WATER TRANSFORMED:
SUSTAINABLE WATER SOLUTIONS FOR
CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION
MODULE C: INTEGRATED URBAN AND
COASTAL WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
This online textbook provides free access to a comprehensive education and training package that
brings together the knowledge of how countries, specifically Australia, can adapt to climate change. This
resource has been developed formally as part of the Federal Government’s Department of Climate
Change’s Climate Change Adaptation Professional Skills program.
CHAPTER 7: AUGMENTING TRADITIONAL WATER
SUPPLY THROUGH WATER REUSE AND
RECYCLING.
LECTURE 7.1: CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS AND MANAGED
AQUIFER STORAGE, RECOVERY AND REUSE.
© The Natural Edge Project (‘TNEP’), 2010
Copyright of this material (Work) is owned by the members of the research team from The Natural Edge Project, based at
Griffith University and the Australian National University. The material contained in this document is released under a
Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License. According to the License, this document may be copied, distributed, transmitted
and adapted by others, providing the work is properly attributed as: ‘Smith, M., (2010) Water Transformed - Australia:
Sustainable Water Solutions for Climate Change Adaptation, The Natural Edge Project (TNEP), Australia.’ Document is
available electronically at http://www.naturaledgeproject.net/Sustainable_Water_Solutions_Portfolio.aspx.
Acknowledgements
The Work was produced by The Natural Edge Project supported by funding from the Australian Government Department of
Climate Change under its ‘Climate Change Adaptation Skills for Professionals Program’. The development of this
publication has been supported by the contribution of non-salary on-costs and administrative support by the Griffith
University Urban Research Program, under the supervision of Professor Brendan Gleeson, and the Australian National
University Fenner School of Environment and Society and Engineering Department, under the supervision of Professor
Stephen Dovers.
Chief Investigator and Project Manager: Karlson ‘Charlie’ Hargroves, Research Fellow, Griffith University.
Principal Researcher and Author: Dr Michael Smith, Research Fellow, Fenner School of Environment and Society, ANU.
Peer Review
This lecture has been peer reviewed by Professor Stephen Dovers. Director, Fenner School of Environment and Society,
Australia National University. Associate Professor Margaret Greenway; Academic Staff Member, Centre for Environmental
Systems Research, Griffith University; Environmental Engineering College Board Member, Institution of Engineers
Australia; Qld President, Stormwater Industry Association; Network Mentor and Contributor, Ms Fiona Henderson, CSIRO
Land and Water with Dr Dr Declan Page, CSIRO Land and Water.
Peer review for this module was also received from: Harriet Adams - Water Efficiency Opportunities, Commonwealth
Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts. Chris Davis, Institute of Sustainable Futures, University of
Technology; Alex Fearnside, Sustainability Team Leader, City of Melbourne. Associate Professor Margaret Greenway,
Griffith University; Fiona Henderson, CSIRO Land and Water, Dr Matthew Inman, Urban Systems Program, CSIRO
Sustainable Ecosystems, CSIRO; Anntonette Joseph, Director – Water Efficiency Opportunities, Commonwealth
Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts. Dr Declan Page, CSIRO Land and Water. Bevan Smith, Senior
Project Officer (WaterWise) Recycled Water and Demand Management, Queensland Government, Department of Natural
Resources and Water. Dr Gurudeo Anand Tularam, Griffith University. Associate Professor Adrian Werner, Flinders
University. Professor Stuart White, Director, Institute of Sustainable Futures, UTS,
Disclaimer: While reasonable efforts have been made to ensure that the contents of this publication are factually correct,
the parties involved in the development of this document do not accept responsibility for the accuracy or completeness of
the contents. Information, recommendations and opinions expressed herein are not intended to address the specific
circumstances of any particular individual or entity and should not be relied upon for personal, legal, financial or other
decisions. The user must make its own assessment of the suitability of the information or material contained herein for its
use. To the extent permitted by law, the parties involved in the development of this document exclude all liability to any
other party for expenses, losses, damages and costs (whether losses were foreseen, foreseeable, known or otherwise)
arising directly or indirectly from using this document.
This document is produced for general information only and does not represent a statement of the policy of the
Commonwealth of Australia. The Commonwealth of Australia and all persons acting for the Commonwealth preparing this
report accept no liability for the accuracy of or inferences from the material contained in this publication, or for any action as
a result of any person’s or group’s interpretations, deductions, conclusions or actions in relying on this material.
Enquires should be directed to:
Dr Michael Smith, Research Fellow, Australian National University, Fenner School of Environment and Society, CoFounder and Research Director 2002-2009, The Natural Edge Project. Contact Details at
http://fennerschool.anu.edu.au/people/academics/smithmh.php
Prepared by The Natural Edge Project 2009
Page 2 of 22
Water Transformed: Sustainable Water Solutions
Augmenting Traditional Water Supply Through
Water Reuse and Recycling
Lecture 7.1: Constructed Wetlands and Managed Aquifer
Recharge, Recovery and Reuse.
Educational Aim
The aim of this lecture is to overview two important strategies to help adapt to climate change –
namely constructed wetlands and managed aquifer storage and recovery. As Lecture 6.1 showed, a
major issue with reusing water without treatment is the significant risk of health problems due to the
likely presence of at least one of pathogens, chemicals, fine particle sediments or other pollutants.1
One option discussed in Lectures 5.4, 6.1 and 6.2 was water disinfection by chlorination which can
eliminate most water-borne infectious diseases. However, as also discussed, chlorination
disinfection processes have costs and can produce unwanted by-products.2 Thus, new options are
needed, designed to reclaim nutrients and water from wastewater for reuse, while also removing
pathogens, chemicals and other fine particles. Such systems ideally would also be environmentally
sustainable, require low external energy requirements, be cost-effective and have broad community
support: constructed wetlands in many cases meet these criteria and hence is explored in detail in
this lecture.3 Increasingly constructed wetlands are being used to provide initial water treatment for
managed aquifer recharge and recovery schemes. Storage of water is becoming increasingly
important as climate variability impacts on balancing demand with supply. As this lecture will show
there is significant potential in Adelaide, Perth and Melbourne to harvest urban stormwater and store
it cost effectively in aquifers for reuse. This lecture seeks to provide an overview of the different ways
managed aquifer storage and recovery can be used to help adapt to climate change.
Learning Points
1. The field of study into constructed wetlands is well established. The first constructed wetlands
were investigated over forty years ago. There are also now increasing numbers of constructed
wetlands in Australia4 and internationally demonstrating the value and effectiveness of
constructed wetlands as an integrated part of urban water sensitive design approaches.
1
Sydney Water (2009) Water Treatment Options. Sydney Water. Available at
http://www.sydneywater.com.au/Publications/FactSheets/WaterTreatmentOptions.pdf Accessed 15 May 2010
2
Drew, R. and Frangor, J. (2002) Overview of National and International Guidelines and Recommendations on the Assessment and
Approval of Chemicals used in the Treatment of Drinking Water. A report prepared for the National Health and Medical Research Council’s
Drinking Water Treatment Chemicals Working Party at http://nrv.gov.au/_files_nhmrc/file/publications/synopses/watergde.pdf Accessed 21
April 2010
3
Greenway, M. (2005). The role of constructed wetlands in effluent treatment and water reuse in subtropical and arid Australia. Ecological
Engineering .25:501-509
4
GHD Pty Ltd (2007) Liege Street Wetland Performance Report 2005-2006 – Community Summary Report, Swan River Trust, August
2005 cited in Davis, C. and Farrelly, M. (2009) Demonstration Projects: Case Studies from Perth, Australia. National Urban Water
Governance Program, Monash University Australia. http://www.urbanwatergovernance.com/pdf/demo_proj_perth.pdf accessed 26 may
2010.
Farrelly, M. and Davis, C. (2009) Demonstration Projects: Case Studies from Melbourne, Australia. National Urban Water Governance
Program, Monash University Australia http://www.urbanwatergovernance.com/pdf/demo_proj_melb.pdf accessed 26 may 2010.
