1 - Employment and Income Patterns of Seasonal Migratory
Agricultural Labourers of Beed District at Sugar Factories
in Maharashtra
A– General Particulars
a) Author
Sh. Khengare Vishvanath Bajaba,
P.G. Student, Deptt. of Agricultural Economics,
Marathwada Agricultural University (MAU),
Parbhani - 431 402
b) Supervisor
Dr. K. D. Phuke,
Associate Professor of Agricultural Economics,
Marathwada Agricultural University (MAU),
Parbhani - 431 402
c) Commencement
September, 1999
d) Completion
June, 2000
e) Publisher
Unpublished
MSS available with Supervisor
B –Technical details and Findings
f) Universe
Agricultural Labourers working in two Sugar
factories in Beed district
g) Sample
Random sampling method was adopted for seasonal
migratory agricultural labourers at two Sugar
factories viz., Kada Coop. Sugar Factory and Mula
Coop. Sugar Factory in Beed district. Migratory
Labourers were divided in three categories viz.,
i) Direct Centre Labour, ii) Godi Centre Labour and
iii) Head Centre Labour. A sample of 25 workers
was selected from each of these categories. The total
sample size was 150.
h) Methodology
The data were collected by face to face interview
method in the structured schedules. The total
sampled workers were categorised on the basis of
their operational holdings as landless, marginal and
small farmers. These information were analysed
using regression technique for employment, income
and consumption function.
1
i) Objectives
The main objective is to study the socio-economic
conditions of seasonal migratory agricultural labour
and their causes of migration.
j) Findings
Sample household members were in the age group of
26 to 40 years and majority of them belonged to
Maratha caste, followed by Bandha.
About one fourth of them were literate. On an
average 53 to 67% family members migrated
seasonally and were landless and small dryland
holders. The main cause of migration was lack of
employment in the local places and debt. They got
employment of about 150 to 155 days and their main
source of income was wages. More than 50%
income was spent by them on food. Labourers faced
the problems like residence, health, education of
children and no continuous work as well as high rate
of interest for taking loan.
2
2 - A Study on Employment and Income Potentials of Rural
Industries in Tamil Nadu
A - General Particulars
a) Author
Dr. M. Soundarapandian,
Reader, Deptt. of Rural Industries and Management,
Gandhigram Rural Institute, Deemed University,
Gandhigram - 624 302
b) Supervisor
-
c) Sponsored by
University Grants Commission, New Delhi
d) Commencement
January, 1999
e) Completion
December, 2000
f) Publisher
Unpublished,
MSS available with Dr. M.Soundarapandian
B- Technical details and Findings
g) Universe
The universe for this study comprised rural service
enterprises such as bicycle repairing, agricultural
implements servicing, tailoring, tyre cart operation
for local transport etc. in Tamil Nadu. Dindigul
district was purposively selected for the study.
h) Sample
Ten enterpreneurs in each of the following industries
were selected:
1. Mineral Based Industry–Lime Stone, Stone
Crushing, Bricks.
2. Forest Based Industry–Agarbathi, Bamboo, Book
binding
3. Agro based and Food based–Cereals processing,
Fruits & Vegetables, Rice milling coir.
4. Polymer and Chemical based industry- Soap,
Candle, Shampoo, Hair Oils.
5. Engineering & Non conventional Energy –Store
pin, Assembly of Umbrella, Bicycles.
6. Textile
Industry–Embroidery,
Tailoring,
Handloom, Powerloom
7. Service Industry-Laundry, Barber, Sound system.
3
i) Methodology
For this study stratified sampling technique was
utilised. Ten entrepreneurs in each category were
selected in the rural industries of Dindigul District,
covering four blocks viz., Attur, Balalagundu,
Dindigul and Nilakottai. In these four blocks seventy
sample entrepreneurs were interviewed with a
pretested questionnaire.
j) Objectives
The main objectives of the study were :
i) To analyse the income contribution of the rural
industries to rural households.
ii) To examine the availability and utilisation of local
raw materials and skills and the market potential for
the rural small industries.
iii) To study the problems faced by the rural
entrepreneurs and suggest remedies.
k) Findings
i) The sampled entrepreneurs are purchasing raw
materials mainly from private traders.
ii) The major share of capital was borrowed from
formal institutions.
iii) The highest level of employment was provided by
the mineral based industries.
iv) The share of profit was higher in the case of
Textile industries, Service industries & Polymer
Chemical based industries.
v) It is suggested that in order to market the products
of rural entrepreneurs a Common Complex in every
block or at least in every district should be
established by the Govt. of Tamil Nadu. Such
solutions to the marketing problems of rural
industries would generate the large amount of income
& employment potential in the rural areas.
4
3 – A Study on Management Models for Self Employment for
Rural Unemployed in Small and Cottage Industries
A - General Particulars
a) Author
Dr. M. Soundarapandian,
Reader, Deptt. of Rural Industries and Management,
Gandhigram Rural Institute (Deemed University),
Gandhigram
b) Sponsored by
Ministry of Rural Development, New Delhi
c) Commencement
October, 1999
d) Completion
March, 2001
e) Publisher
Mohit Publications, 4675/21, Ansari Road,
Darya Ganj, New Delhi - 110 002
Pages - 160, Price Rs.350/-
B- Technical details and Findings
f) Universe
Small and Cottage Industry units in Madurai and
Dindigul Distt. of Tamil Nadu
g) Sample
A sample of 70 self employed entrepreneurs from
each of the management system viz., i) Independent
Enterprise (under IRDP)
ii) Cooperatives –
Handloom Coop. Society iii) Federations (KVIC) iv)
Contract job individual weavers was selected using
simple random sampling method. Thus a total of 280
respondents were the sample size.
h) Methodology
A pretested questionnaire was used for collection of
data. Primary data was collected by personal contact.
i) Objectives
i) To compare the various management systems
promoting self employment for rural unemployed in
unorganised sectors.
ii) To review the problems faced in implementing the
four broad system programmes for self- employment.
iii) To study the problem of migration to urban
sectors.
5
j) Findings
i) The study has indicated that the federated
enterprises played poor role in the production
activities.
ii) Contract Job Model has shown average rank in
annual production.
iii) Independent enterprise and cooperative model has
shown higher sales values.
iv) Nearly 70 percent of the total labour was hired
and 30 percent was the family labour engaged in the
four model sample.
v) Full time employment should be generated in the
organised sector.
vi) Government should introduce processing units in
the villages to provide employment to labour in farm
sector. This will reduce the migration of labour to
urban sectors.
6
4 - Report on Task Force on Employment Opportunities
A - General Particulars
a) Author
1. Shri Montek Singh Ahluwalia,
Presently Deputy Chairman,
Planning Commission
2. Shri Shailendra Sharma,
Adviser (LEM), Planning Commission
3. Smt. Padmaja Mehta,
Director (LEM), Planning Commission
4. Shri Nilambuj Sharan,
Sr. Research Officer (LEM),
Planning Commission
5. Shri Raj Kumar, Sr. Research Officer (LEM),
Planning Commission
b) Supervisor
Shri Montek Singh Ahluwalia
c) Commencement
January, 1999
d) Completion
July, 2001
e) Publisher
Planning Commission,
Unpriced publication running into 178 pages
B- Technical details and Findings
f) Objectives
(a) To analyse:
i) the causes for concern in the field of employment
and
ii) the inadequacy of employment opportunities in
the face of a rapidly rising labour force.
(b) To project the growth of labour force seeking
employment over the next ten years and to compare
these projections with the likely growth in work
opportunities both at the current rate as well as at a
higher rate of GDP growth, with the ultimate aim to
solve the problem of unemployment.
g) Methodology
The task force examined the fiscal reforms that need
to be undertaken by the government so as to provide
a stable macro-economic environment for growth and
to refocus govt. resources on activities that should be
7
undertaken by it. It also examined the role of
education and training in economic growth with a
view to explore the reforms needed in these fields.
Effect of IT expansion on availability of new type of
work opportunities as well as the ways of making
suitable manpower available to harness these work
opportunities were examined.
Policy frame work in some of the important sectors
of the economy and the changes needed for creating a
favourable environment for generation of more
employment were analysed sector by sector.
The importance of promotion of non-cereal crops and
the effect of improved rural infrastructure were
studied and the steps to be taken in these fields were
recommended.
h) Findings
i) In the backdrop of diminishing work opportunities
in the Public Sector, the task force has pointed out
towards the newly emerging enormous work
opportunities available in the fields of direct selling,
e-commerce and self-employment avenues.
ii) It has also recommended the sectors like IT and
tourism for employment generation.
iii) The education and training for labour force has
been recommended.
iv) Macro-economic reforms have been suggested to
take the growth of the economy at a higher level,
which would solve the problem of unemployment.
v) It has further recommended
the forward
integration of agricultural crop production with the
entire food processing chain, the synchronisation of
various activities with this chain and the
infrastructure facility for storage and transportation.
vi) It has suggested the policy reforms and other
changes that are urgently needed to take care of the
outdated laws/policies and consequent spawning up
of undesirable practices in one of the most labour
intensive sectors, viz., the real estate sector.
8
5 - Report of Special Group on Employment Opportunities
A - General Particulars
a) Author
1. Dr. S.P.Gupta,
the then Member of Planning Commission
2. Shri Shailendra Sharma, Adviser (LEM),
Planning Commission
3. Smt. Padmaja Mehta, Director (LEM),
Planning Commission
4. Shri Raj Kumar, Sr. Research Officer (LEM),
Planning Commission
b) Supervisor
Dr. S.P.Gupta,
the then Member of Planning Commission
c) Commencement
September, 2001
d) Completion
May, 2002
e) Publisher
Planning Commission,
Unpriced Publication running into 167 pages
B- Technical details and Findings
f) Universe/Scope/Objective of the
Study
Analysis of unemployment situation in the country
and to suggest remedial measures to tackle the
same.
g) Methodology
Current Daily Status basis data on employment
and unemployment has been used by the study
group in the preparation of this report.
h) Findings/Suggestions
i) Employment generating capacity of output
growth has reduced in recent years and, therefore,
a much higher growth rate of GDP (8 percent) is
needed for the future to reduce unemployment.
This has to be supported by positive policies and
programmes for changing the sectoral pattern of
GDP in favour of employment intensive sectors
and by promoting labour intensive production
techniques.
ii) With suitable programmes and policy changes,
the eight percent growth rate in GDP can generate
additional 19.32 million person years of
9
employment opportunities over the Tenth Plan
period, thus giving a total of 50 million person
years of employment opportunities over this
period. Out of this 20 million person years of
employment opportunities will be created by
selective innovative programmes and policies and
the remaining 30 million will come from the
normal buoyancy of growth as perceived over the
recent past (1993-94 to 1999-2000). This can bring
the percentage of unemployed persons down from
9.21 percent to 5.11 percent by the end of Tenth
Plan and such percentage will be negligible by the
end of Eleventh Plan.
iii) The report has highlighted the Agriculture &
Allied Activities, Food Processing, Rural NonFarm Sector including Khadi and Village
Industries, Small & Medium Enterprises, Health,
Education,
Information
Technology
&
Communication, Tourism, Housing and Real
Estate, Construction, Trade and Transport, etc. as
the sectors/sub-sectors where employment
generation is possible with right kind of sectoral
policies.
10
6 - Income, Employment and Expenditure Pattern of Farm
and Non-Farm Families in Irrigated and Rainfed Areas of
Western Maharashtra
A -General Particulars
a) Author
1. Shri C.B.Shinde, Sr. Res. Asstt.
2. Shri P.V.Kale, Jr. Res. Asstt.
3. Dr.S.S.Bhosale. Jr. Res.Asstt.
4. Shri P.N.Shendage. Asstt. Prof. and
5. Shri Y.R.Pawar, Jr. Res. Asstt.
(all working in the Deptt. of Agricultural
Economics, MPKV, Rahuri)
b) Supervisor
1. Dr. D.V.Kasar. Head, Deptt. of Agricultural
Economics, MPKV, Rahuri
2. Prof. B.K.Mali, A.R.O., Deptt. of Agricultural
Economics, MPKV, Rahuri
c) Sponsored by
Research Review Committee in Agricultural
Economics and Statistics of the Mahatma Phule
Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri, Distt. Ahmednagar
(Maharashtra)
d) Commencement
June, 1999
e) Completion
April, 2002
f) Publisher
Unpublished
MSS available with M.P.K.V., Rahuri
B- Technical details and Findings
g) Universe
Farm and non-farm families in rural Western
Maharashtra, which comprises of 10 districts having
101 tehsils.
h) Sample
Out of 101 tehsils in 10 districts of Western
Maharashtra, 8 tehsils each of the irrigated and nonirrigated categories were randomly selected. One
village from each of these selected tehsils was then
selected randomly for conducting the study.
i) Methodology
All the 101 tehsils were arranged in descending
order according to percentage of irrigated area in the
net cultivable area. The tehsils having more than 20
percent of the net cultivable area as irrigated were
11
considered as irrigated tehsils and the remaining as
non-irrigated/rainfed ones.
Eight tehsils were
randomly selected from each of these two
categories. At the next stage one village from each
of the selected tehsils was selected randomly. From
each selected village, 30 households representing
small farmers, medium farmers, large farmers,
landless agricultural labour and village artisans were
sampled for collecting information through specially
designed schedules. Data was analysed by simple
tabular method.
j) Objectives
To study Income, Employment and Expenditure
pattern of Farm and Non-Farm families in Irrigated
and Rainfed Areas of Western Maharashtra.
k) Findings
i) The study shows that on an average a male
worker was employed for 210 days and 215 days in
the case of farm families and 269 and 239 days in
non farm families in the irrigated and rainfed areas
respectively. The female worker was however
employed for 136 and 152 days in case of farm
families and 196 and 180 days in the non-farm
families respectively in the irrigated and rainfed
areas.
ii) The average annual gross family income per
farm family was Rs. 1,80,548 in irrigated and Rs.
