consequences.
Examiner’s Comment
This was the least popular of the set and poorly answered. The best answers examined the
impact of Anglo-Spanish relations thematically, but these were at a premium. Most
candidates wrote a chronological account that focused on the political and religious
impact but surprisingly said little if anything about the economy and trade. The
emphasis of the argument was often on the early Tudors with insufficient attention
given to Elizabeth and Philip II.
11 Assess the importance of religious factors in shaping Tudor foreign policy. [60]
Focus: Evaluation of religious and other factors that shaped foreign policy.
No set conclusions are to be expected, but candidates must answer the question and
address the theme over the full period.
Religious factors were important in forming, influencing and developing Tudor foreign
policies from the 1530s to the end of the period. Cromwell, Somerset and Burghley favoured
Protestant alliances. In the 1550s Edward went to war with Scotland and France, and Mary
joined Spain in war against France, although neither war was caused by religion. The
Protestant Church established by Elizabeth, however, did lead to her intervention in Scotland
in 1559-60, and to worsening relations with Spain after 1570. However, candidates should
be aware of the relative importance of religious factors and compare them, for example, with
political, economic, financial and personal influences, to achieve a full assessment. Until the
1520s, the Tudors had developed policies based upon dynastic, personal and economic
factors: Spain and the Netherlands were England’s trading and political allies, France
remained an enemy at bay and Scotland presented a diminishing threat. It may be argued
that political security and overseas trade were more compelling and enduring factors than
religion if the Tudor period is taken as a whole.
Examiner’s Comment
11. This was a popular question and generally well answered. The best essays set the
effects of religious developments from the 1530s onwards against other factors,
usually political security, dynastic alliances, trade agreements and the personalities of
monarchs and ministers, and assessed the relative importance of religious factors.
Weaker responses consisted of a narrative of foreign affairs that contained few points
of synthesis or comparative analysis. Few essays examined the implications of Henry
VIII’s divorce and Cromwell’s attempts to gain alliances with German Protestants.
How far did England’s policy towards France depend on Anglo-Scottish relations in
the period from 1485 to 1603? Explain your answer. [60]
Focus: Evaluation of the impact of Anglo-Scottish relations on Anglo-French affairs.
No set conclusions are to be expected, but candidates must answer the question and
address the theme over the full period.
Henry VII viewed France as a possible ally but probable enemy due to her occupation of
Brittany and support for Warbeck but he skilfully prevented Scotland from affecting relations
by preparing for war and offering a marriage alliance in 1497. Henry VIII saw France as a
rival to be attacked, and her lands seized. The auld alliance with Scotland needed to be
neutralised by military invasions, which he sent in 1513, and expeditions to Scotland and
France brought military victories. Henry’s attempt to secure a marriage between Edward and
Mary Stuart however led to his declaration of war on both countries in 1542 and mixed
results (success at Solway Moss and Boulogne but the Mary Rose sank). Somerset,
concerned that France would renew war in 1547, acted pre-emptively and invaded Scotland
but defeat led to the surrender of Boulogne to France in 1550. Mary was keen to support
Spain against France but ignored Scotland. Elizabeth desired to recover Calais and expel
the Guise from the Scottish court and waited till Scotland could not be exploited before
attacking France. Her failure led to amity with France thereafter though not with the Guises.
Elizabeth’s treatment of Mary and support for Moray and Murray in Edinburgh and later
James VI was well received by Catherine de Medici. Some candidates may point out that
Scotland was always a minor European power and at times, notably after 1568, her
influence upon English policy making was negligible. Candidates are therefore likely to look
at other factors (eg Spain and the Netherlands, political security, traditional rivalry) that had a
more direct bearing on Anglo-French relations.
Examiner’s Comment
12. Candidates needed to think carefully about how Scotland influenced Anglo-French affairs
before making a judgement about ‘how far’ in respect of other factors, such as traditional
relations, personal attitudes, national interests, the proximity of the Netherlands and the rise
of Spain. Weaker answers often lost sight of the question and turned their essay into an
appraisal of how France affected Anglo-Scottish affairs. Knowledge of Scotland in general
and of Henry VII and Henry VIII’s relations with France in particular was often very thin. Only
a few essays noted periods of short-lived amity within the general pattern of hostility.