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Page 3 of 22
Water Transformed: Sustainable Water Solutions
2. There are overall about 5000 constructed wetlands in Europe and hundreds of constructed
wetlands operating in the following countries Australia5, Austria, Canada6, China7, the Czech
Republic8, France9, Germany10, Ireland11, Norway12, Poland, Russia, Ukraine and the USA.
Currently, more and more countries are adopting this approach and modifying it to suit their own
climatic, geological and botanical conditions.
3. There is increasing interest nationally and globally in constructed wetlands as part of a growing
trend to preferring water sensitive urban design approaches to urban water management.
Constructed wetlands can treat water from many sources13 such as stormwater14, sewerage15,
agricultural and food processing wastewater16, industrial wastewater17, drainage from mines18,
and landfill leachate19. The performance efficiency20 of constructed wetlands to transform,
remove and recycle nutrients has been studied and is well understood.21 Constructed wetlands
also provide suitable conditions for pathogen removal. Wetlands remove pathogens and harmful
bacteria through physical–chemical factors such as solar irradiation (UV light), filtration22,
Towndrow, A., and Krumins, A. (2005) “Water Mining and Treatment by Subsurface Flow Constructed Wetlands: Rocks Riverside Park,
Brisbane” Presented at the AWA Ozwater Watershed Conference, Brisbane, 2005 cited in Davis, C. and Farrelly, M. (2009) Demonstration
Projects: Case Studies from South East Queensland, Australia. National Urban Water Governance Program, Monash University Australia.
http://www.urbanwatergovernance.com/pdf/demo_proj_se_qld.pdf accessed 26 may 2010.
Greenway, M. (2005) The role of constructed wetlands in effluent treatment and water reuse in subtropical and arid Australia. Ecological
Engineering .25:501-509 Chick, A. J. and D.S. Mitchell. (1995) A pilot study of vertical flow wetlands at Coffs Harbour, New South Wales,
Australia. Water-sci-technol., v.32, pp. 103-109
5
Ibid.
6
Kennedy, G. and T. Mayer. (2002) Natural and constructed wetlands in Canada: An overview. Water Qual. Res. J. Can., v. 37, pp. 295325. Warner, K. (1997) The use of constructed freshwater marshes and shallow water wetlands in the rehabilitation of gravel pits in the
Puslinch area of southern Ontario. University of Waterloo. Dept. of Geography.
7
Li, S. R., T. Ding and S. Wang. (1995) Reed-bed treatment for municipal and industrial wastewater in Beijing, China. J-Inst-WaterEnviron-Manag., v.9, pp. 581-588.
Li, X. F. and C.C. Jiang. (1995) Constructed wetland systems for water pollution control in North China. Water-sci-technol., v.32, pp. 349356
8
Vymazal, J. (1996) Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment in the Czech Republic the First 5 Years Experience. Water-scitechnol., 34: 11, pp. 159-164
9
Molle, P., Lienard, A., Boutin, C., Merlin, G., & Iwema, A. (2005) How to treat raw sewage with constructed wetlands: an overview of the
French systems. Water, Science, and Technology, 51(9), 11-21
10
Uhl, M., & Dittmer, U. (2005) Constructed Wetlands for CSO treatment: an overview of practice and research in Germany. Water,
Science, and Technology, 51(9), 23-30.
11
Worrall, P., K. Peberdy and H. McGinn. (1998) Construction and Preliminary Performance of Reedbed Treatment Systems at Castle
Espie Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust Centre, Northern Ireland. J-Inst-Water-Environ-Manag., 12: 2, pp. 86-91.
12
Browne, W., & Jenssen, P. D. (2005) Exceeding tertiary standards with a pond/reed bed system in Norway. Water Science and
Technology, 51(9), 229-306
13
Hammer, D. (1989) Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment: Municipal, Industrial and Agricultural. Chelsea, MI: Lewis
Publishers, p. 831.
14
Wong, T. H. F. and N.L.G. Somes. (1995). A stochastic approach to designing wetlands for stormwater pollution control. Innovative
technologies in urban storm drainage NOVATECH '95 selected proceedings of the 2nd NOVATECH Conference on Innovative
Technologies in Urban Storm Drainage, held in Lyon, France, 30 May - 1 June 1995. NOVATECH Conference on Innovative Technologies
in Urban Storm Drainage. 1st ed. Oxford, U.K.; Tarrytown, N.Y.: Pergamon: Elsevier Science, 1995, pp. 145-151.
15
Juwarkar, A. S et al (1995) Domestic wastewater treatment through constructed wetland in India. Water-sci-technol., v.32, pp. 291-294
16
Cronk, J. K. (1996) Constructed wetlands to treat wastewater from dairy and swine operations: A Review. Agric-Ecosyst-Environ. 58:
2/3, pp. 97-114.
17
Knight, R. L., R.H. Kadlec and H.M. Ohlendorf. (1999) The Use of Treatment Wetlands for Petroleum Industry Effluents. Environ-scitechnol., 33: 7, pp. 973-980
18
Karathanasis, A. D. and Y.L. Thompson. (1995) Mineralogy of iron precipitates in a constructed acid mine drainage wetland. Soil-SciSoc-Am-j. [Madison, Wis.] Soil Science Society of America. Nov/Dec 1995, v.59, (6), pp. 1773-1781
19
Maehlum, T. (1995) Treatment of landfill leachate in on-site lagoons and constructed wetlands. Water-sci-technol., v.32, pp. 129-135.
20
Greenway, M., (2004) Constructed wetlands for water pollution control - processes, parameters and performance. Dev. Chem. Eng.
Miner. Proc., 12(5/6): 1-14
21
Greenway, M. (2006) The Role of Macrophytes in Nutrient Removal Using Constructed Wetlands. In: Environmental Bioremediation
Technologies. Singh S.N. and Tripathi R.D (eds). Publisher Springer, Verlag, Berlin-Heidelberg 320pp
Browning, K. and Greenway, M. (2003) Nutrient removal and plant growth in a sub-surface flow constructed wetland in Brisbane, Australia.
Water Sci. Technol. 48(5): 183-190 Vymazal, J. (2001) Transformations of nutrients in natural and constructed wetlands / edited by Jan
Vymazal. In: Nutrient Cycling and Retention in Natural and Constructed Wetlands. (3rd: 1999: Trebon, Czech Republic. Leiden: Bachhuys,
p. 519 IWA (2000) IWA, Constructed Wetlands for Pollution Control: Processes, Performance, Design and Operation. IWA Specialist
Group on Use of Macrophytes in Water Pollution Control, IWA Publishing, London, UK (2000) 156 pp
22
Sleytr, K., Tietz, A., Langergraber, G., & Haberl, R. (2007) Investigation of bacterial removal during the filtration process in constructed
wetlands. Science of the Total Environment, The, 380(1-3), 173-180
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Water Transformed: Sustainable Water Solutions
adsorption and sedimentation.23 Constructed wetlands can also remove metals from the main
water body.24
4. Thus the main water treatment processes operating in a constructed wetland are as follows;
-
Suspended Solids and BOD - Sedimentation is aided by the presence of vegetation as fine
particles adhere to the bio-film surfaces of the vegetable or gravel substrate and microbes
break down organic particulates.
-
Nutrients: Nutrients can be directly taken up by plants and micro-organisms. Microbial
processes facilitate the removal and transformation of nutrients. The literature demonstrates
the ability of constructed wetlands to reduce nutrient loads to treat agricultural runoff, effluent
or sewerage.25
-
Pathogens: Pathogens can be removed through natural UV disinfection over time. Careful
choice of a diverse array of plant species and the design of the wetland can improve the
effectiveness of a wetland in removing nutrients and pathogens. Natural UV disinfection
processes can be enhanced through incorporating lagoons and designing shallow-water
wetlands. Studies in Australia show that constructed wetlands can remove 95% of pathogen
and indicator organisms.26
-
Metals: Metals are taken out of the main water body by being adsorbed and captured onto
sediments or through plant uptake and bioaccumulation.27
Hence, as Greenway has shown “Constructed-wetland technology presents itself as a viable
option for reducing nutrients and performing the function of disinfection.”28
5. The potential is significant in most countries, including Australia, to increase the levels of
wastewater treatment and reuse through constructed wetlands.29 In Australia, currently very little
sewage effluent or stormwater runoff is reclaimed and reused. For instance, less than three per
cent of urban stormwater runoff in Australia is currently re-used.30 Wastewater typically provides
both nutrients and water upon which agriculture, horticulture, forestry, golf courses, parks and
gardens depend. Sewerage and stormwater harvesting, treatment and reuse can thus both return
water and nutrients to the land and in so doing create additional sources of water supply to help
adapt to climate change.
