America and the Great War
As war broke out all over Europe, Americans initially believed that the bloody conflict
had little to do with them. After three years of trying to affect the outcome without
becoming involved, the U.S. officially entered the war in April 1917.
I. The Road to War
A. The Collapse of the European Peace
1. Entangling Alliance system
a. Triple Entente (Allies): Britain, France, Russia
b. Triple Alliance (Central Powers): Ger., Austria-Hungary, Italy
2. MAIN causes of war
a. Militarism—emphasis on strong military in diplomacy
b. Alliance system
c. Imperialism—competition for markets and influence
d. Nationalism—belief in the superiority of one’s country
3. Anglo-German economic rivalry
4. Traditional conflicts over territory b/tw France and Germany
B. The “Spark”--Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to A-H throne
1. assassinated 6/14 by a Serb nationalist in Sarajevo, Bosnia
a. A-H seeks punitive assault on Serbia—Germany supports
b. Russia to aid Serbia, mobilizes 7/30
2. Germany declares war on France/Russia—invades Belgium
3. Great Britain declares war on Germany 8/4
4. By early 1915, entire continent embroiled
C. Wilson’s Neutrality
1. Calls on citizens to remain “impartial in thought as well as in deed”
2. Reasons for bias: German-/Irish-Ams and elite in NE
a. German atrocities reported by British—invasion of Belgium
b. Blockade makes trade with Ger. Impossible
c. By about 1915, U.S. virtually an arsenal to allies
d. Submarine warfare—uncivilized warfare?
i. Lusitania (5/7/15)—1200 killed, 128 Americans
ii. British Luxury liner was carrying war materials
iii. American public outraged at barbaric action
iv. Germany agrees to stop unannounced attacks
3. By early 1916, unrestricted sub warfare—Sussex attacked
a. Americans injured on French steamer
b. Wilson threatens breaking diplomatic relations
c. Yet, U.S. would have to persuade allies to modify blockade
D. Preparedness vs. Pacifism
1. two main camps emerge: Pacifists vs. Interventionalists
2. Wilson endorses mobilization by Fall, 1915
a. “He kept us out of war”—campaign of 1916
b. Charles Evans Hughes—(R-NY)
i. Reformist Republican, liberal—close election
E. A War for Democracy
1. A New World Order—based on Progressive impulses?
2. “Peace without Victory” proclaimed by Wilson—league of Nations
3. Zimmerman Telegram 2/25/17
a. Br. intercept telegram by Ger. foreign minister
b. Proposes Mexico attack U.S. in event of war
i. “lost” territories promised in return
ii. American public opinion inflamed
4. Republican Revolution in Russia—czarist regime overthrown
a. Makes a less distasteful foe
5. April 6, 1917, Declaration of war on Germany passes congress
II. Breaking the Stalemate
A. The Military struggle
1. Most immediate effect is at sea
a. U.S. destroyers support British navy against U-Boats
b. Provide escorts for merchant ships
c. Anti-sub mines laid
2. Bolshevik Revolution in Russia 11/17—Russia out of war
3. Selective Service Act (5/17), 3 million drafted
a. Not until spring ’18 were significant #s available
b. U.S. troops only actually fight for about 8 months
4. “BlackJack” Pershing and troops join in turning back Germans
a. Chateau-Thierry (6/18) U.S. saves Paris? w/in 40 miles
5. Second Battle of the Marne (7/18)
a. Turning point of war for allies
6. Argonne Forest offensive (Sept. and Oct.) drives into Belgium
a. Supplies cut, much territory gained
7. Germany asks for armistice—11/11/18
B. New technology of Warfare
1. Artillery, machine guns, tanks, flamethrowers—mustard gas
a. Logistical difficulties w/unfamiliar equipment
2. Airplanes—no anti-aircraft—bombers, fighters, reconnaissance
3. Navy
a. Battleships: propulsion, hydraulic control, electricity, nav aids
b. Submarines: diesel engines
4. Technologies responsible for staggering death toll
a. U.S.—112k, Eng.—1 mil, Fr.—1.7 mil., Russ.—1.7 mil
b. Germany—2 mil., A-H—1.5 mil.
C. Organizing the economy for war--$32 billion appropriated for direct costs
1. 2 main sources of income for war
a. loans from public: “liberty bonds”--$23 b by 1920
b. new taxes (excess): corporations, grad. income--$10b
2. Reorganizing the Economy
a. War Industries Board (WIB) 7/14, a “partner of business”
i. Bernard Baruch (financier) has unprecedented power
a) Controls production
b) Sets prices for goods produced
b. National War Labor Board 4/18
i. Mediator of labor disputes
a) Concessions to labor: 8hr, standards, unions
b) In return, workers would not strike during
D. The Search for Social Unity
1. many govt. leaders aware of split sentiment about U.S. involvement
a. Committee on Public Info. (CPI)—propaganda campaign
i. Journalist George Creel as director
b. Circulated own material, limited available info. To media
c. Emphasized “self-censorship” of media
2. Efforts to suppress dissent
a. Citizens encouraged to report “suspicious” activity
i. Discontent, pessimism, lack of support for war
b. Espionage Act of 1917
i. Broadly defined powers to combat “interference”
c. Sabotage Act (4/18) and Sedition Act (5/18)
i. Expands Espionage Act
a) public opposition to war, criticizing Wilson
d. Anti-capitalists frequent targets—Socialists and IWW
i. Debs sentenced to ten years in prison (later pardoned)
ii. Big Bill Haywood et al prosecuted—flees to Russia
iii. 11,500 in 1918 arrested for criticizing govt.