92,244 in rainfed areas whereas non-farm families in
irrigated and rainfed areas earned Rs. 44,860 and Rs.
27,907 respectively.
iii) Sixty five to 71 percent share of total income
was from crop production in case of farm families of
both the areas. As regards the share of wage
earnings and/or business earnings in total income of
non-farm families, it worked out to be in the range
of 37 to 46 percent in case of irrigated areas and in
the range of 42 to 45 percent in the rainfed areas.
iv) In case of farm families the average total family
expenditure per annum was Rs. 1,06,390 and Rs.
59,145 respectively in irrigated and rainfed areas
while non-farm families in irrigated and rainfed
areas spent Rs.28,561 and Rs. 19,195 respectively
per annum.
12
v) It was observed that, except the medium and
large size farm families in irrigated area, the average
per capita income in case of farm as well as nonfarm families in both the cases was below the
average State per capita income (at current prices)
which was Rs.23,726 during the year 2000-2001.
vi) Number of family workers and live stock units
had significant influence on annual employment of
all the sample households. Other factors, like, gross
cropped area and working expenditure on crop and
livestock had significant influence on employment
in case of farm families in irrigated area only.
13
7 - Employment, Income and Expenditure Pattern of Rural Weaker
Section in Scarcity Region of Satara District
A -General Particulars
a) Author
Shri V.M.Jadhav,
MPKV, Rahuri
b) Supervisor
Dr.V.R.Shete,
Ex-Professor, Deptt. of Agricultural Economics,
MPKV, Rahuri
c) Commencement
May, 1997
d) Completion
April, 1998
e) Publisher
Unpublished
MSS is available with MPKV, Rahuri
B- Technical details and Findings
f) Universe
Rural areas of Satara district in Maharashtra.
g) Sample
Stratified random sampling method was used in
this study and 126 sample households from four
size groups were selected. Sample comprised of
36 small farmers households, 36 marginal farmers
households, 36 Agricultural labourer households
and 18 village artisans households from Khatav,
Man and Khandala tahsils of Satara district.
h) Methodology
Data were collected from sample households with
the help of questionnaires which were canvassed
through interview method.
The data were
collected for the complete agricultural year 199798 and simple tabular method was used for
analysing the collected data.
i) Objectives
The study was conducted with the following
objectives :
i) to study employment, Income and Expenditure
Pattern of Rural Weaker sections in the Scarcity
Region of Satara District; and
ii) to improve unemployment situation in the
Scarcity Region.
14
j) Findings
i) The study revealed that the problem of
unemployment was severe in all the families
studied. During 1997-98 (agricultural year) male
and female employment days worked out to be
208.77 and 162.44 respectively.
ii) Major source of income of farm families were
crop production and wage income from business,
services and live stock activity. Annual income
worked out to be Rs.21500 per family at over all
level. Income of agricultural labourers and village
artisans was lower than small/marginal farmers.
iii) Indebtedness was observed in all the sample
families of Scarcity Region.
iv) Proportion of family consumption expenditure
in total expenditure in the case of sample families
was 70.25 percent.
v) It was observed in the study that the wage rates
and percentage of earners per family had
significant influence on the annual family
employment.
vi) In case of agricultural labourers and village
artisans employment days and number of milch
animals significantly influenced the family
income.
15
8 - Labour Market and Employment Assessment –
A District Level Analysis
A -General Particulars
a) Author
i) Sh. Uday Kumar Varma,
Director, V.V.Giri National Labour Institute,
Noida
ii) Sh.S.K.Sasikumar,
Fellow, V.V.Giri National Labour Institute,
Noida (U.P.)
b) Spondored by
International Labour Organisation
c) Completion
2003
d) Publisher
V.V.Giri National Labour Institute,
Sector- 24, Noida (U.P.)
e) Cost of Publication
Rs. 150/-
B- Technical details and Findings
f) Universe
Jabalpur district in Madhya Pradesh
g) Methodology
Quantitative and qualitative research methods were
employed in this study contextually.
The
quantitative information was compiled from
secondary data published at the National State and
District level by using the publications of Census
and NSSO. The methods of qualitative research
included unstructured open-ended interviews,
group discussions, focussed interviews and
conversational analysis.
The qualitative
information was gathered from the District
Administration
viz.,
District
Collector,
Commissioner, District Employment Officer,
Association of Employers, Entrepreneurs and
Employers, Workers and their Organisations, Job
Seekers, Skill Development Institutions (Such as
ITI’s, Polytechnics, Professional Colleges, Private
Training Institutions and the respondents included
Management, Faculty and Students enrolled during
the year of Survey and who had passed out),
Financial Institutions, Non Governmental and
Community Organisations, Panchayat Institutions
16
and People’s representatives.
h) Objectives
Present study aims to compile and analyse relevant
labour market information of Jabalpur district in
M.P. with a view to provide a working model for
creating local/district level data base on
employment which in turn gives stronger basis for
Concrete Action Plans for employment generation.
The specific terms of reference of the project
were :i) An empirical account of the situation on
employment,unemployment and underemployment;
ii) An account and analysis of Skill Training
facilities/Institutions available within the district;
iii) An account of the employment Services
provided to Job Seekers in the Distt;
iv) An overview of the Organisational Institutional
framework that exists at the district level to provide
support to micro enterprise development (included
self employment);
v) An overview of the Organisational Institutional
frame-work that exists at the State/District level to
promote the adoption of labour based approaches
and an examination of potential in the selected
district.
i) Findings
Study of the important demographic variables
which influence labour market, the following
results were obtained :i) Density of population and urbanisation of the
district has been higher than the state average.
ii) Female literacy is higher than the state avarage.
iii)Workforce Participation Rate (WPR) has been
increasing but with a significantly lower female
WPR.
iv)Primary sector employment has been decreasing.
v) Secondary
stagnating.
17
sector
employment
has
been
vi) Tertiary sector employment has expanded
particularly in trade & commerce, health and
education.
vii) There is considerable scope for extension of
irrigation facilities to enhance production and
productivity.
viii) Role of Employment Exchange in placing job
seekers in occupations is waning.
ix) Infrastructure facility for collecting labour
market information is meagre.
x) The basic orientation of ITIs is to mould
trainees as job seekers and not as job creators.
18
9 - Migration, Social Networking and Employment :
A Study of Domestic Workers in Delhi
A -General Particulars
a) Author
Smt. Neetha N,
Associate Fellow, V.V.Giri National Labour Institute,
Noida
b) Completion
Year, 2003
c) Publisher
V.V.Giri National Labour Institute,
Sector - 24, Noida - 201 301
B- Technical details and Findings
d) Universe
Domestic Service in Delhi, which included Domestic
Servants (Live ins and Live outs) and the
agencies/organisations involved in their placement.
e) Sample
A sample of three settlements and 548 domestic
workers living therein was selected for study. In
case of ‘live-ins’, three placement agencies and 111
domestic workers placed through their organisations
were sampled.
A sample of 26 Nepali domestic workers (live outs)
was also selected from three colonies.
f) Methodology
No scienctific sampliing technique was used. To
study the Domestic servants, three squatter
settlements in Delhi, viz., Trilokpuri, Nizamuddin
and Yamuna Pusta were selected. A sample of 548
domestic workers (494 live outs and 54 live ins) was
selected from these three settlements. It was ensured
that not more than one respondent is selected from a
household.
In order to study the live-in domestic servants, who
are engaged through placement agencies, three
prominent organisations, associated with recruitment
and placement of domestic servants in Delhi, were
selected. These were ‘Yuvati Seva Sadan’, ‘Nirmala
Niketan’ and Yuvati Niwas’. Primary data on ‘liveins’ was collected from a sample of 111 domestic
workers recruited/placed through these three
organisations.
Supplementary information was
19
gathered through interviews of the representatives of
the three selected organisations as well as from the
documents, publications’ and pamphlets. In addition,
information was also collected from 26 ‘live-out’
Nepali domestic workers selected from Nehru Vihar,
Mukherjee Nagar and Munshi Ram Colony. Some
more infomation was collected through direct
telephonic interview with 17 private placement
agencies.
g) Objectives
The study aimed to answer the following questions:i) What sort of people are engaged in domestic
service?
ii) What is their background –geographic, social and
cultural?
iii) How is domestic service gendered?
iv) What is the nature of service relations in the
occupation?
v) What are the recent changes in the domestic
service?
vi) What types of work arrangements and practices
exist in domestic service?
vii) What is the role of social networking in the
migration and employment of domestics?
viii) How do domestics establish their identities and
(re) construct their lives in the urban milieu?
h) Findings
i) Women constitute a major chunk of domestic
workers in Delhi. Out of a total of 685 repondents,
more than 91 percent were women.
ii) Among the Nepali domestics, however, cent
percent were men.
iii) Male domestics were engaged in only cooking
and shopping jobs, whereas women were engaged in
all the household chores, like, cooking, cleaning
utensils, washing clothes, sweeping and moping
floors, etc.
20
iv) All respondents except one were migrants.
v) Prominent States contributing to the supply of
domestic workers were found to be West Bengal,
Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Jharkhand, Bihar and
Orissa.
vi) ‘Live out’ domestics were mainly (58.3 percent)
in the age group of 26-40 years, whereas ‘live-ins’
were largely (about 85 percent) teenagers in the age
group of 15-25 years.
vii) Among the ‘live-in’ respondents 83.8 percent
were married, whereas 89.2 percent of ‘live-in’
domestic were unmarried girls.
viii) More than 83 percent domestics were Hindu,
more than 14 percent were Christian, about 2 percent
were Muslims and the rest belonged to other
religions.
ix) More than 63 percent workers were from S.C.,
more than 16 percent were S.T., about 15.5 percent
were O.B.C. and the rest belonged to upper castes.
x) More than 70 percent domestics were either
illiterate or were below primary. None was educated
above Secondary level.
xi) Average size of the family of the ‘live-outs’ was
found to be 7 members and in case of ‘live-ins’ it was
6 members.
xii) Monthly wage earnings of ‘live-out’ domestics
were in the range of less than Rs.500 to Rs.1500 in
case of more than 97 percent workers. In case of
‘live-ins’ such earnings were in the range of Rs.1001
to Rs.2500 in case of about 95 percent workers.
xiii) Poverty and the scarce job opportunities at the
place of origin were found to be the main reasons in
case of 96 percent migrants for migration to Delhi.
xiv) Women domestics were observed to bear the
entire burden of family expenditure in as many as 42
percent households.
21
xv) Relatives and friends already working in Delhi
were the major sources of information which
facilitate the migration of domestics to Delhi.
xvi) Such social network helps the migrants by
providing/making arrangement of accommodation
and by helping to search the job.
xvii) In case of 83 percent migrant domestics
the waiting period before entering into domestic
work was six months or less.
22
10 - Study on Labour , Employment and Gender Issues in Export
Processing Zones/Noida Export Processing Zone
A - General Particulars
a) Author
Sh. Neetha N & Sh. Uday Kumar Verma,
V.V.Giri National Labour Institute,
Sector -24, Noida, U.P.
b) Commencement
2002
c) Completion
2004
d) Publisher
V.V.Giri National Labour Institute,
Sector -24, Noida, U.P.
B- Technical details and Findings
e) Universe
Export Processing Zones in India
f) Sample
A sample of 25 firms was selected on the basis of
product produced, nature of the firm, volume of
export, etc. These firms accounted for about 75
percent employment in the Noida Export Processing
Zone (NEPZ). A detailed survey of about 600
workers from the Zone was also carried out. Out of
these 423 workers belonged to the units selected for
detailed study.
g) Methodology
The present study is based on both primary and
secondary data available with the Ministry of
Commerce and the O/o the Development
Commissioner, Noida Export Processing Zone. Firm
level survey was supplemented with a detailed survey
of workers in the Zone.
h) Objectives
The research study was aimed at :
i) Assessing the performance of the units in terms of
output, export contribution & employment.
ii)Outlining the employment pattern and the structure
of work force in NEPZ.
iii)Examining the working
employment relations in NEPZ.
23
conditions
and
iv) Delineating gender issues in employment in
NEPZ.
i) Findings
i) The study reveals that the Export Processing Zones
in India enjoyed direct and indirect benefits. The
basic infrastructure such as developed land for
construction of factory sheds, roads, power, water
supply and drainage within the Zones is provided
free of cost.
ii) The study shows that apart from infrasturcture
development, special concessions are also given in
the form of tax holidays and other concessions which
include Corporate tax holiday for a period of five
years, duty free imports of Capital goods, raw
materials and components, exemption from excise
duty and other levies on products manufactured in
the Zone and procured from the Domestic Tariff
Area.
iii)The study reveals that the capacity of the Zones in
respect of the problem of unemployment and the
labour and employment aspects of the Zones are a
subject of concern. The issues included uncertain
employment, low level of wages and working
conditions.
iv)The study also reveals that no exemptions are
given to EPZs with reference to Labour Laws.
v)The study indicates that the key issue is of assuring
minimum wages and social security in the EPZs.
Difference exists amongst firms within the Zone with
regard to wages and working conditions.
vi)The Process of feminization of labour in export
industries was dependent upon the relative inferiority
of remuneration and working conditions.