23
Davies, C. and Bavor, H. (2000) The fate of stormwater-associated bacteria in constructed wetland and water pollution control pond
systems, J. Appl. Microbiol. 89 (2000) (2), pp. 349–370.
24
Crites, R. W., G.D. Dombeck, R.C. Watson and C.R. Williams. (1997) Removal of Metals and Ammonia in Constructed Wetlands.
Water-Environ-Res., 69: 2, pp. 132-135.
25
Greenway, M. (2005). The role of constructed wetlands in effluent treatment and water reuse in subtropical and arid Australia. Ecological
Engineering .25:501-509 Browning, K. and Greenway, M. (2003) Nutrient removal and plant growth in a sub-surface flow constructed
wetland in Brisbane, Australia. Water Sci. Technol. 48(5): 183-190 Vymazal, J. (2001) Transformations of nutrients in natural and
constructed wetlands / edited by Jan Vymazal. In: Nutrient Cycling and Retention in Natural and Constructed Wetlands. (3rd: 1999:
Trebon, Czech Republic. Leiden: Bachhuys, p. 519 IWA (2000) IWA, Constructed Wetlands for Pollution Control: Processes,
Performance, Design and Operation. IWA Specialist Group on Use of Macrophytes in Water Pollution Control, IWA Publishing, London,
UK (2000) 156 pp
26
Bolton, K.G.E., Greenway, M., (1999) Pollutant removal capacity of a constructed Melaleuca wetland receiving primary settled effluent.
Water Sci. Technol. 39 (6), 199–206. QDNR (2000) Guidelines for Using Freewater Surface Constructed Wetlands to Treat Municipal
Sewage. QDNR, Brisbane, Australia, 133 pp.
27
Greenway, M. (2003) The role of wetlands in effluent treatment and reuse schemes. CD-ROM, Water Recycling Australia, 2nd National
Conference 1-3 September, 2003 Brisbane. Australian Water Association, Sydney
28
Greenway, M. (2005) The role of constructed wetlands in effluent treatment and water reuse in subtropical and arid Australia. Ecological
Engineering .25:501-509
29
Anderson et al., (2001) Climbing the ladder: a step by step approach to international guidelines for water recycling, Water Sci. Technol.
43 (2001) (10), pp. 1–8. Asano, (1998) In: T. Asano, Editor, Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse, Technomic Publishing, Lancaster, PA
(1998). US EPA, 2004 US EPA, 2004. Guidelines for Water Reuse. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Report No. EPA/625/R-04/108,
Cincinnati, OH, USA, 445 pp.
30
Dillon P, Pavelic P, Page D, Beringen H and Ward J (2009) Managed Aquifer Recharge:An Introduction, Waterlines Report No 13, Feb
2009. http://www.nwc.gov.au/www/html/996-mar--an-introduction---report-no-13--feb-2009.asp Accessed 21 May 2010
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Water Transformed: Sustainable Water Solutions
6. As mentioned above, there is an increasing number of urban wetlands operating and being
constructed in Australia. One example of this is in the city of Salisbury, Adelaide. The Salisbury
“Stormwater to Potable Water Project”31 firstly harvests urban stormwater from residential and
industrial sources, then treats this water in a “reed-bed wetland” before the water is injected into
wells in a limestone aquifer below ground for storage and further purification. The water
recovered from this managed aquifer storage and recovery system was found to meet drinking
water quality standards.32
7. In many countries, including Australia, the potential to store harvested stormwater using
“Managed Aquifer Recharge” (MAR) techniques is significant. In Sydney, Perth, Brisbane, and
Cairns, where annual rainfall is greater than 800mm, the volume of urban stormwater runoff is
larger than the volume of water supplied by mains water.33 Large scale and cost effective water
storage options have been the main barrier to reusing these high volumes of stormwater. MAR is
emerging as the most cost effective solution where suitable aquifers are present. Much research
is currently underway mapping the potential for managed aquifer recharge and recovery in
Australia. Where urban aquifers have been mapped in Perth34, Adelaide35 and Melbourne36 such
studies show significant potential storage capacity with Perth at 100–250 GL/year, Adelaide at
20–80 GL/year and Melbourne at 100 GL/year.
8. The Water Services Association of Australia forecasts a shortfall in water supplies to Australian
cities and towns of around 800 GL/year by 2030.37 MAR may provide significant opportunities to
close this gap, not only in many of Australia’s capital cities but in many of its coastal towns as
well. According to CSIRO, “Substantial opportunities for MAR are expected, but not yet assessed,
in rural catchments where water has not been over-allocated, particularly in coastal catchments
with unconfined aquifers.”38 CSIRO also found that urban stormwater stored in an aquifer for a
year met all the human health drinking water quality requirements. In a demonstration of the
quality of the water produced by MAR, the water was further purified by carbon filtration,
microfiltration and ultraviolet disinfection to meet the aesthetic guidelines and bottled as high
quality drinking water..
9. Hence, much of the supply-demand gap forecast by the Water Services Association of Australia
will be able to be met cost effectively by investing in water efficiency and demand management
(Module B, Lectures 2.1-4.3 and Module C, Lectures 5.1-5.2), combined with investments in
stormwater harvesting, water treatment with managed aquifer recharge, storage and recovery
(Lectures 6.3 and 7.1).
31
Rinck-Pfeiffer S, Pitman C and Dillon P (2005) Stormwater ASR in practice and ASTR (Aquifer Storage Transfer and Recovery) under
investigation in Salisbury, South Australia. In: Recharge Systems for Protecting and Enhancing Groundwater Resources, UNESCO (eds),
Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Management of Aquifer Recharge (ISMAR5), Berlin, Germany, 11–16 June 2005, IHPVI series on groundwater, 151–159, http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001492/149210e.pdf Accessed 21 May 2010.
Dillon P, Pavelic P, Page D, Beringen H and Ward J (2009) Managed Aquifer Recharge:An Introduction, Waterlines Report No 13, Feb
2009.http://www.nwc.gov.au/www/html/996-mar--an-introduction---report-no-13--feb-2009.asp accessed 21 May 2010.
32
Ibid.
33
Ibid.
34
Scatena, M.C. and Williamson, D.R. (1999) A Potential Role for Artificial Recharge within the Perth Region: A Pre-feasibility Study,
Centre for Groundwater Studies Report 84, Perth
35
Hodgkin, T. (2004) Aquifer storage capacities of the Adelaide region. SA Dept Water Land and Biodiversity Conservatiuon Report
2004/47.
36
Dudding M, Evans R, Dillon P and Molloy R (2006) Report on Broad Scale Map of ASR Potential in Melbourne. SKM and CSIRO Report
to Smart Water Fund, March 2006, 49. http://www.smartwater.com.au/downloaddocs/Broad_Scale_Mapping_Report_for_Melbourn
e.pdf
37
Water Services Association of Australia (2007) Sustainability Framework. Report prepared by University of NSW.
38
Dillon P, Pavelic P, Page D, Beringen H and Ward J (2009) Managed Aquifer Recharge:An Introduction, Waterlines Report No 13, Feb
2009. http://www.nwc.gov.au/www/html/996-mar--an-introduction---report-no-13--feb-2009.asp accessed 21 May 2010
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Water Transformed: Sustainable Water Solutions
10. Managed aquifer recharge also provides a strategy to reduce the risk of coastal aquifer
salinisation, which may result from climate change. In the south eastern and south western parts
of Australia climate change is forecast to reduce rainfall. This will result in reduced quantities of
freshwater flowing into coastal aquifers. Combined with sea level rises, this increases the risk of
coastal aquifers becoming salinised. Managed aquifer recharge could be used to ensure
adequate levels of freshwater flow into the aquifer, helping to maintain the freshwater and
saltwater lens of coastal aquifers. (See Lecture 5.4 for more details)
11. Managed aquifer recharge and reuse is emerging as one of the lowest cost options to adapting
to climate change in the water sector. CSIRO has found that
If 200GL of the Water Services Association of Australia projected 800GL shortfall in water in
Australian cities by 2030 were met from stormwater aquifer storage and recovery the cost
savings in comparison with seawater desalination would be AUD$400million per year in
addition to significant environmental benefits.