June 2007
10 Assess the importance of the Netherlands in shaping Tudor foreign policy from
1485 to 1603. [60]
Focus: Evaluation of the importance of the Netherlands in English foreign policy.
The question may be agreed with or rejected – no set conclusions are to be expected.
Candidates must address the theme over the full period.
The Netherlands was important to England throughout the Tudor period. Its close proximity
to London ensured that economic and political (and later religious) issues were key
considerations in the development of foreign policy. Henry VII established trade links with
Burgundy, which grew stronger as time passed and held firm in spite of interruptions in
1493-6, 1503-6, 1527-8 and 1562-4, until the Dutch Revolt in 1572.
Burgundian support for the Yorkists brought political security to the fore in Henry VII’s reign
but Henry VIII’s friendship with Charles V, and Mary’s marriage to Philip, lessened its
political significance until the outbreak of the Dutch Revolt. This necessitated Leicester’s
intervention in 1586-7, which hastened war with Spain. The growth of Calvinism in the
Netherlands in the 1550s onwards brought religion as an issue – Elizabeth’s implicit support
for Sea Beggars and Dutch rebels (explicit after Nonsuch) ensured the Netherlands after
1572 was central to Tudor foreign policy and remained important enough for Elizabeth to
secure Dutch cautionary towns in the 1590s in return for English aid after the Armada.
Examiner’s Comments
A recurring problem for weaker answers was that they saw the issue of the
Netherlands almost exclusively in terms of trade, and then in terms of religion.
There was little or no attempt to link this to other geo-political concerns for the
Tudors. Many candidates were unable to connect the issue of trade to ‘shaping
policy’ and instead wrote about how important trade was for the English
economy. Some even used the question to write almost exclusively about
Anglo-Spanish relations. Some did not recognise that Burgundy in the reign of
Henry VII was the Netherlands in Elizabeth’s reign. The most common mistake
was to answer a different question about changing relations with the
Netherlands and fail to make links with shaping foreign policy. The Elizabethan
period was generally well covered but precise factual knowledge was often at a
premium and some candidates assumed that Spain was seeking to conquer the
Netherlands from the 1560s rather than trying to retain it. Better answers, on
the other hand, not only charted particular changes over time but also
evaluated them in terms of other factors such as the personalities of monarchs,
the Reformation, the rise of Spain, the Dutch revolt and the French Wars of
Religion.
11 ‘Elizabeth I was more skilful than any of her Tudor predecessors in dealing with
Scotland.’ To what extent do you agree with this judgement? [60]
Focus: Assessment of Elizabeth’s handling of Scotland in comparison with the earlier
Tudors. The question may be agreed with or rejected – no set conclusions are to be
expected. Candidates must address the theme over the full period.
Arguments that might be made in favour of this statement are: Elizabeth pursued a
nonaggressive policy towards Scotland, after 1560 the Guise were expelled from Edinburgh
and never again exercised a divisive influence, and her diplomatic treatment of Mary Stuart
ensured that James VI and Scottish nobles had no excuse to disturb Anglo-Scottish
relations.
An alternative line of approach could be that Henry VII skilfully avoided war (given his
domestic and foreign problems), prevented James IV from supporting Warbeck and
concluded an alliance at Ayton. Henry VIII also had successes, defeating Scottish armies at
Flodden and Solway Moss, but at great expense and never resolving the problem of French
influence in Edinburgh. Edward VI had no success after Pinkie in 1547, suffering military
defeats and border insecurity, a situation that Mary did little to resolve. Better essays should
focus on Elizabeth and compare her reign with other rulers across the
whole period before reaching a reasoned judgement.