24
11 - Absenteeism, Labour Turnover, Employment and Labour
Cost - ASI (Sample Sector)
A -General Particulars
a) Author
Director General,
Labour Bureau, Chandigarh/Shimla
b) Commencement/ Completion
Survey Period
ASI 1998-1999 - October, 1999 to April, 2000
ASI 1999-2000 - October, 2000 to March,2001
ASI 2000-2001 - September,2001 to April,2002
c) Publisher
Controller of Publications,
Civil Lines, Delhi - 110 054
B- Technical details and Findings
d) Universe
The scope of ASI extends to the whole country
except the states of Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram,
Sikkim and the Union Territory of Lakshadweep.
The coverage includes:
(a) All factories registered under section 2m(i) and
2m(ii) of the Factories Act,1948 and
(b) Bidi and Cigar manufacturing establishments
registered under the Bidi and Cigar Workers
(Conditions of Employment) Act,1966.
Such out of above establishments, which are not
covered under the Census Sector, are covered in
the Sample Sector.
e) Sampling/ Methodology
Stratified random sampling, wherein state is
treated as a stratum, is used to select the sample
establishments for coverage under the Sample
Sector of ASI. The sample size for an industry at
all-India level is determined first by assuming the
Central Limit Theorem applicable to the large
population. Sample size for each industry (at NIC
– 1998 four-digit level) is determined by assuming
that the probability of 10 percent variation in the
estimates is 0.99 and by calculating coefficient of
variation using the preceding year data. The total
25
industry level sample size so calculated is then
allocated to the states in proportion to the number
of units in Sample Sector in those states.
If the total number of units in the Sample Sector in
a state is equal to or less than 8 then complete
enumeration is done, otherwise, a minimum
sample size of 4 is maintained.
f) Objectives
Annual Survey of Industries, inter-alia, aims to
provide comprehensive systematic factual serial
data base on various aspects of labour, such as
absenteeism, labour turnover, employment,
earnings and labour cost.
g) Findings
i) The total workforce in manufacturing
establishments under the Sample Sector stood at
3.05 million during the year 1998-99, 3.26 million
during 1999-2000 and 2.47 million during 20002001.
ii) Average per capita earnings of the directly
employed workers per manday worked at all-India
level worked out to be Rs. 92.54 during the year
1998-99. Such earnings for men, women and
children were Rs. 100.00, Rs 55.96 and Rs.15.79
respectively.
iii) The rate of absenteeism was 9.85 percent in
1999 and 9.50 percent in 2000 at All-India level.
The absenteeism rate during 2000 for directly
employed regular workers was highest at 14.23
percent in Delhi and lowest at 5.39 percent in
Dadra & Nagar Haveli. Industry-wise, the
absenteeism rate during 2000 was highest in the
industry group 315-Manufacture of Electric Lamps
and Lighting Equipment (14.26 percent) and
lowest in the industry group 014-Agricultural and
Animal Husbandry Service Activities, except
Veterinary activities (5.78 percent) of NIC-1998.
iv) At all-India level 62.10 percent of the factories
reported labour turnover during 2000 as against the
64.86 percent factories during 1999. Rate of
accession was 20.52 percent during 1999 and
26
21.41 percent during 2000. Similarly the rate of
separation was 20.31 percent during 1999 and
20.52 percent during 2000.
v) The average labour cost per manday worked at
All-India level stood at Rs.126.46 during 1998-99,
at Rs. 137.38 during 1999-2000 and at Rs 126.21
during 2000-01.
27
12 - Absenteeism, Labour Turnover, Employment and Labour
Cost - ASI (Census Sector)
A - General Particulars
a) Author
Director General,
Labour Bureau, Chandigarh/Shimla
b) Commencement/ Completion
Survey Period
ASI 1998-1999
ASI 1999-2000
ASI 2000-2001
c) Publisher
- Oct., 1999 to April, 2000
- Oct., 2000 to March,2001
- Sept.,2001 to April, 2002
Controller of Publications,
Civil Lines, Delhi - 110 054
B- Technical details and Findings
d) Universe
The scope of ASI extends to the whole country
except the states of Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram,
Sikkim and the Union Territory of Lakshadweep.
The coverage includes a) all factories registered
under section 2m(i) and 2m(ii) of the Factories
Act, 1948 and b) Bidi and Cigar Manufacturing
establishments registered under the Bidi and Cigar
Workers (Condition of Employment) Act,1966.
Such of above establishments which employ on an
average 100 or more workers irrespective of use of
power are covered under the Census Sector of ASI.
e) Methodology
The data is collected by NSSO under the
Collection of Statistics Act, 1953 as Part II of the
Annual Survey of Industries in a specially
designed questionnaire and supplied to the Labour
Bureau.
f) Objectives
To provide comprehensive factual serial data base
on various aspects of labour, like, absenteeism,
labour turnover, employment, earnings and labour
cost.
g) Findings
i) The total workforce in manufacturing
establishments in Census Sector stood at 3.04
million during 1998-99, at 3.03 million during
1999-2000 and 3.67 million during 2000-01,
28
ii) The rate of absenteeism was 10.79 percent
during 1999 and 10.43 percent during 2000. The
absenteeism rate during 2000 was highest (17.30
percent) in Himachal Pradesh and lowest (4.88
percent) in Meghalaya.
iii) During 1999, 86.01 percent factories reported
labour turnover whereas during 2000, 84.56
percent factories reported it at all-India level. Rate
of accession was 12.27 percent during 1999 and
12.68 percent during 2000. Similarly rate of
separation was 15.19 percent during 1999 and
15.14 percent during 2000.
iv) The average labour cost per manday worked at
all-India level was Rs. 126.46 during the year
1998-99, Rs.235.25 during 1999-2000 and Rs.
230.93 during 2000-2001.
29
13 - Wages & Earning of Rural Labour Households (1999-2000)
A - General Particulars
a) Author
Director General,
Labour Bureau, Chandigarh/Shimla
b) Sponsored by
National Sample Survey Organisation (Field
Operations Division) undertook the Field Work of
the enquiry. Tabulation work and the bringing out
of the report was undertaken by the Labour
Bureau.
c) Publisher
Director General,
Labour Bureau, Chandigarh/Shimla
B- Technical details and Findings
d) Universe
Rural Labour Enquiries are conducted in the rural
areas of the whole country except Ladakh and
Kargil distts. and few other areas of J & K , 768
interior villages of Nagaland (situated beyond 5
Kms. of the bus route) and 172 villages in
Andaman & Nicobar Islands (which are
inaccessible throughout the year).
e) Methodology
A stratified multistage sampling design was
adopted for selection of the sample units for the
survey. The First stage units (FSU) were the
census villages (Panchayat Wards for Kerala) and
the ultimate stage units (USU) were the
households.
Selection of First Stage Units (Villages)
The list of census villages as per 1991 population
census ( 1981 Census villages for the J & K )
constituted the sampling frame for selection of
sample FSU for most of the states. Two special
strata were formed by considering villages of each
State/U.T. (a) with very small population ( 1 to
100) – Stratum –I and (b) with very high
population ( more than 15000) Stratum –II . These
strata were formed if at least 50 such FSUs were
there in the respective frames, otherwise these
villages were included in ‘general strata’.
30
At all-India level, a total number of 10,384 FSUs
(6208 villages and 4176 urban blocks) were
selected for the survey in the central sample.
State/U.T. level rural sample size was allocated
among the rural strata in proportion of population.
Selection of Households
Depending upon the values of approximate present
population (P) and approximate total number of
non-agricultural enterprises (E) of the villages, the
FSUs were further divided into fixed number of
hamlet-groups (hgs).
Hamlet group having maximum concentration of
non-agricultural enterprises was selected with
certainty for listing of households which formed
Segment 1. Two more hamlet groups were
selected from the remaining hamlet groups using
circular systematic sampling method, forming
segment 2.
All households of segments 1 and 2 of FSUs were
listed independently, which formed the sampling
frame for selection of sample households from
corresponding segments.
All the households listed in a segment were
stratified into two second stage strata viz., affluent
households (owning items like motor car/jeep,
colour TV, telephone, etc,.) or (owning
land/livestock in excess of certain limits), which
formed second stage stratum 1. The rest of listed
households formed second stage strata 2.
Sample households were selected from the
respective frames by using circular systematic
sampling with equal probability.
A total of 3,74,856 persons spread over 71,385
rural households in 6046 villages were surveyed.
f) Objectives
To analyse the general characteristics of rural
households like demographic structure, size of a
household, landholding pattern, occupational
pattern, number of agricultural and nonagricultural labourers etc.
31
g) Findings
i) The survey results have revealed that the average
household size of the Rural Labour Households
was 4.67 persons whereas the average earning
strength of all RLHs was 1.98 persons. The
earning strength in case of SC and Other Backward
Classes worked out to be 1.98 and 1.97
respectively.
ii) Agricultural Labour Households which is the
main segment of rural labour households,
registered 4.73 percent rise in household size and
2.51 percent increase in earning strength.
Scheduled Castes Agricultural Labour households
registered the highest increase of 5.45 percent in
household size with 2.54 percent growth in earning
strength.
The Scheduled Tribes, households
reported the upward trend in household size by
4.73 percent with the highest increase in earning
strength by 4.05 percent.
iii) The average number of wage earners per rural
labour household during 1999-2000 was 1.74
persons in all classes of Rural Labour Households.
This has increased by 11.54 percent over 1993-94
survey. As compared with the previous survey,
wage earners increased by 11.11 percent (i.e. 1.62
to 1.80) in case of Scheduled Castes households.
The Scheduled Tribes households had largest
number of wage earners per rural labour household
( 2.01 persons) among all the four sections of the
society. The increase in this over 1993-94 was to
the extent of 15.52 percent.
iv) The average daily earnings of Men, Women &
Child workers in Rural Labour Households were
higher than Agricultural Labour Households both
in agricultural and non-agricultural operations.
v) In agricultural operations the average daily
earnings of Men, Women and Child workers of
Rural Labour Households registered an increase of
88.57 percent, 86.37 percent and 97.40 percent
during 1999-2000 over 1993-94
vi) In non-agricultural operations the increase in
daily earnings of Women workers was highest at
32
221.66%, followed by men at 99.88% and Child
Workers at 89.36%
vii) Among the main agricultural operations,
ploughing was observed to be the most
remunerative operation for Men, Women and
Child workers of all classes of Rural Labour
Households. The average daily earnings of these
categories in ‘ploughing’ were observed to be
Rs. 42.40, Rs.32.16 and Rs.27.37 respectively.
The other high earning operating were
transplanting operations and harvesting.
33
14 - Evaluation Study on the Implementation of the Minimum Wages
Act,1948 in Bidi Making Establishments in Karnataka
A -General Particulars
a) Author
Director General,
Labour Bureau, Chandigarh/Shimla
b) Commencement
1997
c) Completion
1998
d) Publisher
Director General,
Labour Bureau, unpriced publication
(for official use) running into 75 pages
B -Technical details and Findings
e) Universe
The study was conducted in the bidi making
establishments falling under the Scheduled
Employment “Tobacco (including bidi making)
Manufactories” located in 13 districts of
Karnataka, viz, Bangalore, Belgaum, Bellary,
Bijapur, Chickmagalur, Dharwad, Gulbarga,
Hassan, Mysore, Raichur, Shimoga, South Canara
and Tumkur.
f) Sample/Methodology
On the basis of district-wise information on
number of establishments and workers employed
therein made available by the Govt. of Karnataka,
13 districts were selected for study. Purposive
sampling was used to select the establishments.
Fifty three Trade Mark Establishments and 19
Contractor Establishments were selected for
Coverage/Collection of data.
While selecting the sample workers from the
sampled establishments it was ensured that all
categories/occupations of workers get due
representation in the sample. A total of 489
workers were sampled which included 354 ‘BidiRollers’ and 135 ‘Bidi-Workers such as
Sorter/Checker, Tobacco, Mixer, Distributor,
Packer/Labeller/Drivers, etc.
34
Four questionnaires- one each for the employer,
Contractor, Bidi-worker and Bidi Roller were used
for collection of information. Two additional
questionnaires were designed for Enforcement
Officers.
Questionnaires were convassed by the field staff of
Labour Bureau through personal visits to the field.
g) Objectives
The study was conducted to assess:i) the extent to which the provisions of the
Minimum Wages Act, 1948 have been enforced;
ii) the extent of awareness about the provisions of
the Minimum Wages Act, 1948 and the Equal
Remuneration Act, 1976 amongst the employers,
contractors and various categories of workers;
iii) the level of compliance with the prescribed
minimum wages and
iv) the problems faced in the enforcement of the
provisions of the Act.
h) Findings
i) Bidi Rollers constitute more than 90 percent of
the work force in this industry and they operate
from their own dwellings (Home Workers). The
354 Bidi-Rollers covered during the study,
received an active assistance from their dependants
in rolling bidis.
ii) Among the Bidi-Rollers 49.7 percent were
illiterate while only 14.8 percent Bidi Workers
(working as loader/unloader, peon, etc) were
illiterate.
iii) In few cases, the children below 16 years of
age were observed to be rendering help to
Packers/Labellers and to the Bidi-Rollers (in
wetting and cutting of tendu leaves).
iv) All the employers and contractors were familiar
with the important provisions of the Minimum
Wages Act,1948, the Bidi & Cigar Workers
(Conditions of Employment) Act,1966 and the
Equal Remuneration Act,1976.