e. Suppressing dissent
i. Citizen’s Groups emerge
a) Target Ger-Ams--discrimination, harassment
III. The Search for a New World Order
A. Promised by Wilson as he led the nation into war—The “last Great War”
B. The Fourteen Points
1. (1/18) Wilson addresses congress, introduces postwar principles
2. Three Broad Categories
a. Postwar boundaries and new nations—A-H/Ottoman lands
b. Five general principles to govern future international conduct
i. Freedom of the seas
ii. No secret treaties
iii. Arms reductions
iv. Free trade
v. Impartial mediation of colonial claims
c. A “League of Nations”
i. Int’l org. to aid implementation & resolve future quarrels
3. Support for Wilson wanes among leaders abroad/Am public
a. Foreign leaders in no mood for generosity
b. In U.S., probably more to do with end of war economy
i. Rep upset about exclusion from future peace conference
4. Yet, his international vision welcomed by worldwide public
C. The Paris Peace Conference
1. (12/18) Wilson greatly received—but ideas challenged by victors
2. Negotiating the “peace”
a. Great Britain: David Lloyd George. P.M.
b. France: Georges Clemenceau, Pres.
c. Italy: Vittorio Orlando, Pres.
d. And Wilson, of course—hoped to lead and govern conference
3. Trouble at the outset
a. National self-interest vs. cooperative idealism
b. Instability in eastern Europe and communist threat
i. Russian interests not represented at conference
ii. Russian Civil War: Bolsheviks vs. “Whites”
4. Tense and spiteful atmosphere hinders Wilson’s plans
a. High reparations imposed on Central Powers
b. Yet, Wilson able to have national boundaries redrawn
c. Most importantly, creation of permanent int’l org.
i. (1/19) Allies accept “covenant” of League of Nations
D. The Ratification Battle in the U.S.—1919
1. Many U.S. senators object to treaty—some labeled “irreconcilables”
2. Most concerned with 1920 elections
a. Henry Cabot Lodge (R-MA) chair of Foreign Relations Comm.
i. Extreme obstructionist—loathes Wilson
b. Still, Am. Public opinion clearly favors ratification
i. Undercurrent of “reservations” significant
ii. Mostly objections to U.S. obligations to League
c. Cross-country tour to appeal to public sentiments
i. Falls ill at the end of September—stroke follows
ii. Limited in last 18 months of his presidency
iii. Foreign Relations Committee issues 50 amendments
a) Wilson refuses compromise—ratification fails
d. Wilson convinced 1920 election a referendum on League
i. But public support for int’l org. fades
IV. A Society in Turmoil
A. Hysterical social atmosphere/undercurrent of other issues shifts focus
B. The Unstable Economy
1. Economic re-conversion—“demobilization”
a. Boom continues, but stimulates raging inflation
i. price increase: 15% per year—consumer goods hit
2. Labor unrest increases
a. Inflation cancels out wage increases
b. Veterans return to work force
c. Working conditions still difficult
d. Benefits during war often rescinded—1919 marked by strikes
i. i.e. Seattle shipyard workers, Boston police
ii. middle-class hostility increases towards unions
iii. Great Steel Strike (9/19), 350k--8hrs, right to unionize
a) Public opinion hostile to strikers, riots
C. The Demands of African-Americans
1. Black veterans expect better treatment after heroism of war
a. Little real impact on most white attitudes
b. Af-Am attitudes profoundly effected
i. Great Migration to Northern factory jobs
ii. Large black communities develop in cities
c. Racial discord marks postwar era—lynching, layoffs, etc.
i. Summer 1919, race riots
a) Chicago—38 die, hundreds injured
b) at least 120 killed nationwide
ii. Af-Ams begin defending themselves
d. Marcus Garvey and UNIA
i. Black Nationalism—gains significant following
D. The Red Scare
1. Labor and Racial unrest considered by many a prelude to radicalism
2. Bolshevik Revolution (11/17) in Russia
a. Establishment of Communist International (Comintern)
i. Purpose to export revolution around world
3. Series of bombings in Spring of 1919—national alarm
a. Though threat of radicals not as strong as public believed
4. Peacetime sedition acts in response, sporadic violence, expulsion
5. Palmer Raids—Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer, J. E. Hoover
a. 1920, Arrests of 6k suspected radicals
6. Sacco and Vanzetti (5/20)
a. Confessed anarchists, weak evidence in murder charges
b. Initial public presumption of guilt—sentenced to death
c. Public condemnation turns to outcry over several years
i. Electric chair—(8/27) despite claim of innocence
E. The Retreat from Idealism
1. 19th Amendment ratified, (8/26/20)—women’s vote guaranteed
2. Progressives see as impetus for wave of postwar reform
a. In reality, final measure of Progressive reform movement
3. Postwar disillusionment
a. effects of the discord in economics, labor, race relations
4. Election of 1920—Wilson wants League referendum
a. Gov. James M. Cox (D-OH)—FDR as VP
i. Sought to keep Wilsonian idealism in forefront
b. Sen. Warren G. Harding (R-OH)—“return to normalcy”
i. Landslide victory for Republicans
Conclusions?
U.S. trade and freedom of the seas challenged by belligerents in Europe
Economic/cultural ties, plus outrage over German “barbarism” drew U.S. into war
U.S. forces would break the stalemate, president had idealistic vision of peace
Socially, war and recession introduces some elements of repression and intolerance
Treaty of Versailles far form ideals Wilson initially proposed—U.S. rejects League