This is because, the average levelised cost of eight urban stormwater aquifer storage and
recovery projects of between 75 and 2000 ML/yr was found to be AUD$1.12/kL. This is less
than current prices of mains water in capital cities.
For agricultural recharge projects where infiltration basins can recharge unconfined aquifers
at high rates the levelised cost of recharge and recovery is more than an order of magnitude
less, e.g. in the Burdekin Delta, Queensland, the cost is $0.07/kL. This project has proven to
be economic for irrigation of sugar cane and has been operated continuously for 30 years.
Comparisons with alternative urban supplies show levelised costs of stormwater aquifer
storage and recovery are 30 to 46 per cent of the costs of seawater desalination and aquifer
storage and recovery consumes three per cent of the energy.
Comparative unit costs for urban water storages show that aquifer storage costs are one to
four per cent of tank storages and they occupy less than 0.5 per cent of the land surface area
of water tanks (for the same volume of water stored).39
12. Those interested in investigating and implementing managed aquifer recharge, storage, and
recovery (ASR) projects have much experience in Australia to draw upon. According to CSIRO, in
Australia in 2008, MAR already contributed 45GL/yr to irrigation supplies40 and 7GL/yr to urban
water supplies across Qld, SA, WA and NT.41 In addition, relatively new Australian guidelines for
MAR42, published in 2009, address the risks to human health and the environment, and thus will
bring national uniformity and reduce uncertainties in approval processes for new MAR water supply
projects using all sources of water (including recycled water). There is now also a wealth of research
and guides for MAR available to also assist practitioners. (see Key References below)
Brief Background Reading
39
Ibid.
Charlesworth, P.B., Narayan, K.A., Bristow, K.L., Lowis, B., Laidlow, G. and McGowan, R. (2002) The Burdekin Delta - Australia‟s oldest
artificial recharge scheme. In: Management of Aquifer Recharge for Sustainability, P.J. Dillon (Ed.) Proceedings of the 4th Intl Symp on
Artificial Recharge (ISAR4), Adelaide, Sept. 22-26, 2002, Swets & Zeitlinger, Lisse, pp.347-352.
41
Dillon P, Pavelic P, Page D, Beringen H and Ward J (2009) Managed Aquifer Recharge: An Introduction, Waterlines Report No 13, Feb
2009. http://www.nwc.gov.au/www/html/996-mar--an-introduction---report-no-13--feb-2009.asp accessed 21 May 2010.
42
Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council Environment Protection and Heritage Council National Health and Medical Research
Council (2009) Australian Guidelines for Water Recycling (Phase 2) Managed Aquifer Recharge. Natural Resource Management
Ministerial Council, Environment Protection and Heritage Council, and the National Health and Medical Research Council at
http://www.ephc.gov.au/taxonomy/term/39 accessed 9 March 2010
40
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Page 7 of 22
Water Transformed: Sustainable Water Solutions
Constructed Wetlands – A Natural Approach to Water Treatment.
While recognising the progress being made with physico-chemical-biological water treatment
technologies and processes, which were outlined in Lecture 6.2, there is renewed interest in
biological systems based on wetlands for wastewater treatment as part of water sensitive urban
design projects. Constructed wetlands can provide a low cost alternative to tertiary “Biological
Nutrient Removal” plants and thus may be more appealing for small communities where the cost of
upgrading treatment works can be prohibitive. The treated wastewater from these wetlands (a scarce
resource during the dry season and in arid regions) can also be used to irrigate crops, playing fields,
parks and gardens or golf courses or stored in aquifers. Thus wetlands, when combined with
aquifers, provide a natural, low greenhouse gas emitting strategy, to store rainfall during the wetter
months of the year to enable that water to be used during drier months of the year. Constructed
wetlands can also provide biodiversity value and improve landscape amenity. As many natural
wetlands are only seasonally inundated, during the dry season wildlife has to seek alternative
refuges. Wetlands constructed for effluent treatment can mitigate the loss of wetlands that have
occurred in the past through ignorance of their importance to natural ecosystems and wildlife.43
Wetland ecosystems are made up of both biotic (aquatic plants – macrophytes; aquatic organisms –
macroinvertebrates and vertebrates; and micro organisms) and abiotic components (sediment,
water, air). Wetlands support a diverse array of species with mirco-organisms being the largest in
number. Which species are most common depends obviously on the bioregion but also on rainfall
patterns and the water depth of the wetland. As Greenway explains
“Water depth plays a critical role in the distribution of the types and species of aquatic plants
in wetlands. In natural wetlands, zonation is common, with emergent seasonally inundated
species occurring at the landward interface and submerged species occurring in deeper
permanent water. Ephemeral wetlands or wet meadows are dry or waterlogged areas that
experience regular inundation which may be seasonal and support emergent macrophytes.
Marshes are shallow wetlands, which are typically dominated by emergent macrophytes.
However, floating-leaved attached macrophytes such as water lilies, submerged
macrophytes and floating macrophytes (e.g. duck weed) may occur, particularly where there
is permanent water. Deeper open ponds may support floating-leaved attached macrophytes,
floating macrophytes or submerged macrophytes if there is sufficient light for growth.
Wetlands and ponds support a diversity of aquatic animals including micro-crustaceans
(copepods, ostracods, claderans) shrimps, crayfish; insects (dragonfly larvae, water beetles,
water boatman); pond snails, tadpoles, frogs and fish. These organisms are a crucial
component of wetland and pond ecosystems providing invaluable food web linkages between
plants, micro-organisms and other animals. Predator-prey relationships are important in the
control of mosquitoes.”44
Wetland design is critical to optimising nutrient and pathogen removal.
Wetland design and choice of plant species is important to improve the effectiveness of the
constructed wetland removing nutrients and pathogens. If we take Queensland, as an example,
43
Greenway, M. (2003). The role of wetlands in effluent treatment and reuse schemes. CD-ROM, Water Recycling Australia, 2nd National
Conference 1-3 September, 2003 Brisbane. Australian Water Association, Sydney
44
Greenway, M. (2003). The role of wetlands in effluent treatment and reuse schemes. CD-ROM, Water Recycling Australia, 2nd National
Conference 1-3 September, 2003 Brisbane. Australian Water Association, Sydney
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research there shows that in order to maximise nutrient removal, a range of plant types should be
used, including45
-
duckweed and submerged species (e.g. Ceratophyllum and Potamogeton), to remove
nutrients directly from the water column;
-
rooted species, to remove nutrients from the sediment and aerate the rhizosphere zone for
nitrification.