Examiner’s Comments
This was a popular question and a good discriminator. What separated good answers from
poor was an ability to link the material to the question of ‘skilful’. For many candidates,
‘successful’ meant skilful and a lack of success the reverse. Most agreed with the
question and some made a case for Henry VII while all agreed that Henry VIII and
Edward VI were the least skilful on account of the cost of wars and garrisoning, which
failed to solve the Scottish problem. More discerning candidates justified their reasons
and considered the different circumstances in which Elizabeth operated compared to
her predecessors. The problems facing Henry VII and Henry VIII, for instance, were
not the same as those facing the later Tudors. Some weaker answers, however, were
a narrative account of England’s relations with Scotland from 1485 to 1603, or focused
entirely on Mary Queen of Scots, and any comparison was left to the conclusion.
Knowledge of internal Scottish politics in Elizabeth’s reign was generally very sketchy
and few referred to Guise activities, Esme Stuart and Anglophile regents.
12 ‘The aims of Tudor foreign policy from 1485 to 1603 were characterised by
continuity rather than change.’ How far do you agree? [60]
Focus: Evaluation of foreign policy aims in terms of continuity and change.
The question may be agreed with or rejected – no set conclusions are to be expected.
Candidates must address the theme over the full period.
The main aims behind Tudor foreign policy were national security, trade agreements,
continental expansion and dynastic alliances. National security and trade agreements were
consistently pursued although, if there was a conflict of interest, trade yielded to political
security. Keeping the Netherlands neutral or out of enemy hands was a constant objective.
Dynastic and marriage alliances were consistently pursued by Henry VII, Henry VIII and
Mary, and less so by Edward VI and inconclusively by Elizabeth – although the latter used
her unmarried status as a pawn in foreign diplomacy. There were inconsistencies however in
the Tudors’ attitude towards war. Henry VII avoided war if possible but engaged in
continental alliances; Henry VIII devoted much time and money to waging war against
Scotland and France; Somerset continued this policy towards Scotland but Northumberland
totally changed this policy; Mary was opposed to war but was drawn into it by Philip, and
Elizabeth avoided conflict for as long as possible before engaging in war with Spain for the
last 18 years of her rule. War was a last resort for most of the Tudors with the exception of
Henry VIII and Somerset. Religious reforms also brought changes in allies and foreign
commitments.
Examiner’s Comments
12. This was quite a popular question and generally well done. The most common aim
identified and one seen as running throughout the period was national security, although
attention was also given to dynastic/marital issues and, as the period advanced, to religious
affairs. The best answers were structured thematically and each monarch was compared
under the relevant theme being discussed. Weaker responses were frequently chronological
narratives or descriptions of events with a concluding assessment. Most gave a lot of
attention to Henry VII, Henry VIII and Elizabeth but Edward and Mary were dealt with
summarily and, whereas continuity was generally seen to be the main trend, change was
dealt with less convincingly and often simplistically.
Jan 2007
10 Assess the importance of the alliance between Scotland and France in shaping
Tudor foreign policy during the period from 1485 to 1603.
Focus: Evaluation of the impact of the Franco-Scottish alliance upon Tudor foreign policy
making. The question may be agreed with or rejected – no set conclusions are to be
expected. Candidates must address the theme over the full period.
England’s foreign relations were conditioned by developments in Scotland and France for
much of the period, and certainly until the 1560s. The Auld Alliance détente ensured that
Henry VII needed to befriend Scotland before he embarked on his Breton invasion and the
treaty with France at Etaples enabled him to threaten Scotland in 1497. Henry VIII and
Somerset regarded French presence in Scotland to be a serious threat to English security
and waged war in 1512-14 and 1542-50. Failure to secure a marriage between Edward and
Mary Stuart left problems for Elizabeth but the Scottish rebellion of 1559-60, death of Francis
II and Treaty of Edinburgh ended the Auld Alliance. After 1560 relations between England,
Scotland and France improved, while those with Spain deteriorated. Attempts by the Guise
to restore French influence in Scotland failed to materialise and served to strengthen
Elizabeth’s relations with Catherine de Medici and James VI. Candidates need to focus on
the period 1485-1560 and compare these years with the later period. Better responses will
be aware that Elizabeth’s growing friendship with the crown in Scotland and France enabled
her to take a more aggressive stance towards Spain, the Netherlands and America. Some
candidates may consider other factors that shaped Tudor foreign policy but they are not
required for any particular band and should not be the dominant theme of the essay.