35
v) The proportion of Bidi-Workers showing
awareness about the prescribed rates of minimum
wages, enforcement machinery and membership of
trade unions was 47.4 percent, 48.9 percent and
45.9 percent respectively. The level of awareness
about these matters was exceptionally low ( less
than 5 percent) amongst the workers working in
unbranded bidi establishments.
vi) The proportion of Bidi-Rollers having some
kind of awareness about the prescribed rates of
minimum wages, enforcement machinery and
membership of trade unions was 10.4 percent, 7.7
percent and 27.2 percent respectively.
vii) In all 80.98 percent of the employees were
paid on piece-rate basis and 19.02 percent on timerate basis. Workers engaged in rolling, wrapping
and packing bidies were paid on piece rate basis
and others were paid on time rate basis.
viii) Average daily earnings of the Bidi-Workers
varied from Rs. 37.85 in operations like Loader,
Unloader, Salesman, Tobacco Mixer, etc. to
Rs. 124.49 for the clerical and managerial staff
clubbed under Clerk Grade-I.
ix) The average daily earnings of Bidi-Rollers
worked out to be Rs. 26.97.
The helping
dependents of Bidi Rollers also had average daily
earnings of almost the same order (Rs. 26.65).
x) The overall proportion of Bidi-Workers
receiving the prescribed minimum wages was 78.5
percent in the State. Such compliance was as high
as 80.2 percent in Trade-Mark establishments as
compared to 68.2 percent in unbranded and small
bidi establishments.
xi) Amongst the Bidi-Rollers, the proportion of
workers getting prescribed minimum wages
worked out to be only 28.2 percent with wide
inter-regional variations.
xii) The enforcement machinery encountered
serious obstacles in enforcing the Act in the
smaller establishments engaged in the production
of unbranded bidis and contractors’ establishments
36
as majority of these operated without the requisite
licences under the guise of self employed persons.
xiii) Small units and rolling centres located in
remote areas constituted a difficult segment for
enforcement of the Act.
xiv) The enforcement machinery also found it
difficult to make frequent visits to remote areas
due to constraints of transport facilities.
xv) The employers felt that higher wages in
Karnataka as compared to the neighbouring states
were adversely affecting the bidi industry in the
State. They were of the view that in the long run
such a situation would result in shifting of the
activity to the neighbouring States where wages
are lower.
xvi) Business of the Trade-Mark establishments is
also adversely affected by the smaller
manufacturer of unbranded bidis, who get the bidis
rolled at very low rates and sell the same, either
unbranded or by putting some popular trade mark,
at low rates.
xvii) A peculiar type of practice, wherein the
employer sells the raw material to Bidi-Rollers and
purchases the green bidis from them, is picking up
in Karnataka to avoid the establishment of
employer-employee
relationship
and
thus
circumvent the provisions of the law.
37
15 - Evaluation Study on the Implementation of the Minimum Wages
Act,1948 in Bidi Making Establishments in Madhya Pradesh
A -General Particulars
a) Author
Director General,
Labour Bureau, Chandigarh/Shimla
b) Commencement
2001
c) Completion
2003
d) Publisher
Director General,
Labour Bureau, unpriced publication
(for official use) running into 54 pages
B- Technical details and Findings
e) Universe
The study was conducted in the bidi making
establishments falling under the Scheduled
Employment “Tobacco (including bidi making)
Manufacturies” located in 12 districts of Madhya
Pradesh, namely, Sagar, Gwalior, Vidisha, Bhopal,
Jabalpur, Satna, Balaghat, Hoshangabad, Indore,
Ujjain, Dewas and Datia.
f) Sample /Methodology
Based on the information made available by the
Madhya Pradesh government, twelve districts
(Sagar, Gwalior, Vidisha, Bhopal, Jabalpur, Satna,
Balaghat, Hoshangabad, Indore, Ujjain, Dewas and
Datia) were selected for the study on the basis of
density of Bidi Making manufacturies. These
selected districts were grouped into five strata.
Selection of sample establishments and workers
was done by on-the-spot sampling using the lists
of establishments available at the selected
districts/centres.
Ten percent of the bidi
establishments in the selected districts , subject to
a minimum of one and a maximum of three
establishments, were selected as second stage
samples. At the third stage a sample of contractors
and bidi workers (Baker, Labeller, Sorter, Checker,
Wrapper, etc., ) was selected. At this stage Bidi
Rollers (Home workers) working for all types of
sample
establishments
(Contractors,
SubContractors or Sattedars) were also selected.
Actual sample comprised of 38 Trade Mark
38
establishments, 34 Contractors, 106 Bidi workers
and 294 Bidi-Rollers.
g) Objectives
The study was conducted to assess :
i) the extent to which the provisions of the
Minimum Wages Act, 1948 have been enforced;
ii) the extent of awareness about the provisions of
the Minimum Wages Act, 1948 and the Equal
Remuneration Act,1976 amongst the employers,
contractors and various categories of workers ;
iii) the level of compliance with the prescribed
minimum wages and
iv)the problems faced in the enforcement of the
provisions of the Act.
h) Findings
i) Bidi-Rollers constitute more than 90 percent of
the workforce in this industry and they operate
from their own dwellings (Home workers). The
294 Bidi-Rollers covered during the study,
received an active assistance from their dependants
in rolling bidis.
ii) Among the Bidi-Rollers 41.5 percent were
illiterate while 25.5 percent Bidi workers (working
as loader/unloader, peon, etc) were illiterate.
iii) All the employers and contractors were
familiar with the important provisions of the
Minimum Wages Act,1948, the Bidi & Cigar
Workers (Conditions of Employment) Act,1966
and the Equal Remuneration Act,1976.
iv) The proportion of Bidi-workers showing
awareness about the prescribed rates of minimum
wages and enforcement machinery was 25.4
percent and 58.2 percent respectively.
v) Bidi-Rollers displayed complete ignorance
about the prescribed rates of minimum wages and
enforcement machinery.
vi) In all 81.5 percent of the employees were paid
on piece-rate basis and the remaining on time-rate
basis. Workers engaged in rolling, wrapping and
39
packing beedies were paid on piece-rate basis and
others were paid on time rate basis.
vii) Average daily earnings of the Bidi-workers
varied from Rs. 61.62 for Raw Material Distributor
to Rs. 89.32 for Clerical and Managerial Staff
clubbed together.
viii) The average daily earnings of Bidi–Rollers
worked out to be Rs. 22.04. The helping
dependants of Bidi Rollers also had average daily
earnings of Rs. 16.62.
ix) The overall proportion of Bidi-Workers
receiving the prescribed minimum wages was 55.7
percent in the State.
x) None of the Bidi Rollers received the prescribed
minimum wages.
xi) The enforcement machinery encountered
serious obstacles in enforcing the Act in the
smaller establishments engaged in the production
of unbranded bidis and contractors’ establishments
as majority of these operated without the requisite
licences under the guise of self employed persons.
xii) Small units and rolling centres located in
remote areas constituted a difficult segment for
enforcement of the Act.
xiii) The enforcement machinery also found it
difficult to make frequent visits to remote areas
due to constraints of transport facilities.
xiv) Business of the Trade-Mark establishments is
also adversely affected by the small manufacturer
of unbranded bidis, who get the bidis rolled at very
low rates and sell the same, either unbranded or by
putting some popular trade mark, at low rates.
xv) A peculiar type of practice, wherein the
employer sells the raw material to Bidi-Rollers and
purchases the green bidis from them, is picking up
in Madhya Pradesh to avoid the establishment of
employer-employee
relationship and thus
circumvent the provisions of the law.
40
16 - Evaluation Study on the Implementation of the Minimum
Wages Act,1948 in Bidi Making Establishments in Chhattisgarh
A -General Particulars
a) Author
Director General,
Labour Bureau, Chandigarh/Shimla
b) Commencement
2001
c) Completion
2002
d) Publisher
Director General,
Labour Bureau, unpriced publication
(for official use) running into 45 pages
B- Technical details and Findings
e) Universe
The study was conducted in the bidi making
establishments falling under the Scheduled
Employment “Tobacco (including bidi making)
Manufacturies” located in Bilaspur, Durg, Kanker,
Mahasamund, Raipur, Raigarh and Rajnandgaon
districts of Chhattisgarh.
f) Methodology /Sample
Seven districts (Bilaspur, Durg, Kanker,
Mahasamund, Raipur, Raigarh and Rajnandgaon)
were selected for the study on the basis of similar
geographical conditions and density of Bidi
Making Manufactories. Selected districts were
grouped into four strata. Due to non-availability
of reliable data about the number of bidi
establishments and the employment therein,
selection of sample establishments and workers
was done by taking recourse to on-the-spot
sampling from the lists of establishments available
at the selected districts/centres. Ten percent of the
bidi establishments in the selected districts/centres,
subject to a minimum of one and a maximum of
three establishments, were selected as second stage
samples. Contractors and bidi workers ( working
as Baker, Labeller, Sortor, Checker, Wrapper,
etc. were
then selected from the sampled
establishments as third stage samples. At the third
stage Bidi Rollers (Home Workers) were also
selected for coverage ensuring that those working
41
for all types of sample establishments
(Contractors, Sub-Contractors or Sattedars are
duly represented.
Actual sample comprised of 13 Trade-mark
establishments, 11 Contractors, 34 Bidi Workers
and 122 Bidi Rollers. Specially designed
questionnaires were canvassed by the Bureau’s
field staff.
g) Objectives
The study was conducted to assess:
i) the extent to which the provisions of the
Minimum Wages Act, 1948 have been enforced;
ii) the extent of awareness about the provisions of
the Minimum Wages Act, 1948 and the Equal
Remuneration Act,1976 amongst the employers,
contractors and various categories of workers;
iii) the level of compliance with the prescribed
minimum wages and
iv)the problems faced in the enforcement of the
provisions of the Act.
h) Findings
i) Bidi-Rollers constitute more than 90 percent of
the workforce in this industry and they operate
from their own dwellings (Home workers). The
122 Bidi-Rollers covered during the study,
received an active assistance from their dependants
in rolling bidis.
ii) Among the Bidi-Rollers 23.7 percent were
illiterate while only 8.8 percent Bidi workers
(working as loader/unloader, peon, etc) were
illiterate.
iii) All the employers and Contractors covered by
the study were familiar with the important
provisions of the Minimum Wages Act, 1948,
the Bidi & Cigar Workers (Conditions of
Employment)
Act,1966
and
the
Equal
Remuneration Act,1976.
iv) The proportion of Bidi-workers showing
awareness about the prescribed rates of minimum
42
wages and enforcement machinery was 11.8
percent and 35.3 percent respectively.
v) Bidi-Rollers were ignorant about the prescribed
rates of minimum wages, enforcement machinery
and relevant labour laws.
vi) In all 84.0 percent of the employees were paid
on piece-rate basis and 16.0 percent on time-rate
basis. Workers engaged in rolling, wrapping and
packing beedies were paid on piece-rate basis and
others were paid on time-rate basis.
vii) Average daily earnings of the Bidi-workers
varied from Rs. 58.55 in operations like Wrappers,
Labellers, Packers to Rs. 113.12 for the clerical
and managerial staff clubbed under Clerks.
viii) The average daily earnings of Bidi Rollers
worked out to be Rs. 27.88. The helping
dependants of Bidi Rollers had slighty less average
daily earnings (Rs. 21.93).
ix) The overall proportion of Bidi-workers
receiving the prescribed minimum wages was 73.5
percent in the state. Stratum-wise compliance with
the prescribed wages varied from 63.6 to 83.3
percent.
x) Amongst the Bidi Rollers, there was complete
non-compliance of prescribed minimum wages.
xi) The enforcement machinery encountered
serious obstacles in enforcing the Act in the
smaller establishments engaged in the production
of unbranded bidis and contractors’ establishments
as majority of these operated without the requisite
licences under the guise of self employed persons.
xii) Small units and rolling centres located in
remote areas constituted a difficult segment for
enforcement of the Act.
xiii) The enforcement machinery also found it
difficult to make frequent visits to remote areas
due to constraints of transport facilities.
43
xiv) Business of the Trade-Mark establishments is
also adversely affected by the small manufacturer
of unbranded bidis, who get the bidis rolled at very
low rates and sell the same, either unbranded or by
putting some popular trade mark, at low rates.
xv) A peculiar type of practice, wherein the
employer sells the raw material to Bidi-Rollers and
purchases the green bidis from them, is picking
up in Chhattisgarh to avoid the establishment
of employer-employee relationship and thus
circumvent the provisions of the law.
44
17 - Evaluation Study on the Implementation of the Minimum
Wages Act,1948 in Building and Construction Establishments
in Maharashtra
A -General Particulars
a) Author
Director General,
Labour Bureau, Chandigarh/Shimla
b) Commencement
2000
c) Completion
2001
d) Publisher
Director General,
Labour Bureau, unpriced publication
(for official use) running into 69 pages
B- Technical details and Findings
e) Universe
The study was conducted in the Building and
Construction establishments falling under the
Scheduled
Employment
“Construction
or
Maintenance of Roads or Building Operations” in
five regions of Maharashtra, namely, Aurangabad,
Konkan, Nagpur, Nasik and Pune.
f) Methodology /Sample
Sample establishments were selected through
purposive sampling by visiting different parts of
the State. Out of the on-going works of Building
and Construction, 10 percent establishments were
covered as sample subject to a minimum of 5 and
maximum of 10 establishments. Within a region
the establishments were sub-divided into upper
size (employing 20 or more workers) and lower
size (employing less than 20 workers).
Total sample size comprised of 82 establishments,
out of which 49 belonged to the upper size and 33
belonged to lower size. Public Sector and Private
Sector establishments were also duly represented
in the sample.
Labour Bureau’s field staff collected data through
specially designed questionnairs for the purpose.