-
plants with large surface area to ensure Periphyton attachment. Periphyton is a complex
mixture of algae, cyanobacteria, heterotrophic microbes, and detritus that is attached to
submerged surfaces in most aquatic ecosystems. It serves as an important food source for
invertebrates, tadpoles, and some fish. It can also absorb contaminants; removing them from
the water column and limiting their movement through the environment
In order to maximise pathogen removal, both open-water areas and densely vegetated zones are
needed. The densely vegetated zones ensure high levels of filtration and sedimentation of particles
to which pathogens will be adsorbed, while the open-water areas enable natural UV disinfection to
work as effectively as possible. Ensuring the wetland encourages and supports large populations of
natural-wetland microbes (bacteria and viruses) will enable predation, lysis and competition with
pathogenic human microbes. Ensuring that water spends at least 5 days passing through a wetland
will ensure time for natural UV disinfection to work as effectively as possible. Proponents of
constructed wetlands also recommend “a final subsurface filtration through gravel or sand to
maximise both nutrient and pathogen removal.”46
The Mosquito Issue
One of the barriers to wider adoption has been the perception that constructed wetlands may be
potential breeding sites for mosquitoes.47 Wetland design can be used to reduce the potential for
mosquitoes to breed. Aggressive species which die off in winter to produce a thick interwoven mat of
stems should not be used. Nor should species that produce dense floating rafts be used, nor aquatic
creepers. With respect to minimising mosquito breeding, wetland design should include both shallow
marsh and at least 30 per cent deep open-water ponds. A 2002 study by the South Australian EPA
concluded that
“Wetlands with open waterbodies, steep edges and little emergent vegetation had no or very
low numbers of mosquitoes. Wetlands and drains producing high numbers of mosquitoes
were shallow, protected waterbodies, with isolated pools of water that limited predator access
and contributed to poor water quality.”48
Greenway et al49 have shown that predation of mosquito larvae by aquatic invertebrates controls the
larvae and prevents the development of pupae.50 Greenway et al have shown that “Surface-flow
45
Greenway, M. (2005) The role of constructed wetlands in effluent treatment and water reuse in subtropical and arid Australia. Ecological
Engineering .25:501-509
46
Greenway, M. (2005) The role of constructed wetlands in effluent treatment and water reuse in subtropical and arid Australia. Ecological
Engineering .25:501-509
47
NHMRC, 1999. Draft Guidelines for Sewage Systems: Reclaimed Water (Australia). NHMRC
48
Sarneckis, K (2002) Mosquitoes in Constructed Wetlands. SA EPA at http://www.epa.sa.gov.au/xstd_files/Air/Report/mosquitoes.pdf
accessed 25 May 2010.
49
M. Greenway, P. Dale and H. Chapman (2003) An assessment of mosquito breeding and control in four surface flow wetlands in
tropical–subtropical Australia, Water Sci. Technol. 48 (2003) (5), pp. 249–256.
50
Walton, W. E. and P.D. Workman. (1998) Effect of Marsh Design on the Abundance of Mosquitoes in Experimental Constructed
Wetlands in Southern California. J-Am-Mosq-Control-Assoc., 14: 1, pp. 95-107
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wetlands can also be designed to minimise mosquito breeding by increasing macro-invertebrate
predators, thereby alleviating community concerns about potential health risks.” Thus, there is
minimal health risk in terms of these wetlands being breeding grounds for mosquitoes, if designed
and managed to maximise macro-invertebrate predators and minimise breeding sites. Minimising
breeding sites is important, as Walton noted “in the arid south-western United States, constructed
treatment wetlands can increase mosquito production if there is poor water quality and dense
coverage of submerged dead vegetation.” 51 Hence these issues need to be managed and mosquito
breeding sites need to be minimised.
While most mosquitoes are opportunistic breeders, they will only deposit eggs if a suitable body of
water is available. In aquatic ecosystems, mosquito larvae are an integral component of aquatic food
webs.52 Mokany and Shine found that the presence of existing mosquito larvae was a strong
attractant to further egg laying and that female mosquitoes use both chemical and biological cues to
assess what sites they choose to breed. Thus, if constructed wetlands are designed to function and
maximise the predator–prey mix to control mosquito breeding then this will minimise the chances of
mosquito breeding progressing from the larval stage. Predator–prey relationships are thus important
in the control of mosquitoes.53 Wetland plant diversity is important for determining macroinvertebrate associations54 and wildlife diversity55 to ensure adequate predators for mosquitoes’
because of the creation of habitat and food resources. Wetzel noted that the most effective wetland
ecosystems “are those that possess maximum biodiversity of higher aquatic plants and periphyton
associated with the living and dead plant tissue”.56 The key to mosquito management is to ensure a
well-balanced ecosystem supporting a diversity of aquatic organisms.
Where were Constructed Wetlands First Built and in which Countries are They Used Today?
The use of higher aquatic plants and constructed wetlands for the treatment of polluted water and
wastewater is not new. There is a long history of practice and research upon which practitioners can
further build. The first constructed wetland was built in the 1960s, when the Max Planck Institute in
Germany began to study the treatment properties of higher aquatic plants. In the 1970s, researchers
in the Netherlands developed this approach of using plants for wastewater treatment. They called
this the "Lelystad process”. In the 1970s and 1980s, this research continued in countries such as the
USA, Denmark, the UK, Russia and Ukraine, and in the 1990s, research and implementation of
constructed wetlands continued in many European countries and the rest of the world. Different
terms are used for these systems around the world such as "constructed wetlands" (USA), "reed
beds" (UK) or "bioengineering systems" (Ukraine). The term "constructed wetlands" in recent times
has become the one most commonly used.
The USA, with more than 1000 wetlands constructed, and the UK, with nearly 500 wetlands
constructed currently lead the world in numbers of constructed wetlands. 5758 There are overall about
51
Walton, W. E. and P.D. Workman. (1998) Effect of Marsh Design on the Abundance of Mosquitoes in Experimental Constructed
Wetlands in Southern California. J-Am-Mosq-Control-Assoc., 14: 1, pp. 95-107
52
Mokany, A. and Shine, R. (2002) Competition between tadpoles and mosquitoes: the effects of larval density and tadpole size, Aust. J.
Zool. 40 (2002), pp. 549–563
53
Greenway, M. P. Dale and H. Chapman, (2003) An assessment of mosquito breeding and control in four surface flow wetlands in
tropical–subtropical, Australia. Water Sci. Technol. 48 (2003) (5), pp. 249–256.
54
F.A. De Szalay and V.H. Resh, (2000) Factors influencing macro-invertebrate colonisation of seasonal wetlands: responses to
emergent plant cover, Freshwater Biol. 45 (2000), pp. 295–308
55
Knight et al., 2001 R.L. Knight, R.A. Clarke and R.K. Bastian, Surface flow (SF) treatment wetlands as a habitat for wildlife and humans,
Water Sci. Technol. 44 (2001), pp. 27–37
56
R.G. Wetzel, Fundamental processes within natural and constructed wetland ecosystems: short-term versus long-term objectives, Water
Sci. Technol. 44 (2001), pp. 1–8
57
US EPA – Constructed Wetlands at http://www.epa.gov/owow/wetlands/watersheds/cwetlands.html accessed 21 May 2010.
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5000 constructed wetlands in Europe. Dozens to hundreds of wetlands have also been constructed
throughout Australia59, Austria, Canada60, China61, the Czech Republic62, France63, Germany64,
Ireland65, Norway66, Poland, Russia67 and Ukraine. Currently, more and more countries are adopting
this approach and modifying it to suit their own climatic, geological and botanical conditions.
There are now increasing numbers of constructed wetlands in Australia demonstrating the value and
effectiveness of constructed wetlands as part of a water sensitive design approach to stormwater
harvesting and water treatment in urban water management. Examples of constructed wetlands
being used today include Bridgewater Lifestyle Village Wetland, Erskine, City of Mandurah, Timbers
Edge Village Wetland, Dawesville, City of Mandurah; Liege Street Wetland, Cannington, Perth68, and
Ikerman Oasis, Aurora Estate, and Lynbrook Estate Development all in or near Melbourne69. Other
famous examples include Olympic Park, Sydney and Mawson Lakes Wetland, Adelaide. In South
Australia, for instance, treated sewage effluent after pre-treatment in constructed wetlands is stored
in previously unused brackish aquifers for irrigation of parks during dry weather. Recycled water from
the Bolivar Wastewater Treatment Plant is being trialled for irrigation of market gardens.70 Again,
wetlands can be used to improve water quality, with savings in water and infrastructure costs as well
as providing economic, environmental and social benefits. Constructed wetlands are also used to
process and treat industrial waters in Australia at, for instance, Kwinana, WA71 and Lake Pillans,
NSW.
A number of constructed weltands have been built in South East Queensland and northern rivers,
NSW. For instance, in 1995, two large-scale wetlands (Cooroy and Rosewood) were constructed in
58
Cooper, P. and B. Green. (1995) Reed bed treatment systems for sewage treatment in the United Kingdom-- The first 10 years'
experience. Water-sci-technol., v.32, pp. 317-327 Vymazal, J. et al. (Eds.) (1998) Constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment in
Europe. Backhuys Publishers. AH Leiden. The Netherlands. Haberl, R., R. Perfler and H. Mayer. (1995) Constructed wetlands in Europe.
Water-sci-technol., v.32, pp. 305-315.