Examiner’s Comments
Candidates wanted to assess the importance of Anglo-Scottish relations and as a result
many were less comfortable thinking about the Auld Alliance and in particular its effect
on Tudor foreign policy. The focus of the question was therefore skewed in a number
of answers. Weak responses provided a very uneven coverage and some displayed a
remarkable ignorance of events in Henry VII’s reign and were very uncertain about
activities under Henry VIII and Somerset.
11 Which was more important in determining Tudor foreign policy: national security
or economic gains? Explain your answer.
Focus: Comparison of political and economic factors in determining foreign policy.
The question may be agreed with or rejected – no set conclusions are to be expected.
Candidates must address the theme over the full period.
Some candidates may argue in favour of national security, highlighting Henry VII’s
willingness to interrupt Burgundian trade in order to secure the arrest of Warbeck and
Suffolk; Henry VIII’s war with France and Scotland in defence of his borders in 1512 and
1542; Somerset’s Scottish expedition in spite of the financial cost; and Elizabeth’s conflict
with Spain that interrupted trade with the Netherlands. Some candidates will opt for
economic gains and assess the financial, trading and commercial benefits from particular
policies, notably friendship with Spain and the Netherlands for much of the period.
Candidates need to show links between both political security and economic gains and the
resulting foreign policy. This may well be achieved by comparing political and economic
factors reign by reign or by comparing them sequentially. Some candidates may conclude
that political security was always the main objective.
However, a case can be made for the increasing importance of world trade in Elizabeth’s
reign and her willingness to support explorers and trading companies against Spanish
protests, which put the country at risk of war and invasion. Candidates who only consider
one element and make no attempt at a comparison should be confined to a ceiling of Band
III.
Examiner’s Comments
11 Most candidates viewed both elements as being important but saw national security as a
constant factor. For some ‘national security’ became ‘political or dynastic security’,
which was acceptable. Better efforts tried to show how the chosen factor changed as
the period wore on but weaker answers simply selected one of the factors, described it
and then asserted that it was important. Many candidates, however, viewed ‘economic
gains’ purely in terms of finance and so omitted key developments in domestic and
overseas trade.
12 Assess the reasons for the deteriorating relations between England and Spain in
the course of the Tudor period?
Focus: Explanation for worsening Anglo-Spanish relations during this period.
The question may be agreed with or rejected – no set conclusions are to be expected.
Candidates must address the theme over the full period.
Between 1489 and 1571, the terms of Medina del Campo underpinned Anglo-Spanish
relations. Marital links, economic agreements and rivalry with France bound England and
Spain together and provided the basis of a fairly stable relationship. Before the Reformation,
English monarchs were Roman Catholic but after 1534 the increasingly Protestant English
Church (except for the years 1553-58) angered Charles V and Philip II. By the 1560s,
religion, marriage, trade and an Anglo-French détente were reasons for the changing and
worsening relations with Spain.
Expect candidates to focus on Henry VIII’s divorce, the Scottish rebellion, the French wars of
religion, the Dutch Revolt and Drake’s piratical activities as key turning-points in the
deteriorating relationship, with perhaps the personalities of Elizabeth and Philip as pivotal.
The best essays are likely to explain the changes thematically and examine several
developments over time.
Examiner’s comments
12 The most popular question in this set and generally well answered. Better essays
assessed (compared and evaluated) reasons; weaker responses asserted (described and
narrated) explanations. The key moment for many was the divorce but for others the
accessions of Elizabeth and Philip II were pivotal, which led in some cases to imbalanced
answers. While many responses mentioned Anglo-French relations and Mary Queen of
Scots, weaker candidates failed to consider the Elizabethan privateers, especially Drake,
and more surprisingly the Revolt of the Netherlands as causes of deterioration. Interestingly
many answers were much better at explaining why the relationship was mostly quite good
rather than why it deteriorated.
Other Interesting Questions