45
g) Objectives
The study was conducted to assess:i) the extent to which the provisions of the
Minimum Wages Act, 1948 have been enforced;
ii) the extent of awareness about the provisions of
the Minimum Wages Act, 1948 and the Equal
Remuneration Act,1976 amongst the employers,
contractors and various categories of workers;
iii) the level of compliance with the prescribed
minimum wages and
iv) the problems faced in the enforcement of the
provisions of the Act.
h) Findings
i) It was observed that generally the employers as
well as the workers were not aware of the revised
minimum wages several months after the halfyearly wage revisions. A vast majority of the
poor, illiterate and unorganised labour keep on
working in oblivion of these half yearly wage
revisions. Thus, there is a need for wide publicity
of the wage revisions through newspapers, radio
and television.
ii) The Building and Construction activity is
dominated by the workers belonging to the
unskilled category which constituted 69.97 percent
of the total workers employed in the 82
establishments covered by the Study.
iii) The average daily earnings of the workers (all
categories) covered by the Study worked out to Rs.
80.86. The average daily earnings of the different
categories of workers varied widely from Rs.
53.95 for the unskilled category to Rs.144.71 for
the Highly Skilled category of workers. The
average daily earnings of the skilled workers
worked out to Rs. 118.86 and those for the semi
skilled workers were Rs.79.85.
iv) The female workers were found to be engaged
only in the lowest paid unskilled category. They
usually resided in or around the work sites and
joined their male family workers engaged in
building and construction activities on marginally
46
lower wages. The average daily earnings of the
female workers worked out to Rs.45.47 as against
Rs. 61.95 for their male counterparts.
v) Quite often the male migrant labour insisted on
seeking employment for their spouces and
accepted almost half the prescribed minimum
wages for working together as couple rather than
seeking work independently.
vi) Compliance with the record keeping provisions
under Section 18 of the Act was found to be
unsatisfactory in all the regions. The situation was
relatively better in Konkan, Nagpur and Pune
Regions. By and large pay slips were not being
issued by the sample establishments. In all 17.1
percent of the establishments were maintaining the
Register of Wages and 20.7 percent were
maintaining the Muster Roll and 4.9 percent
establishments were maintaining Register of Fines.
Notices and abstracts prescribed under the Act
were displayed only by 2.4 percent of the
establishments.
vii) In all 23.3 percent of the workers were
receiving the prescribed minimum wages.
Compliance with the statutory minimum wages
was cent percent for the Highly Skilled category of
workers. It was fairly good at 63.2 percent for the
skilled category.
The compliance with the
statutory wages was, however, Nil for the
unskilled category.
viii) The enforcement officers disclosed that they
were unable to enforce the prescribed minimum
wages of Rs. 103.00 to Rs.107.00 for the unskilled
labour as the market wages were around Rs. 50.00
per day.
ix) The proportion of employers showing some
kind of knowledge about the Minimum Wages
Act, 1948, the Equal Remuneration Act, 1976 and
the prescribed minimum wages worked out to
64.6, 58.5 and 35.4 percent respectively while 13.4
percent of the Employers were found to be the
members of the Builders Associations.
47
x) The awareness among workers about the
prescribed minimum wages for all the categories
of workers taken together worked out to a highly
unsatisfactory level of 13.0 percent.
Such
awareness in case of the unskilled category of
workers was as low as 2.0 percent. However, 31.6
percent of the skilled workers were aware of the
wages required to be paid to them. Level of
awareness about the workers organisations and the
Trade Union Act, 1926 was still worse as none of
the workers covered in the Building and
Construction establishments was associated with
the Trade Unions.
48
18 - Evaluation Study on the Implementation of the Minimum
Wages Act,1948 in Building and Construction Establishments
in Madhya Pradesh
A -General Particulars
a) Author
Director General,
Labour Bureau, Chandigarh/Shimla
b) Commencement
1998
c) Completion
1999
d) Publisher
Director General,
Labour Bureau, unpriced publication
(for official use) running into 61pages
B- Technical details and Findings
e) Universe
The study was conducted in the Building and
Construction establishments falling under the
Scheduled
Employment
“Construction
or
Maintenance of Roads or Building Operations”
located in seven regions of Madhya Pradesh,
namely, Bhopal, Durg, Gwalior,Indore, Raipur,
Satna and Ujjain.
f) Sample /Methodology
Purposive sampling was used to select the
establishments so as to ensure representation of all
the selected regions.
Within a region the
establishments were further sub-divided into upper
size (those employing 20 or more workers) and
lower size (those employing less than 20 workers).
A total of 95 establishments belonging to the
employment under study were selected as sample,
out of which 38 belonged to the upper size and 57
belonged to the lower size. Upper and lower size
units were selected in proportion to their respective
share in total units/establishments.
While selecting the sample establishments it was
also ensured that the Public Sector and Private
Sector Construction Units are duly represented in
it.
49
Labour Bureau’s field staff collected data through
specially designed questionnaires for the purpose.
g) Objectives
The study was conducted to assess :i) the extent to which the provisions of the
Minimum Wages Act, 1948 have been enforced;
ii) the extent of awareness about the provisions of
the Minimum Wages Act, 1948 and the Equal
Remuneration Act,1976 amongst the employers,
contractors and various categories of workers;
iii) the level of compliance with the prescribed
minimum wages and
iv) the problems faced in the enforcement of the
provisions of the Act.
h) Findings
i) It was observed that generally the employers as
well as the workers were not aware of the revised
minimum wages several months after the wage
revisions.
The employers had a common
complaint that there is an inordinate delay in the
receipt of wage revision notifications.
ii) The Building and Construction activity is
dominated by the workers belonging to the
unskilled category who constituted 68.7 percent of
the total workers employed in the establishments
covered by the Study. Employment of female
workers was confined to the unskilled category
and they constituted 46.24 percent of unskilled
workers and 31.76 percent of the total workers.
The unskilled workers constituted the most
ignorant, illiterate and unorganized section of the
construction workers. They do not possess the
skills which command higher wages or organise
themselves to demand the legal wages.
iii) The average daily earnings of the workers (all
categories) covered by the Study worked out to
Rs. 68.41 as against Rs. 45.14 for the unskilled
category. The average daily earnings of the semiskilled, skilled and clerical/supervisory categories
of workers worked out to Rs.66.61, 85.44 and
77.66 respectively.
50
iv) In all 56.2 percent of the workers covered by
the Study were receiving the prescribed minimum
wages. Non-compliance with the statutory wages
was confined to the unskilled category. All the
workers belonging to the semi skilled, skilled and
clerical/supervisory categories were receiving the
prescribed minimum wages.
v) According to the Study only 33.2 percent of the
unskilled workers were receiving the prescribed
wages. Level of compliance with the legal wages
varied from 6.7 per cent in Raipur to cent per cent
in the Ujjain Region. It was observed that the
compliance with the statutory wages was relatively
better in the industrial regions like Bhopal, Durg,
Indore and Gwalior as compared to Raipur and
Satna.
vi) About half the workers covered by the Study
had no idea about minimum wage rates and related
matters. The proportion of unskilled labour
showing some sort of awareness about the
minimum wages was 43.2 per cent. The high
levels of non-compliance are attributed to lack of
awareness and prevalence of market wages.
vii) Only 22.1 percent of the establishments were
found to be maintaining the prescribed records
mostly pertaining to attendance and payment of
wages. In the absence of records the inspection
procedure was reduced to recording of oral
versions and issuing notices for maintaining
records.
However, most of the smaller
establishments invoked the provisions of the
Labour Laws (Exemption from Furnishing Returns
and Maintaining Forms/Registers by Certain
Establishments) Act, 1988 to claim immunity from
maintaining the prescribed records.
51
19 - Study on Wage Structure and Labour, Assam Valley Tea
Plantations
A -General Particulars
a) Author
Sh. Rana Partap Behal,
V.V.Giri National Labour Institute,
Sector 24, Noida, U.P.
b) Commencement
2000
c) Completion
2003
d) Publisher
Director,
V.V.Giri National Labour Institute,
Noida-24, U.P.
B- Technical details and Findings
e) Universe
Tea plantation areas of Assam Valley.
f) Methodology
Nature of wage structure in the Assam Valley Tea
Plantations during 1900 and 1947 has been
analysed by using most of the wage data relating to
the three districts of Lakhimpur, Sibsagar and
Darrang. Critical analysis of official methods of
collection/compilation of wage data; employers
claim of fair wage and comfortable living
conditions; implications of concessions granted to
labour, etc. has been attempted. Efforts have also
been made to construct a price index to get an idea
of trends in nominal and real wages.
g) Objectives
The prime objective was to study average monthly
earnings of each category of labour for each
district from the wage returns submitted by the
Planters to the Government.
h) Findings
i) The study reveals that there was not a
comfortable and wellfed labour force in the Assam
Valley Tea Gardens.
ii) The labourers were regularly under paid by the
Planters.
iii) The study also reveals that though nominal
wages increased over time, the real wages actually
52
declined and created a situation of under
nourishment and malnutrition.
iv) To keep the labour force alive and working, the
system of advances and concessions viz. subsidies,
rations, land for private cultivation, etc. proved
useful to the employees.
v) The study indicates that instead of paying a
viable market wage, it was the practice of wages in
kind which appeared to be the major feature of
capital labour relations in the Assam Valley tea
gardens.
vi) It was observed during study that the variation
between the wages of men, women and children
was totally arbitrary and discriminatory. Women
and Children were paid less than men whereas the
hours of work for women and children were same
as compared with men.
vii) Assam tea labourers were deficient both in
quantity and quality and also nutrition.
Development of children was lower than children
of other labour classes.
53
20 - Occupational Wage Survey in Nine Manufacturing Industries
A - General Particulars
a) Author
Director General,
Labour Bureau, Chandigarh/Shimla
b) Commencement
1998
c) Completion
November, 2001
d) Publisher
Controller of Publications,
Civil Lines, Delhi-110 054
Pages 284, Price Rs.140.00
B- Technical details and Findings
e) Universe
Nine Manufacturing Industries (Viz., Manufacture
and Refining of Sugar (Vacuum Pan Sugar
Factories, Manufacture of Hydrogenated Oils,
Vanaspati Ghee etc., Cashewnut Shelling,
Processing and Packing, Manufacature of Paper,
News Prints and Packing Paper (Mechine Made),
Manufacture of Cigarette and Cigarette Tobacco,
Printing and Publishing of News papers,
Periodicals, Book, Journals, Atlases, Maps and
Sheet Music, Directories etc., Manufacture of
Milk Powder, Ice Cream Powder, Condensed
Milk, Baby Milk Foods and Pasteurized Milk in
Bottles (Plain and flavoured), Soft Drinks and
Carbonated Industries, Manufacture of Plastic
Articles). The scope of the survey extends to all
workers as defined under Section 2m(i) and 2m (ii)
of the Factories Act,1948. The data was also
collected for badli, casual and contract workers
working with the selected units.
f) Sample Size and Methodology
adopted
Standard Sample Survey Techniques were
employed for the survey. Out of 9417 units in the
frame, 502 units were selected using stratified
sampling technique. The data was collected from
the sampled units through personal visits.
g) Objectives
The main objectives of the Study were :i) To examine inter and intra industry wage
differentials in different occupations in various
54
industries.
ii) To evaluate the implementation of Equal
Remuneration Act,1976 in various Industries etc.
iii) To provide basic data for building up Wage
Rate Indices.
h) Findings
i)
Workforce
The total work force in the Nine Manufacturing
Industries was estimated to be about 8.13 lakhs out
of which 77.83 percent workers were men, 22.13
percent were women and 0.04 percent were
adolescents. Employment in all these industries
was male 88.92 percent or more, except
Cashewnut Industry in which women employment
was as high as 95.23 percent. The Paper and News
Prints Industry and Sugar Industry employed as
low as 0.15 and 0.16 percent women workers
respectively. The adolescents were employed in
Tamil Nadu Stratum of Cashewnut Industry only.
Most of the workers viz. 80.34 percent were
employed on time-rate system of wage payment
whereas the remaining 19.66 percent of the
workers were employed on piece-rate basis. Piecerate system of wage payment was prevalent only in
three industries viz. Cashewnut, Paper & News
Prints and Hydrogenated Oils. The maximum
percentage of the total work force was employed
as Helper and Coolie/Mazdoor/Labourer.
ii)
Wage Rates
The lowest average daily minimum wage rate of
Rs.41.73 was reported in Cashewnut Industry,
whereas that of the highest of Rs.140.13 in
Cigarette Industry. Similarly, the lowest and the
highest average daily maximum wage rates were
reported as Rs. 54.76 in Cashewnut Industry and
Rs.181.00 in Milk Products Industry respectively.
Sex-wise lowest average daily minimum wage
rates were reported as Rs. 60.23 for men and
Rs.40.88 for women in Cashewnut Industry. Sexwise highest average daily maximum wage rates
were reported as 182.47 for men in Milk Products
and Rs. 165.76 for women in Sugar Industry.
55
The average daily minimum wage rate was lowest
at Rs. 39.85 for “Sheller” in Cashewnut Industry
and highest at Rs.219.58 for “Block Maker/Die
Caster” in Printing/Publishing Industry.