59
Greenway, M. (2005) The role of constructed wetlands in effluent treatment and water reuse in subtropical and arid Australia. Ecological
Engineering .25:501-509 Chick, A. J. and D.S. Mitchell. (1995) A pilot study of vertical flow wetlands at Coffs Harbour, New South Wales,
Australia. Water-sci-technol., v.32, pp. 103-109
60
Kennedy, G. and T. Mayer. (2002) Natural and constructed wetlands in Canada: An overview. Water Qual. Res. J. Can., v. 37, pp. 295325. Warner, K. (1997) The use of constructed freshwater marshes and shallow water wetlands in the rehabilitation of gravel pits in the
Puslinch area of southern Ontario. University of Waterloo. Dept. of Geography.
61
Li, S. R., T. Ding and S. Wang. (1995) Reed-bed treatment for municipal and industrial wastewater in Beijing, China. J-Inst-WaterEnviron-Manag., v.9, pp. 581-588.
Li, X. F. and C.C. Jiang. (1995) Constructed wetland systems for water pollution control in North China. Water-sci-technol., v.32, pp. 349356
62
Vymazal, J. (1996) Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment in the Czech Republic the First 5 Years Experience. Water-scitechnol., 34: 11, pp. 159-164
63
Molle, P., Lienard, A., Boutin, C., Merlin, G., & Iwema, A. (2005) How to treat raw sewage with constructed wetlands: an overview of the
French systems. Water, Science, and Technology, 51(9), 11-21
64
Uhl, M., & Dittmer, U. (2005) Constructed Wetlands for CSO treatment: an overview of practice and research in Germany. Water,
Science, and Technology, 51(9), 23-30.
65
Worrall, P., K. Peberdy and H. McGinn. (1998) Construction and Preliminary Performance of Reedbed Treatment Systems at Castle
Espie Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust Centre, Northern Ireland. J-Inst-Water-Environ-Manag., 12: 2, pp. 86-91.
66
Browne, W., & Jenssen, P. D. (2005) Exceeding tertiary standards with a pond/reed bed system in Norway. Water Science and
Technology, 51(9), 229-306
67
Magmedov, V.G. (1986. Effectiveness of infiltration bioplato as water protection technology for multiply implementation. Water
Resources Journal, No.6, Moscow, USSR Academy of Science, pp. 93-100
68
GHD Pty Ltd (2007) Liege Street Wetland Performance Report 2005-2006 – Community Summary Report, Swan River Trust, August
2005 cited in Davis, C. and Farrelly, M. (2009) Demonstration Projects: Case Studies from Perth, Australia. National Urban Water
Governance Program, Monash University Australia. http://www.urbanwatergovernance.com/pdf/demo_proj_perth.pdf accessed 26 may
2010.
69
Farrelly, M. and Davis, C. (2009) Demonstration Projects: Case Studies from Melbourne, Australia. National Urban Water Governance
Program, Monash University Australia http://www.urbanwatergovernance.com/pdf/demo_proj_melb.pdf accessed 26 may 2010.
70
See SA Water (undated) Virginia Pipeline Scheme at
http://www.sawater.com.au/SAWater/Environment/SaveWater/EnvironmentImprovementProgram/Virginia+Pipeline+Scheme.htm
accessed 1 July 2010
71
Davis, C. and Farrelly, M. (2009) Demonstration Projects: Case Studies from Perth, Australia. National Urban Water Governance
Program, Monash University Australia. http://www.urbanwatergovernance.com/pdf/demo_proj_perth.pdf accessed 26 may 2010.
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south-east Queensland.72 Cooroy consists of a lagoon and a series of shallow, densely vegetated
marshes and small deep-water ‘ponds’, and treats secondary effluent. Rosewood consists of a
lagoon, two surface-flow wetlands and a subsurface-flow wetland, and treats primary settled effluent.
More recently a constructed wetland was built as part of the Rocks Riverside Park development in
Brisbane.73
Another example of utilising constructed wetlands is the Salisbury “stormwater to potable water
project” in Salisbury, Adelaide. This project uses urban stormwater harvested from a residential and
industrial catchment, which is treated in a reedbed wetland before injecting into wells in a limestone
aquifer 160 to 180m below ground there it is stored and then recovered for water reuse. As part of
the proof of concept, water recovered after 12 months storage met drinking water requirements.
Figure 7.1.1 Salisbury ASTR stormwater to drinking water project.
(Source: photograph courtesy of United Water cited in Dillon et al, 201074)
The potential for stormwater harvesting to be reused, as in Salisbury, Adelaide is significant because
where urban aquifers have been mapped in Perth, Adelaide and Melbourne, there are known
prospects for managing the storage of 300-500 GL/yr urban supplies. Recharged water may be
sourced from rainwater, stormwater, reclaimed water, or other aquifers. The amount of potential
water for aquifer recharge and reuse is significant as less than three per cent of urban stormwater
runoff is currently harvested and treated for re-use in Australian cities. Managed aquifer recharge
and recovery (MAR) is being increasingly used around the world to address this opportunity. MAR is
actively and successfully used in the USA, Europe, South Africa, India, China and the Middle East.
UNESCO and the International Association of Hydrogeologists (IAH) are co-ordinating efforts in this
72
M. Greenway, P. Dale and H. Chapman, (2002) Constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment—macrophytes, macroinvertebrates and
mosquitoes, Proceedings of Eighth International Conference on Wetland Systems for Water Pollution Control Arusha, Tanzania,
September 16–19, pp. 1009–1023.
73
Towndrow, A., and Krumins, A. (2005) “Water Mining and Treatment by Subsurface Flow Constructed Wetlands: Rocks Riverside Park,
Brisbane” Presented at the AWA Ozwater Watershed Conference, Brisbane, 2005 cited in Davis, C. and Farrelly, M. (2009) Demonstration
Projects: Case Studies from South East Queensland, Australia. National Urban Water Governance Program, Monash University Australia.
http://www.urbanwatergovernance.com/pdf/demo_proj_se_qld.pdf accessed 26 may 2010.
74
Dillon P, Pavelic P, Page D, Beringen H and Ward J (2009) Managed Aquifer Recharge:An Introduction, Waterlines Report No 13, Feb
2009. http://www.nwc.gov.au/www/html/996-mar--an-introduction---report-no-13--feb-2009.asp accessed 21 May 2010.
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area through a range of initiatives.75 We now look at MAR in more depth to consider the technical
options, cost effectiveness and potential energy savings from using MAR more in Australia to help us
adapt to climate change by creating more additional sources of urban and rural water.
Managed Aquifer Recharge, Storage and Recovery – A Low Emissions Approach
to Water Storage and Reuse
CSIRO defines “Managed aquifer recharge (MAR)” is the purposeful recharge of water to aquifers for
subsequent recovery or environmental benefit. Aquifers, permeable geological strata that contain
water, are replenished naturally through rain soaking through soil and rock to the aquifer below or by
infiltration from streams.”76 Aquifer recharge can be intentionally enhanced through mechanisms
such as injection wells, infiltration basins and galleries for rainwater, stormwater, and reclaimed
water. Figure 7.1.2 provides examples of how managed aquifer recharge can be done for both
confined and unconfined aquifers.77
MAR can store water from various sources enabling this water to be reused when needed. With
appropriate pre-treatment before recharge and sometimes post-treatment on recovery of the water, it
may be used for drinking water supplies, industrial water, irrigation, toilet flushing, and on parks and
gardens and otherwise sustaining ecosystems. It is important to note that the actual process of
aquifer storage itself also contributes to the water treatment process. As CSIRO explains
As the treated water infiltrates the soil and aquifer natural biological, chemical and physical
processes occur to remove pathogens, chemicals and nutrients from the water. This ‘filtering’
process continues while the water infiltrates and resides in the aquifer.
The following water quality improvements occur during the process: attenuation of nutrients
such as inorganic phosphates and nitrogen as well as most organic compounds, degradation
of trace chemicals such as disinfection by-products and pathogen die-off.