The
lowest and highest average daily maximum wage
rates were at Rs.48.83 for “Grader” in Cashewnut
Industry and Rs.568.20 for “Chargehand” in Milk
Products Industry
The difference in wage rates for men and women
workers at unit level were observed in 3.24 percent
of the units selected for the survey. The reasons
for these differentials were differences in seniority,
length of service and non-existence of any
prescribed pay scales, etc.
iii)
Dearness Allowance
Dearness Allowance as a separate component, was
paid in 31.40 percent of units covering about 71
percent of employees in the industry. Out of D.A.
paying units, 51.45 percent of the units were using
Labour Bureau Series of CPI Numbers, whereas
30.62 percent of the units were using State Series
of CPI Number and the rest of 17.93 percent units
were using other mechanism for payment of
dearness allowance to its employees. Out of DA
paying units using Labour Bureau Series of CPI
Numbers for payment of dearness allowance,
22.92 percent of the units were using current series
of CPI Number with base year 1982=100, whereas,
73.01 percent of the units were using CPI series
with base year 1960=100 and the rest of 4.07
percent units were still using very old series of CPI
Number. Out of units using Labour Bureau Series
of CPI Numbers for payment of DA to its
employees, 81.35 percent of the units were using
All India CPI Numbers, whereas, the rest of 18.65
units were using State Level or Centre Level CPI
Numbers.
Out of DA paying units, majority of units i.e.
82.05 percent were paying Dearness Allowance
according to changes in Consumer Price Index
Numbers, 10.65 percent at Flat rates, 3.75 percent
by Pay scales/Slabs, 3.45 percent by other methods
56
and the rest 0.10 percent by combination of all
these systems.
iv)
Pay Roll Earnings
Taking all the Nine Manufacturing Industries
together, the average daily earnings of workers
was estimated as Rs. 104.83, whereas, the same for
men, women and adolescents were Rs.120.59,
Rs.49.50 and Rs. 31.92 respectively. Overall
average daily earnings were highest at Rs. 211.77
in Cigarette Industry and lowest at Rs. 47.21 in
Cashewnut Industry. The average daily earning of
the time-rated workers was Rs. 118.22 and the
piece-rated workers stood at Rs.50.09.
Average daily basic wage rate at Rs. 51.74 and
average daily dearness allowances at Rs. 40.39
were the main components of workers’ earnings
for the Nine Manufacturing Industries taken
together.
In all, 1.04 percent workers were still earnings
Rs.25.00 or less, 51.14 percent workers between
Rs.25.00 and Rs.100.00, 42.41 percent workers
between Rs.100.00 and Rs.200.00 and the rest 5.41
percent beyond Rs.200.00 per day.
v)
Real Earnings
The index of real earnings during the year 1998
with respect to the base year 1990=100 showed the
rising trend in real earnings in four industries with
highest increase of about 32 percent in Cashewnut
Industry. It also revealed decreasing trend in real
earnings in four industries with maximum decline
of about 14 percent in Hydrogenated Oils Industry.
Highest and lowest average daily earnings in different occupations in the Nine
Manufacturing Industries under study are given below:
57
Sl. No.
Name of the Industry
1.
Sugar Industry
2.
Hydrogenated Oils
3.
Cashewnut
4.
Cigarette
5.
Paper & News Prints
6.
Printing/Publishing
7.
Milk Products
8.
Soft Drinks Industry
9.
Plastic Articles
Average daily Earnings (in Rs.)
Highest
163.00
(Supervisor)
190.41(Driller)
71.32
(Coolie/Mazdoor)
264.42
(Blender)
217.59
Mistry/Kangani)
238.12
(Ludlow Operator)
253.15
(Chargehand)
150.73
(Supervisor)
216.98
(Foreman-Mech./Elect.)
Lowest
108.19
(Loader/Unloader)
74.09 (Sweeper)
45.51
(Grader)
88.09
(Sweeper)
109.46
(Coolie/Mazdoor)
78.93
(Machine
Operator/Machinist)
88.45
(Ice Cream Maker)
59.77
(Packer)
42.25
(Sweeper)
vi) Over-Time
Overtime working was found to be prevalent in all the industries except
Cashewnut and Plastic Articles.
58
21 - Occupational Wage Survey in Ten Manufacturing Industries
(Viz. Manufacture of Footwear (excluding repair) except vulcanized or moulded
Rubber or Plastic Footwear, Petroleum Refineries, Manufacture of Basic Industrial
Organic, Inorganic Chemicals and Gases, Manufacture of Fertilizers (Inorganic,
Organic and Mixed), Manufacture of Drugs and Medicines, Manufacture of Toilet
Soap, Washing Soap and Soap Powder, Manufacture of Matches, Manufacture of
Glass and Glass Products, Manufacture of Cement , Manufacture of Tyre and
Tubes).
A - General Particulars
a) Author
Director General,
Labour Bureau, Chandigarh/Shimla
b) Commencement
1997
c) Completion
August, 2001
d) Publisher
Controller of Publications,
Civil Lines, Delhi-110 054
Pages : 270, Price : Rs 150.00
B- Technical details and Findings
e) Universe
The scope of the survey extends to all workers as
defined under Factories Act, 1948 Section 2m (i)
and 2m(ii) in the ten industries mentioned above.
Besides this, the data was also collected for badli,
casual and contract workers working with the
selected units.
f) Sampling/ Methodology
Stratified Sampling Technique has been used.
Seven hundred and ninety six units were selected
for this study out of 9423 units. The data was
collected by visiting the industrial units
g) Objectives
i) To provide basic data for builidng up Wage Rate
Indices.
ii) To obtain data on different components of pay
roll earnings in respect of different occupations
which would facilitate scientific studies of inter
and intra industry differentials in earnings in
selected industries.
iii) To evaluate the Implementation of Equal
Remuneration Act,1976.
59
h) Findings
i) Workforce:
The total work-force shown in Ten Manufacturing
Industries was estimated to be about 7.40 lakhs
and of which 84.28 percent were men, 15.18
percent women and 0.54 percent adolescents.
Majority of women workers (77 percent) were
employed in Match and Footwear Industries. No
women worker was employed in Petroleum
Refineries. Adolescents were engaged in Match
Industry only. Most of the workers 89.54 percent
were paid by time rate system and remaining 10.46
percent were paid on piece-rate basis. Piece-rate
system was not prevalent in Petroleum Refineries
and Chemical industry. The maximum workforce
was employed as ‘Helper’ followed by Plant
Operator .
ii) Wage Rates
The lowest average daily minimum wage rate of
Rs. 31.44 was reported in Match industry and
highest of average daily minimum wage rate of
Rs. 149.94 was observed in Petroleum Refineries.
In case of men it was lowest in Match industry
(Rs.57.09) and highest in Petroleum Refineries
(Rs.149.94), for Women, lowest rate was in Match
industry (Rs.24.94) and highest in Drug industry
(Rs.69.45).
The average daily minimum wage rate (Rs.218.39)
was observed to be highest for ‘Tarwala’
occupation in Glass industry. The highest paid
occupation (average daily maximum wage rate)
was Foreman (Rs.426.36) in Soap industry.
The difference in wage rates for men and women
workers at unit level were observed in 52 units out
of the 796 units selected for the survey. The
reasons for these differentials were differences in
seniority, length of service and non-existence of
any prescribed payscale, etc.
iii) Dearness Allowance
Dearness Allowance as a separate component was
60
reported to be paid in 19.93 percent of units which
covered about 88 percent of employees in these
units paying Dearness Allowance. Majority of
units were paying Dearness allowance according
to changes in Consumer Price Index Numbers.
iv) Pay Roll Earnings
Taking all the Ten Manufacturing Industries together the average daily earning worked out to be
Rs. 117.18. Sex-wise per day earnings were
Rs. 130.20 for Men, Rs. 47.99 for Women and
Rs. 31.81 for adolescents. These earnings were
highest in Petroleum Refineries (Rs.256.64) and
lowest in Match industry (Rs.42.24).
Basic wages and dearness allowances were the
main components of workers’ earnings i.e. about
47 percent and 35 percent respectively.
v) Variation in Average Daily Earnings in
Ten Manufacturing Industries
The index of real earnings during 1997 with 1989
as base showed the highest increase in real
earnings by about 194 percent in Soap industry
and it also revealed fall in real earnings in case of
four industries with maximum decline of about 39
percent in Footwear industry.
Highest and lowest average daily earnings in different Manufacturing Industries under
study were for the occupations as given below:-
Sl.
No.
Name of Industry
1.
Manufacture of Footwear
2.
Petroleum Refineries
3.
Manufacture of Chemicals & Gases
Average Daily Earnings by Occupations
(in Rs.)
Highest
Lowest
144.29
(Foreman)
313.57
(Carpenter)
160.97
(Maistry)
61
34.01
(Coolie)
47.64
(Coolie)
52.00
(Coolie)
4.
Manufacture of Fertilizers
5.
Manufacture of Drugs
6.
Manufacture of Soap
7.
Manufacture of Matches
8.
Manufacture of Glass
9.
Manufacture of Cement
10.
Manufacture of Tyre & Tubes
245.91
47.65
(Machine Operator)
(Loader)
188.00
53.79
(Instrument mechanic)
(Coolie)
401.30
43.96
(Foreman)
(Drum Dyer operator)
174.93 (Label
20.17
Printing Machine
(Tray Setter)
Operator)
215.55
20.28
(Tarwala)
(Loader)
387.99
69.46
(Welder)
(Hammerman)
266.44
72.28
(Semi Automatic)
(Packer)
vi) Overtime
In Ten Manufacturing Industries taken together 38.70 percent workers had worked
overtime whereas only 5.83 percent units out of all the units reported the payment of
overtime allowances.
62
22 - Physical Stress, Productivity and Perceived Exertion of Women
in Charkha Spinning
A - General Particulars
a) Author
Dr. Sheeja B.S.
Gandhigram Rural Institute,
Gandhigram, Tamil Nadu
b) Supervisor
Sh.N.Kamalamma,
Head, Department of Home Science,
Gandhigram Rural Institute,
Gandhigram- 624 302
c) Sponsored by
Occupational Health Services,
Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd.,
Trichy
d) Commencement
January, 2001
e) Completion
December, 2002
f) Publisher
Unpublished, MSS available with Dr. Sheeja B.S.,
Payatuvila Edava (P.O.), Thiruvananthapuram Distt.,
Kerala –695 311
B- Technical details and Findings
g) Universe
Universe of the study was restricted to khadi and
village industries in Madurai Region. There were 56
units under 27 Institutions, employing 601 women
workers.
h) Sample
Random sampling method was used to select a
sample of khadi spinning units. 150 women spinners
were selected from four institutions namely
i) Khadi and Village Industries Board, ii) Madurai
West Sarvodaya Sangh, iii) Grama Rajya Nirman
Sangh, iv) Gandhigram Khadi and Village Industries
Public Charitable Trust.
i) Methodology
Both interview and observation methods were
employed to identify the problems relating to job
content, job context and occupational health.
Postural stress and discomfort, physical stress and
63
perceived exertion were measured using Body
Discomfort Mapping method. Draftman’s flexicurve,
pulse rate monitoring and perceived exertion scale
were used for assessment of spinal curvature. A subsample of 10 subjects each was chosen from those
women workers who were using six, eight and twelve
spindle charkha.
j) Objectives
i) To study the physical stress of spinning operation.
ii) To study Productivity and Perceived Exertion of
women in charkha spinning.
iii) To identify the most productive stress using
charkha and health problems.
k) Findings
i) Psychological stress were observed in all the
categories of women workers.
ii) Workers were suffering from cold and cough,
wheezing, defective eyesight, chest pain, muscular
pains in the body. Excessive sweating and dryness of
throat and mouth was reported by more than 85
percent of the spinners while working.
iii) The mean score of perceived exertion was
reported 2.02 (six spindle), 2.95 (eight spindle) and
2.71 (twelve spindle) during the operations of
charkhas on a scale with value ranging from 0 to 2.
The highest level of body discomfort was noticed
among six-spindle charkha operators.
iv) The major problems faced by the spinners were
low income, high work load and low speed of
production.
v) Based on the obsevations and work evaluation, the
study suggests that shifting of handle towards the
front in the six spindle charkha, reduction of handle
length in the eight spindle charkha and provision of
back support for the seat of the twelve spindle
charkha would improve the efficiency of the work.
A shift from old models to the twelve spindle
charkha would improve the status of charkha
spinning and the women workers.
64
23 - Studies in Wage -Productivity Relationship in Indian Public Sector
A - General Particulars
a) Author
Dr. Juin Choudhury,
Lecturer in Management, The ICFAI University,
ICFAI Business School (IBS),
Plot : J –3, Block GP, Sector V ,
Salt Lake City, Kolkata –700 091 (WB)
b) Supervisor
i) Dr. Prabhas Kumar Chakrabarti –Internal Guide,
Assistant Professor, Deptt. of Management Studies,
Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad –826 004
ii) Dr. Pramod Pathak –Co-Guide
Associate Professor & Head of the Department,
Deptt. of Management Studies, Indian School of
Mines, Dhanbad –826 004
c) Commencement
December,1996
d) Completion
September,2003
e) Publisher
Unpublished, MSS available
with Dr. Juin Choudhury
B- Technical details and Findings
f) Universe
This study was conducted in these industries viz.
i) Indian Coal Industry
ii) Indian Non-Coal Mining Industry
iii) Indian Steel Industry
g) Sample
Out of the universe, the following units were
taken in the sample:i) Eastern Coalfields Ltd.
ii) Bharat Coking Coal Ltd.
iii) Coal India Ltd.
iv) Indian Non-Coal Public Sector
(Copper and Gold)
v) Steel Authority of India Ltd.
h) Methodology
The data published by the Government of India
relating to the period 1973-1999 was collected and
various statistical methods such as trend analysis,
65
formulation of econometric model, regression
analysis and tests of significance were applied to
arrive at the conclusions.
i) Objectives
The study was conducted with the following
objectives:i) To identify the relationship between Wages and
Productivity.
ii)To examine the nature of growth of the parameters
like protection, average daily employment, average
productivity, average weekly working and real wage,
average wage bill and share of wage in output in
these industries.
j) Findings
i) The relationship between wage productivity and
money wage of Eastern Coalfields Ltd., had been
always dis-proportionate between 1973 and 1999.
ii) The relationship between average productivity and
real wage of Eastern Coalfields Ltd., was
proportionate and satisfactory.
iii)A positive relationship between money wage and
wage productivity was observed in Bharat Coking
Coal Ltd.
iv) Average productivity was increased at the rate of
11.30% per year and money wage increased annually
at the rate of 12.07% . In Coal India Ltd., the
relationship between average productivity and real
wage was disproportionate and unsatisfactory.
Therefore the model productivity was the function of
wages and incentives was not filled in the Coal India
Ltd.,
v) A positive relationship between average
productivity and money wage was observed in Indian
Copper Industry.
vi) The model productivity was the function of wage
and incentives and was fitted in Indian Copper
Industry.
66
vii) In Indian Gold industry the relationship between
average productivity and money wage, average
productivity and real wage were unsatisfactory.
viii) Relationship between average productivity and
money wages, average productivity and real wages in
Indian Steel Industry had been disproportionate and
unsatisfactory.Indian Public Sector was facing threat
in the liberalized economy related to wage and
productivity relationship in Indian Coal Mining
Industry, Indian Non-coal Mining Industry and
Indian Steel Industry.
67
24 - Labour Contracts and Work Agreements in Tea Plantations
of Assam
A -General Particulars
a) Author
Sh. Kalyan Das,
V.V.Giri National Labour Institute, Noida
b) Completion
2002
c) Publisher
V.V.Giri National Labour Institute,
Sector –24, Noida –201 301
B- Technical details and Findings
d) Universe
Tea estates/garden located in Dibrugarh and
Sibsagar districts of Assam.
e) Sample
Four tea estates and 14 small tea gardens were
selected as first stage sample. As second stage
sample 350 workers from four plantation estates
and 150 workers from 14 small tea gardens were
selected.
f) Methodology
Four large tea estates were selected purposively –
each belonging to a different management (with
the presumption that pecuniary and non-pecuniary
benefits to the workers may vary with the
management. Fourteen small tea gardens were
purposively selected from three different size
classes as under :i) Below 10 acres gardens (demarcation limit set
by the State Government).
ii) Ten acres & more but less than 25 acres
(defined by the Tea Board of India).
iii) 25 acres and above (proclaimed by the All
Assam Small Tea Growers Association).
Finding of the study are based on background
documents and the information gathered
through interaction with sample workers.
g) Objectives
i) To study the Working and Living Conditions of
the workers, health and sanitation, wages &
employment benefits, degree of workers
68
mobilization, etc.
ii) To capture and study the differences in labour
contracts and recruiting mechanisms across
regions and size holdings.
iii) To study the growth rate related to permanent
and casual workers.
h) Findings
i) In the early phase of liberalisation, growth rate
of permanent as well as casual labour has declined
in the organised tea plantation sector (large estates)
in Assam. In the later phase, though there is some
growth, it is more towards casualisation of
workforce.
ii) In the unorganised sector (small tea gardens) of
Assam a significant employment growth has been
observed during this period.
iii) During the pre-independence period
recruitment of labour was through ‘arakattis’
(agents) or through tea garden ‘Sardars’. Labour
was shipped to Assam’s gardens in inhuman
conditions resulting in their mortality as high as 50
percent, wages in plantations, were below
subsistence level and labour lives in the gardens
were generally uninhabitable. British tea planters
were omnipotent, assumed extra-legal authority
and did not encourage free labour market by
offering competetive wages.
iv) Enactment of the Factories Act,1948 and
subsequently of the Plantation Labour Act, 1951
during the post- independence era has resulted in
protection of plantation workers’ interests. At
present most of the workers in large estates (90
percent) are drawn from plantation workers
families. In small tea gardens local surplus labour,
which generally consist of ex-tea garden workers,
is employed.
v) Demand for labour is maximum during the
plucking season, which is met by engaging casual
workers.
69
vi) As per the Assam Plantation Labour Rules,
1956, the workers to be employed in plantations
need to obtain certificate of fitness from surgeons
before recruitment. The study, however, shows
that neither the sample workers were aware of this
provision nor they got themselves certified before
joining their job.
vii) The small tea gardens in the state have been
able to generate lot of jobs and the workers in
these gardens are able to get work for sufficient
number of days in a month.
viii) Literacy rate and level of educational
attainment is reported to be low among plantation
workers as compared to the rural literacy in the
state.
ix) In the sample families of permanent workers in
the four sample tea estates male literacy was
higher ( in the range of 80 to 90 percent) as
compared to female literary ( 35 to 65 percent).
x) Intergenerational occupational shift is not
prevalent in the plantations in general.
xi) About 36 percent of the families of permanent
workers had estimated monthly income of less
than Rs 1600/- per month - the poverty line
identified during the IXth Plan period.
xii) Proportion of casual workers families having
income below Rs. 1600/- per month was
comparatively less than that of permanent workers.
This was due to the fact that their other family
members were also engaged in the plantation job
leading to higher household income.
xiii) About 91 percent of permanent sample
workers in the four sampled tea estates had been
provided accommodation and 8 percent had been
provided homestead land by the garden authority.
About 90 percent permanent workers stayed in
semi-pucca structures and the rest stayed in kutcha
houses.
xiv)All sample workers reported that managements
70
do not share problems on any aspect with them.
According to them freedom of association is
severaly restricted and ACMS Trade Union
dominates the Assam Plantations and it is the only
Union recognised by the employers. ACMS and
managements reportedly have nexus between
them.
71
25 - Occupational Health and Postural Stress of Women
in Cashew Industry
A - General Particulars
a) Author
Dr. Sita,
Thadeeyatha Nangiarkulangara P.O.Haripad,
Alappuzha Distt., Kerala - 690 513
b) Supervisor
Sh. N.Kamalamma,
Professor in Home Science,
Gandhigram Rural Institute,
Gandhigram - 624 302
c) Commencement
March, 1998
d) Completion
June, 2000
e) Publisher
Unpublished,
MSS available with Dr. Sita
B- Technical details and Findings
f) Universe
Two hundred and thirty factories in Kollam District
of Kerala State formed the universe.
g) Sample
Multistage purposive random sampling method was
used for the study. The first stage units were 26
factories, out of 230 factories of the Cashew
Industry. At the second stage, 520 women workers
were selected in the four different departments viz.,
Shelling/Cutting Section, Peeling Section, Grading
Section and Packing Section in the ratio of 5:2:2:1.
h) Methodology
Interview method was used for baseline survey. For
perceived opinion of postural stress, the assessment/
observation/measurement method was adopted.
i) Objectives
i) To study occupational status and postural stress of
women workers.
ii) To identify allied complaints of women in the
industry.
iii) To suggest viable improvements at the worksite
for reducing the physical strain of the women in this
industry.
72
j) Findings
i) Postural stress and allied discomforts were
predominantly noticed among those working in the
Shelling Section.
ii) Cases of prolapsed uterus, miscarriage, congenital
deformities were predominantly noticed among
women in the Shelling Section.
iii) Workers in the cutting section experienced very
little postural strain because of variations in their
posture at work.
iv) The workers in the cashew industry are
vulnerable to occupational diseases due to socioeconomic and geoclimatic factors.
73
26 - Child Labour in Small Scale Industry in Punjab
A - General Particulars
a) Author
Dr. Pratibha Goyal,
Associate Professor, Deptt.of Business
Management, Punjab Agricultural University,
Ludhiana - 141 004
b) Sponsored by
UGC, New Delhi
c) Commencement
1999
d) Completion
2003
e) Publisher
UGC, New Delhi
B- Technical details and Findings
f) Universe
This study was conducted in Carpet, Sports goods
and Hosiery industries located in Amritsar, Jalandhar
and Ludhiana (Punjab).
g) Sample
Sample households were selected from the localities
with large concentration of home-based workers with
the help of opinion leaders and social workers. Data
were collected through questionnaires.
h) Objectives
The study was undertaken with the following
objectives :i) To gauge the incidence of child labour in Sports
goods, Carpet and Hosiery industries.
ii) To draw a profile of the child labour in these
industries and to assess its socio-economic impact.
i) Findings
i) About ten percent of the workers were children.
Most of them were found to be working at their
residence outside factory premises.
ii) Children generally started working at the age of
6-8 years and initially they did so just to fulfill their
desire to try their hand on the work being done by
their parents.
74
iii) Large family size was the reason for low per
capita income & poverty of workers families due to
which children had to continue working and thus
augmenting their family earnings.
iv) Selected children and their families believed
that education does not guarantee employment. This
discouraged children from obtaining education and
encouraged them to start working during their
childhood.
v) Most of the families of child workers owned
television, refrigerator, etc., indicating that they
had an improved standard of living which was the
result of children contributing to their family income.
vi) Monthly income of child workers ranged between
Rs. 200/- and Rs. 1200/- per month. Majority of
children however, earned in the range of Rs. 700/- to
Rs. 1000/- per month.
vii) Working conditions in the houses of child
workers families were not good.
viii) Some children reported that they suffered from
frequent headache, backache and joint-pain.
ix) The employer, for whom child workers were
working, did not take care of health, safety and
welfare of their workers.
75
27 - Organising and Empowering Rural Labour : Lessons from
Kancheepuram in Tamil Nadu
A -General Particulars
a) Author
Sh. Babu P. Ramesh,
V.V.Giri National Labour Institute, Noida
b) Completion
2002
c) Publisher
V.V.Giri National Labour Institute, Noida
B- Technical details and Findings
d) Universe
Rural Labour in Tamil Nadu.
e) Sample
Purposive sampling method is used to select the
study area and participants. Present study was
carried out in the Walajabad Block of
Kancheepuram Distt. in Tamil Nadu.
Eight Rural Labour Camps (RLCs) were organised
in the area during September 1998 – March 2000
in which 273 persons (138 Males and 135
Females) from 51 villages participated.
f) Methodology
For conducting RLCs the states/regions/pockets
with impressive histories of worker mobilisation
(like Kerala) are excluded. Norms for such a
selection include higher incidence of SCs or STs,
low level wages, more exploitative situations,
higher proportion of agricultural labourers,
distance from urban centres, occupational
diversification and prosperity of the region.
Various stages of Rural Labour Camps are as
under :
i) Selection of study region was made on the basis
of available secondary information related to the
area (Census data, local bodies data, map of the
area, etc.) and in discussion with key persons such
as Govt. officials, social activists, selected
workers, teachers, etc.
76
ii) Constitution of the Study Team – A team
Consisted of 1-2 Project Faculty, three Social
Organisers of which atleast one is female and one
Research Associate.
iii) Conduct of Baseline Survey – Socio –
economic survey of the study region was carried
out through the administration of pre-tested
questionnaires. The aim was to generate adequate
background information relating to specific issues
of the region and including the information on
living and working conditions, social educational
status, wages & income, consumption and savings,
land holdings, indebtedness, basic amenities, etc.
Sampling of villages (8-10 villages covering about
10-15 percent of the total area of the block selected
for study) was done through stratified sampling
technique and the norms used for stratification are
occupational disparity, caste-wise distribution,
degree of urbanisation, degree of backwardness,
etc. A sample of 250-300 rural households was
selected from the sampled villages giving adequate
weightage of rural labourers, non-labourers and the
persons
from
various
occupations
and
castes/religions.
iv) Pre –camp survey and selection of participants
–This was done for gaining rapport in the field and
for selecting the participants for labour camps. As
a part of this exercise about 6-10 villages were
selected and the team members made personal
visits to these villages with a view to enter the
moral boundaries of rural community and to build
up emotional closeness with the villagers.
Persons with traits of leadership and belonging to
socially and economically weaker sections were
given priority in selection for labour camps. On an
average 4-6 representatives are selected from one
village.
v) Holding Rural Labour Camps (RLCs) - These
were fully residential programmes with 3-5 days
duration.
Preparatory session, Problem Consolidation,
Reason Identification, Role Identification, Social
77
Transformation Through Collective Action,
Organisation
Building,
Interface
Session,
Preparation of Action Plan and Concluding
Session were the stages involved in a RLC.
vi) Follow –up visits - Holding of Camps was
followed by regular visits of the team members to
the villages to sustain and improve the
conscientisation level of workers and to train them
to handle organisational issues.
vii) Advanced Cadre Progarmmes - These
programmes were of three types viz., sessions
intended for leadership development, sessions on
structure and functioning of organisation and
sessions on information dissemination.
viii) Awareness Programmes - These included
setting up of small libraries, publication and
dissemination of pamphlets, preparation of wall
writings and banners, organising public meetings,
performing street plays & awareness magic shows
and cultural activities.
g) Objectives
i)To promote organisations of the people through
motivation , education and awareness programmes.
ii)To facilitate the processes for identifying,
planning and implementing need based action
programmes.
iii)To organise interface programmes between
people’s organisations and government agencies.
iv)To motivate, reorient and sensitise local
administration for providing support to the
organisations of rural poor.
v)To understand the process of emergence and
growth of people’s organisations and their
development related processes.
h) Findings
i) The various activities in the field resulted in
enhanced level of understanding of the workers
with respect to their working and living conditions,
role in socio-economic development of the locality
and the role in organisation building.
78
ii) The workers got exposure in interacting with
the Govt. and Govt. functionaries. They also
gained knowledge in preparing representations and
in following of their petitions/submissions.
iii) Political parties interference trade unions and
NGOS’ in the locality were observed to hinder and
discourage the workers from organising. The
project could bring in some positive changes in the
study area towards organising the workers.
iv) Sangham activities helped the workers in the
enhancement of their leadership capabilities.