The majority of this treatment occurs through the activity of naturally occurring microorganisms in the aquifer. As long as these micro-organisms remain active the process
remains sustainable. The ability to remove contaminants from the water significantly reduces
the health and environmental risks that may be associated with secondary treated
wastewater, leaving the reclaimed water in similar quality to that of the surrounding
groundwater.78
75
UNESCO and IAH have initiated, for instance, the International Groundwater Resources Assessment Centre (IGRAC) which has drawn
together a database of Managed Aquifer Recharge at a global scale via the IGRAC portal, (http://www.igrac.nl/)
76
Dillon P, Pavelic P, Page D, Beringen H and Ward J (2009) Managed Aquifer Recharge:An Introduction, Waterlines Report No 13, Feb
2009. http://www.nwc.gov.au/www/html/996-mar--an-introduction---report-no-13--feb-2009.asp accessed 21 May 2010
77
Piezometric level is the level of water in a well if a well were constructed. For an unconfined aquifer this is the watertable. During
recharge levels rise and near recovery wells levels fall.
78
See CSIRO - Managed Aquifer Recharge Frequently Asked Questions at http://www.csiro.au/files/files/pvuu.pdf accessed 21 May 2010.
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Figure 7.1.2 Two examples of managed aquifer recharge showing the seven elements common to
each system. (Source, EPHC, NHMRC and NRMMC, 200979)
There are a large number and growing variety of methods used for MAR internationally (see Figure
7.1.3). The different types are covered in more detail in the national guidelines for MAR. 80 A sample
of some of the main methods currently in use in Australia include:
Aquifer storage and recovery (ASR)
ASR consists of injecting water down a well into an aquifer for storage, and then recovering that
water later on from the same well. This method can be applied to aquifers that are confined or
unconfined. The Salisbury, Adelaide example discussed above uses this method. 81 This method is
also used in the schemes in Grange, Tea Tree Gulley, and other suburbs of Adelaide.
79
Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council Environment Protection and Heritage Council National Health and Medical Research
Council (2009) Australian Guidelines for Water Recycling (Phase 2) Managed Aquifer Recharge. Natural Resource Management
Ministerial Council, Environment Protection and Heritage Council, and the National Health and Medical Research Council at
http://www.ephc.gov.au/taxonomy/term/39 accessed 9 March 2010
80
Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council Environment Protection and Heritage Council National Health and Medical Research
Council (2009) Australian Guidelines for Water Recycling (Phase 2) Managed Aquifer Recharge. Natural Resource Management
Ministerial Council, Environment Protection and Heritage Council, and the National Health and Medical Research Council at
http://www.ephc.gov.au/taxonomy/term/39 accessed 9 March 2010
81
Rinck-Pfeiffer S, Pitman C and Dillon P (2005) Stormwater ASR in practice and ASTR (Aquifer Storage Transfer and Recovery) under
investigation in Salisbury, South Australia. In: Recharge Systems for Protecting and Enhancing Groundwater Resources, UNESCO (eds),
Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Management of Aquifer Recharge (ISMAR5), Berlin, Germany, 11–16 June 2005, IHPVI series on groundwater, 151–159, http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001492/149210e.pdf accessed 21 May 2010.. Dillon P,
Pavelic P, Page D, Beringen H and Ward J (2009) Managed Aquifer Recharge:An Introduction, Waterlines Report No 13, Feb 2009.
http://www.nwc.gov.au/www/html/996-mar--an-introduction---report-no-13--feb-2009.asp accessed 21 May 2010.
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Aquifer storage, transport and recovery (ASTR)
ASTR involves injecting water into a well for storage in an aquifer, and then recovery from the
aquifer from a different well. The Salisbury, South Australian case study also uses this approach.82
Percolation tanks and recharge weirs
Percolation tanks and recharge weirs are dams built in seasonal streams (ie stream channels that
contain water only after rainfall or snowmelt) to detain water that infiltrates through the bed,
increasing storage in unconfined aquifers. The water is extracted down-valley. Examples are found
in the Callide Valley, Queensland.
Infiltration galleries
Infiltration galleries make use of buried water pipes in permeable soil/rock. Water is pumped through
these pipes so that it seeps out through the holes in the pipes into the permeable rock where it then
infiltrates down into an unconfined aquifer. Floreat Park in Western Australia uses this method.83
Rainwater harvesting
In ‘rainwater’ harvesting, water from roof run off is diverted into a well or sump filled with sand or
gravel. The water is further purified by percolating down into the watertable. It is then, later on,
recovered from the aquifer by pumping the water back up from a well. Examples are common in
Perth, Western Australia.
Dune filtration
In dune filtration, water is infiltrated from ponds constructed in dunes, and extracted from wells or
ponds at lower elevation. The filtration improves water quality and helps to balance supply and
demand. Examples are found in Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
Infiltration ponds
Infiltration ponds and channels are constructed off-stream, with surface water then diverted into them
whereupon the water infiltrates down to the underlying unconfined aquifer. The Burdekin Delta,
Queensland has been using this method for over thirty years. 84
Charlesworth, P.B., Narayan, K.A., Bristow, K.L., Lowis, B., Laidlow, G. and McGowan, R. (2002) The Burdekin Delta - Australia‟s oldest
artificial recharge scheme. In: Management of Aquifer Recharge for Sustainability, P.J. Dillon (Ed.) Proceedings of the 4th Intl Symp on
Artificial Recharge (ISAR4), Adelaide, Sept. 22-26, 2002, Swets & Zeitlinger, Lisse, pp.347-352
83
Bekele, E. Toze, S., Rümmler, Hanna, J., Blair, P., and Turner, N. (2006) Improvements in wastewater quality from soil and aquifer
passage using infiltration galleries: case study in Western Australia. Proceedings: 5th Intl Symp on Management of Aquifer Recharge
(ISMAR5), 10-16 June 2005, Berlin. p. 663-668.
84
Charlesworth, P.B., Narayan, K.A., Bristow, K.L., Lowis, B., Laidlow, G. and McGowan, R. (2002) The Burdekin Delta - Australia‟s oldest
artificial recharge scheme. In: Management of Aquifer Recharge for Sustainability, P.J. Dillon (Ed.) Proceedings of the 4th Intl Symp on
Artificial Recharge (ISAR4), Adelaide, Sept. 22-26, 2002, Swets & Zeitlinger, Lisse, pp.347-352
82
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Figure 7.1.3 Schematic of types of managed aquifer recharge.
(Source, EPHC, NHMRC and NRMMC, 200985)
Already many of these methods of MAR are being used in Australia. (See Figure 7.1.4)
85
Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council Environment Protection and Heritage Council National Health and Medical Research
Council (2009) Australian Guidelines for Water Recycling (Phase 2) Managed Aquifer Recharge. Natural Resource Management
Ministerial Council, Environment Protection and Heritage Council, and the National Health and Medical Research Council at
http://www.ephc.gov.au/taxonomy/term/39 accessed 9 March 2010
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Figure 7.1.4 Types of Managed Aquifer Recharge in use in Australia in 2008
(Source:Dillon et al, 201086)
Selection of Recharge Method
The nature of the site, permeability of the rock structures and type of aquifers present determine
which managed aquifer recharge method is chosen. For instance, for confined aquifers, wellinjection methods, such as aquifer storage and recovery (ASR) and aquifer storage, transport and
recovery (ASTR) are the recommended options. If infiltration is restricted then it is necessary to
penetrate the low permeable upper layer using methods such as infiltration galleries or wells.
According to the national guidelines, the chosen configuration and size will also depend on:
-
the thickness of the low-permeability layer
-
the required infiltration rate
-
land availability and cost
-
compatibility with other land uses
-
ease of traffic access
-
the need to avoid insect pests, or even to prevent the attraction of birds (eg at airports).
The high land values in urban areas also are a significant factor affecting the choice of method. In
urban areas methods such as aquifer storage and recovery are thus highly competitive from a cost
benefit point of view with other forms of urban water treatment and reuse.87 This is less of an issue in
rural areas where the lower land prices enable greater use of infiltration ponds and soil aquifer
treatment.
86
Dillon P, Pavelic P, Page D, Beringen H and Ward J (2009) Managed Aquifer Recharge:An Introduction, Waterlines Report No 13, Feb
2009. http://www.nwc.gov.au/www/html/996-mar--an-introduction---report-no-13--feb-2009.asp accessed 21 May 2010.