79
28 - Rural Labour Enquiry –Indebtedness among Rural Labour
Households (1999-2000)
A - General Particulars
a) Author
Director General,
Labour Bureau, Chandigarh/Shimla
b) Sponsored by
Field work was undertaken by the National Sample
Survey Organisation and the analysis of data &
bringing out of the report has been done by
Labour Bureau
c) Commencement
July, 1999
d) Completion
June, 2000
e) Publisher
Director General,
Labour Bureau, Chandigarh/Shimla
B- Technical details and Findings
f) Universe
Rural Labour Enquiries are conducted in the rural
areas of the whole country except Ladakh and
Kargil distts. and few other areas of J & K , 768
interior villages of Nagaland (situated beyond 5
Kms. of the bus route) and 172 villages in
Andaman & Nicobar Islands (which are
inaccessible throughout the year).
g) Methodology
A stratified multistage sampling design was
adopted for selection of the sample units for the
survey. The First stage units (FSU) were the
census villages (Panchayat Wards for Kerala) and
the ultimate stage units (USU) were the
households.
Selection of First Stage Units (Villages)
The list of census villages as per 1991 population
census ( 1981 Census villages for the J & K )
constituted the sampling frame for selection of
sample FSU for most of the States. Two ‘special
strata’ were formed by considering villages of each
State/U.T. (a) with very small population (1 to
100) – Stratum –I and (b) with very high
80
population ( more than 15000) Stratum –II . These
strata were formed if at least 50 such FSUs were
there in the respective frames, otherwise these
villages were included in ‘general strata’.
At all-India level, a total number of 10,384 FSUs
(6208 villages and 4176 urban blocks) were
selected for the survey in the central sample.
State/U.T. level rural sample size was allocated
among the rural strata in proportion of population.
Selection of Households
Depending upon the values of approximate present
population (P) and approximate total number of
non-agricultural enterprises (E) of the villages, the
FSUs were further divided into fixed number of
hamlet-groups (hgs).
Hamlet group having maximum concentration of
non-agricultural enterprises was selected with
certainty for listing of households which formed
Segment–1.
Two more hamlet groups were
selected from the remaining hamlet groups using
circular systematic sampling method, forming
segment –2.
All households of segments 1 and 2 of FSUs were
listed independently, which formed the sampling
frame for selection of sample households from
corresponding segments.
All the households listed in a segment-wise
stratified into two second stage strata viz., affluent
households (owning items like motor car/jeep,
colour TV, telephone, etc.,) or (owning
land/livestock in excess of certain limits), which
formed second stage stratum –1. The rest of listed
households formed second stage strata –2.
Sample households were selected from the
respective frames by using circular systematic
sampling with equal probability.
A total of 3,74,856 persons spread over 71,385
rural households in 6046 villages were surveyed.
81
h) Objectives
To analyse the general characteristics of rural
households like demographic structure, size of a
household, landholding pattern, occupational
pattern, number of agricultural and nonagricultural labourers, etc.
i) Findings
i) During 1999-2000, out of 137.1 million total
estimated rural households in the Country, 55.1
million were rural labour households. Number of
agricultural labour households was 44.2 million.
ii) The incidence of indebtedness among all rural
households, defined as the percentage of indebted
households to total rural labour households,
declined from 35.1% in 1993-94 to 25.0% in 19992000.
iii) Incidence of indebtedness in the Scheduled
Castes rural labour households was 25.3% whereas
in case of Scheduled Tribes rural labour
households it was 22.9% at all India level.
iv) Among the States/UTs such incidence was the
highest in Dadra and Nagar Haveli (80.3%) and
lowest in Nagaland (3.1%) for all classes of
households.
v) During the year 1999-2000 the average debt per
indebted rural labour household worked out to be
Rs. 6049 as compared to the level of debt as Rs.
3169 in 1993-94 thus registering an increase of
90.9 percent over the previous round.
vi) Among the Scheduled Castes and the
Scheduled Tribes households, average debt per
indebted households was reported to be a lower at
Rs. 5077 and Rs.4781 respectively as compared to
“Other Backward Classes rural labour households”
where it was reported as Rs.7731 during the year
1999-2000.
vii) About 98 percent of the debt was contracted
by the households themselves whereas 1.9% was
inherited to them. This held true in case of
Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes rural
labour households also.
82
viii) A significant proportion of the debt was
raised for unproductive purposes, such as
household consumption (27.6%), marriages &
other ceremonies (24%) and repayment of debt
(1%), purchase of land & construction of building
was the purpose for 21% of the debt.
ix) Money lender continued to be the major source
of debt (31.7%) , though the banks have also
emerged as source of debt in significant proportion
of cases (17.19%) . Other significant sources were
reported to be friends and relatives (15.14)%), Cooperative Societies (13.09%) and shopkeepers
(7.13%).
83
29 - Rural Labour Enquiry –General Characteristics of
Rural Labour Households (1999-2000)
A -General Particulars
a) Author
Director General,
Labour Bureau, Chandigarh/Shimla
b) Sponsored by
Field work was undertaken by the National Sample
Survey Organisation during its 55th round and
tabulation /analysis of data as well as bringing out
of the report was done by Labour Bureau.
c) Publisher
Director General,
Labour Bureau, Chandigarh/Shimla
d) Reference Period
July, 1999 to June, 2000
B- Technical details and Findings
e) Universe
Rural Labour Enquiries are conducted in the rural
areas of the whole country except Ladakh and
Kargil Distts. and few other areas of J & K , 768
interior villages of Nagaland (situated beyond
5 Kms. of the bus route) and 172 villages in
Andaman & Nicobar Islands (which are
inaccessible throughout the year).
f) Methodology
A stratified multistage sampling design was
adopted for selection of the sample units for the
survey. The First stage units (FSU) were the
census villages (Panchayat Wards for Kerala) and
the ultimate stage units (USU) were the
households.
Selection of First Stage Units (Villages)
The list of census villages as per 1991 population
census ( 1981 Census villages for the J & K )
constituted the sampling frame for selection of
sample FSU for most of the states. Two ‘special
strata’ were formed by considering villages of each
State/U.T. (a) with very small population ( 1 to
100) – Stratum –I and (b) with very high
population ( more than 15000) Stratum –II . These
strata were formed if at least 50 such FSUs were
84
there in the respective frames, otherwise these
villages were included in ‘general strata’.
At all-India level, a total number of 10,384 FSUs
(6208 villages and 4176 urban blocks) were
selected for the survey in the Central sample.
State/U.T. level rural sample size was allocated
among the rural strata in proportion of population.
Selection Of Households
Depending upon the values of approximate present
population (P) and approximate total number of
non-agricultural enterprises (E) of the villages, the
FSUs were further divided into fixed number of
hamlet-groups (hgs.).
Hamlet group having maximum concentration of
non-agricultural enterprises was selected with
certainty for listing of households which formed
Segment –1. Two more hamlet groups were
selected from the remaining hamlet groups using
circular systematic sampling method, forming
segment –2.
All households of segments 1 and 2 of FSUs were
listed independently, which formed the sampling
frame for selection of sample households from
corresponding segments.
All the households listed in a segment-wise
stratified into two second stage strata viz., affluent
households (owning items like motor car/jeep,
colour TV, telephone, etc.,) or (owning
land/livestock in excess of certain limits), which
formed second stage stratum –1. The rest of listed
households formed second stage strata –2.
Sample households were selected from the
respective frames by using circular systematic
sampling with equal probability.
A total of 3,74,856 persons spread over 71,385
rural households in 6046 villages were surveyed.
85
g) Objectives
To analyse the general characteristics of rural
households like demographic structure, size of a
household, landholding pattern, occupational
pattern, number of agricultural and nonagricultural labourers etc.
h) Findings
i) Estimated number of rural households during
1999-2000, was 137.1 million out of these 55.1
million were rural labour households. Of the
RLHS 44.2 million were Agricultural Labour
Households. The proportion of the Rural Labour
Households belonging to the Scheduled Castes,
Scheduled Tribes and other Backward Classes was
33.8 percent, 13.2 percent and 34.1% respectively.
ii) During 1999-2000 Rural Labour Households
increased by 20.31% and Agricultural Labour
Households increased by 21.76% as compared to
1993-94 survey.
iii) At all India level, the average size of the rural
labour household increased to 4.67 in 1999-2000
from 4.48 in 1993-94. The rising trend was also
observed in the case of households belonging to
the weaker sections of the society.
iv) At all India level 40.85% of the Rural
Households were without cultivated land.
v) The land holding pattern of the Rural Labour
Households revealed that a majority of the
households did not own cultivated land. At all
India level, 58.88% of the households did not own
cultivated land. Proportion of SCs and STs and
OBCs households without cultivated land was
observed to be 66.51 percent , 47.11 percent and
57.3 percent respectively. A similar pattern of
land holding was observed in case of ALHs also.
vi) Average size of land cultivated by RLHs at allIndia level was 0.18 hectare in 1999-2000 as
against 0.23 hectare in 1993-94 and 0.32 hectare in
1987-88. Almost similar trend was observed in the
case of ALHs also.
vii) The occupational pattern of the RLHs reflected
that a majority of the members were not gainfully
86
occupied. The average household was of the size
of 4.67 persons out of which 2.69 persons were
without occupation, 1.44 were engaged as
agricultural labour, 0.30 as non-agricultural labour
and 0.24 in other occupations.
viii) Out of the average household size of 4.66,
4.73 and 4.61 persons respectively in case of SCs,
STs and other Backward classes of Rural labour
Households 2.68, 2.44 and 2.65 persons were
without occupation.
ix) The total number of agricultural labourers in
Rural Labour Households was estimated at 79.63
million as against 64.26 million shown in 1993-94.
About 60.55 percent of the total estimated number
of agricultural labourers were males, 36.81 percent
females, and 2.64 percent children. As compared
to 1993-94 the fastest growth was registered in
case of female labourers (30.31%) followed by
males (21.11%) and children (7.18%).
x) The number of non-agricultural labourers was
estimated at 16.41 million which was 133.47%
higher as compared to 1993-94 (7.02 million).
The number of male labourers increased by
151.74% and females by 92.42% whereas the
number of child labourers went down by 1.01% as
compared to 1993-94.
87
30 - Surveys of Different Segments of Labour “Unorganised Sector
Survey on the Working and Living Conditions of Workers in
Artistic Metalware Industry in India”.
A -General Particulars
a) Author
Director General,
Labour Bureau, Chandigarh/Shimla
b) Commencement
January, 1999
c) Completion
September, 2000
d) Publisher
Controller of Publications,
Civil Lines, Delhi - 110 054
Pages 190, Price Rs. 90.00
B- Technical details and Findings
e) Universe
Universe of the study workers were employed in
Artistic Metalware industry in India.
27
centres/pockets of concentration scattered over 10
States namely, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat,
Karnataka, M.P. Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu,
Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and Delhi.
f) Methodology/Sampling
Centres/pockets of concentration were identified in
consultation with the concerned State and Union
Government authorities. Keeping in view the
resource and time availability it was decided to
cover 200 units on sample basis. Overall sample
was allocated to different states on the basis of
total estimated number of Artistic Metalware Units
in the state. A total of 213 workers were selected
from the sample units for coverage. Separate
questionnaire were used to collect data/information
from the units and workers.
g) Objectives
The main objectives of the study was to study
working and living conditions of labour in
unorganised sector industry namely the Artistic
Metalware Industry at all India level.
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h) Findings
i) Working Conditions :
A total number of 2030 workers were employed in
the 200 units surveyed, of which the proportion of
directly employed workers was 62%. Of the
directly employed workers, 68% were piece rated,
and remaining were time rated. Majority of them
were getting their wages on monthly basis.
ii) Of the total workers, the Scheduled Castes
workers constituted 3.7%, Scheduled Tribes 1.4%
and other Backward Classes were 49.6%.
iii) About 87% of the units surveyed allowed
weekly off without wages, 7% with wages and in
the remaining units there was no provision of
weekly off at all.
iv) Over-Time was reported in 16.5% of the
selected units of which 24.2% of the units were
not making any extra payments for over time
work.
v) Only 9% units reported facility of First Aid
Boxes and 34.5% of the surveyed units reported
provision of Medical facility for their workers.
vi) Only 3% of the sampled units reported the
existence of Group Insurance Scheme.
vii) Drinking water facility was reported in all the
units surveyed. The facilities of washing, urinals
and latrines were available in 63%, 51% and
38.5% of the units respectively.
ii) Living Conditions
i) The average family size was worked out to be
5.3. The proportion of male members was 54.1
percent. The economically active population in the
age group of 14 to 60 years accounted for 64.3%.
ii) Out of a total of 1128 family members, 67.1%
members were literate, 21.6% were illiterate and
the remaining 11.3% were below 5 years of age.
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iii) The male earning members constituted 30.9%,
female 3.0%, non earners 64.3% and earning
dependant 1.9%.
iv) About 56.3% families had access to tap water
for drinking purposes. Electricity for lighting
purposes was used by 80.8% families.
v) Average monthly income of a family from paid
employment was Rs. 2862/- , with share of men
and women being Rs. 2703/- and Rs. 159/respectively. Average monthly income of a family
from self employment was Rs. 108/-, the share of
men, women and children being Rs. 101/-, Rs. 5/and Rs.2/- respectively.
vi) Out of 213 families surveyed, 29.1% were
reported to be under debt. Families contracting
loan in the range of Rs. 5001/- and above were
reported to be 35.5%.
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