87
Ibid.
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Source water quality may also play a role in method selection. This is addressed in detail in Chapter
6 of the national guidelines for managed aquifer recharge and recovery.88
Benefits of Managed Aquifer Recharge for Recycling
Managed aquifer recharge makes it possible to harvest and reuse urban and coastal town
stormwater in significant quantities that currently flows out to sea. The scale of water currently being
wasted means that managed aquifer recharge systems could play a key role this century in ensuring
water security for many capital cities and coast towns where over 90 per cent of Australians live.
There are also significant water quality benefits from using managed aquifer recharge systems. The
underground storage increases the treatment time resulting in improved water quality. If sampling
exposes any problems with water quality, managed aquifer storage provides much more time to
ensure such issues can be addressed before recovering the water for different uses. There are
numerous indirect benefits from using managed aquifer recharge systems such as
-
stormwater capture, harvest and MAR systems mitigate flooding of downstream urban and
coastal town areas thus helping to address risks from climate change. This could result in
insurance premiums being reduced.
-
positive impact on coastal water quality by reducing the amount of nutrients, pollutants and
pathogens flowing into the ocean through stormwater.
-
improving the price of real estate by having water features such as wetlands and irrigated
parks.
-
providing protection against aquifer depletion and salinisation (See Lecture 5.4)
-
financial savings from deferring the need to build new dams, desalination plants or other
water supply infrastructure.
To conclude, managed aquifer storage combined with minimal external energy water treatment
systems like constructed wetlands now provide the water supply sector and water planners with
innovative and effective options to adapt to climate change.
Key References
Constructed Wetlands
Guidelines
Brisbane City Council (2005) Chapter 6 Constructed Wetlands in Water Sensitive Urban Design
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accessed 22 May 2010.
Queensland Department of Environment and Resource Management (2000) Guidelines for Using
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Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council Environment Protection and Heritage Council National Health and Medical Research
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http://www.ephc.gov.au/taxonomy/term/39 accessed 9 March 2010
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SA Department of Planning and Local Government (2009) Chapter 13 Constructed Wetlands in
WSUD Technical Manual for Greater Adelaide. SA Department of Planning and Local Government
at http://www.planning.sa.gov.au/go/wsud accessed 22 May 2010.
Melbourne Water (2005) Constructed Wetland Systems: Design Guidelines for Developers.
Melbourne Water.
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accessed 21 May 2010.
Best Practice Case Studies
Liege Street Wetland featured in Davis, C. and Farrelly, M. (2009) Demonstration Projects: Case
Studies from Perth, Australia. National Urban Water Governance Program, Monash University
Australia. http://www.urbanwatergovernance.com/pdf/demo_proj_perth.pdf accessed 22 May 2010.
Ikerman Oasis Wetland, Aurora Estate Wetland, and Lynbrook Estate Development Wetlands in
Melbourne featured in Farrelly, M. and Davis, C. (2009) Demonstration Projects: Case Studies from
Melbourne, Australia. National Urban Water Governance Program, Monash University Australia
http://www.urbanwatergovernance.com/pdf/demo_proj_melb.pdf accessed 22 May 2010.
Rocks Riverside Park wetland in Brisbane featured in Davis, C. and Farrelly, M. (2009)
Demonstration Projects: Case Studies from South East Queensland, Australia. National Urban
Water Governance Program, Monash University Australia.
http://www.urbanwatergovernance.com/pdf/demo_proj_se_qld.pdf accessed 22 May 2010.
Salisbury wetland in Adelaide featured in Dillon P, Pavelic P, Page D, Beringen H and Ward J (2009)
Managed Aquifer Recharge:An Introduction, Waterlines Report No 13, Feb
2009.http://www.nwc.gov.au/www/html/996-mar--an-introduction---report-no-13--feb-2009.asp
accessed 22 May 2010.
Managed Aquifer Storage
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Dillon P and Jimenez B (2008) Water reuse via aquifer recharge: intentional and unintentional
practices. Chapter 14 in: Water Reuse: An International Survey of Current Practice, Issues and
Needs, Jimenez B and Asano T (eds), International Water Association, Scientific and Technical
Report no. 20. http://www.iwaponline.com/wio/2008/05/wio200805RF1843390892.htm accessed 21
May 2010.
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Dillon PJ and Pavelic P (1996) Guidelines on the quality of stormwater and treated wastewater for
injection into aquifers for storage and reuse. Urban Water Research Association of Australia
Research Report no. 109.
Dillon P and Toze S (eds) (2005) Water Quality Improvements during Aquifer Storage and Recovery,
Volume 1: Water quality improvement processes. Volume 2: Compilation of Information from Ten
Sites. American Water Works Assoc Research Foundation Report, 91056F.
Dillon PJ, Pavelic P, Sibenaler X, Gerges NZ and Clark RDS (1997) Aquifer storage and recovery of
stormwater runoff. Australian Water and Wastewater Association Journal, Water 24(4):7–11.
Dillon P, Pavelic P, Toze S, Ragusa S, Wright M, Peter P, Martin R, Gerges N and Rinck- Pfeiffer S
(1999) Storing recycled water in an aquifer: benefits and risks. Australian Water and Wastewater
Association Journal, Water 26(5):21–29.
Dillon P, Pavelic P, Massmann G, Barry K and Correll R (2001) Enhancement of the membrane
filtration index (MFI) method for determining the clogging potential of turbid urban stormwater and
reclaimed water used for aquifer storage and recovery. Desalination 140(2)153–165.
Dillon PJ, Miller M, Fallowfield H and Hutson J (2002) The potential of riverbank filtration for drinking
water supplies in relation to microsystin removal in brackish aquifers. Journal of Hydrology 266(3–
4):209–221.
Dillon P, Martin R, Rinck-Pfeiffer S, Pavelic P, Barry K, Vanderzalm J, Toze S, Hanna J, Skjemstad
J, Nicholson B and Le Gal La Salle C (2003) Aquifer storage and recovery with reclaimed water at
Bolivar, South Australia. In: Proceedings of the Australian Water Association 2nd Australian Water
Recycling Symposium, Brisbane, 1–2 September 2003.
Dillon P, Toze S, Pavelic P, Vanderzalm J, Barry K, Ying G-G, Kookana R, Skjemstad J, Nicholson
B, Miller R, Correll R, Prommer H, Greskowiak J and Stuyfzand P (2005a) Water quality
improvements during aquifer storage and recovery at ten sites. In: Recharge systems for protecting
and enhancing groundwater resources, UNESCO (eds), Proceedings of the 5th International
Symposium on Management of Aquifer Recharge (ISMAR5), Berlin, 11– 16 June 2005, 85–94.
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Dillon P, Pavelic P, Barry K, Fildebrandt S and Prawoto N (2005b) Nomogram to predict water
quality improvement for managed recharge of aquifers. In: Recharge systems for protecting and
enhancing groundwater resources, UNESCO (eds), Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium
on Management of Aquifer Recharge (ISMAR5), Berlin, Germany, 11–16 June 2005.
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Dillon P, Page D, Vanderzalm J, Pavelic P, Toze S, Bekele E, Sidhu J Prommer H, Higginson S,
Regel R, Rinck-Pfeiffer S, Purdie M, Pitman C and Wintgens T (2008) A critical evaluation of
combined engineered and aquifer treatment systems in water recycling. Water Science and
Technology 57(5):753-762.
Dillon P, Pavelic P, Page D, Beringen H and Ward J (2009) Managed Aquifer Recharge: An
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Dudding M, Evans R, Dillon P and Molloy R (2006). Report on Broad Scale Map of ASR Potential in
Melbourne. SKM and CSIRO Report to Smart Water Fund, March 2006, 49.
http://www.smartwater.com.au/downloaddocs/Broad_Scale_Mapping_Report_for_Melbourne.pdf
accessed 21 May 2010.
Environment Protection Authority (SA). (2004) Code of Practice for Aquifer Storage and Recovery.
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Fox P (2007) Mangement of Aquifer Recharge for Sustainability, Acacia Publishing, Phoenix.
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analogue for the development of recharge enhanced groundwater resource management in the
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