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EDUCATION: THE PSYCHOLOGICAL
CONTEXT
What is educational psychology?
Educational psych is the study of what people [teachers and students] think and do and feel as they
teach them.
ACADEMIC LITERACY
What is it?
Skills need to communicate_ spelling< time management editing etc< involve academic literacy>
Academic literacy is multifaceted, active and a skill; it is a skill-learning academic discipline
 Multifaceted



It is operational
It is cultural- inappropriate language for purposes
It is critical- how we make meanings and how it can be changed and
transformed.

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Active use of language and text: learning the discourse’ memorizing
unknown words.
Taking responsibility of learning
Writing requires decision making.

Avoids contractions.

Academic literacy is a social process influenced by your culture,
culture influences the discourse of learning; academic discourse
‘acculturated into academic discipline’.
 Active
 Formal
 A skill
CHILD DEVELOPMENT OVER TIME – Krause pg 3-14, chapter 1
Module 1 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE LEARNER
What is child development?
Child development is the physical and brain development through the stages of infancy, early
childhood, middle childhood and adolescence. Child development explores the skills that emerge as
children and adolescences mature and how they act in the world and influenced by their
environment.
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AGE RANGES
1. INFANCY- 0-2 years old, end of indancy, generally grade 1-2
2. EARLY CHILDHOOD- 3-7 yrs old
3. MIDDLE CHILDHOOD- 8-12 years old, generally primary school age
4. ADOLESCENCE- 12 and up, generally high school onwards.
Developmental questions to consider:
How do nature and nurture together share together shape development?
 Generally theories fan on one or the other; there is really no middle.
 In this sense ‘nature’, the genetics of the child.
 Nurture; the environment and external influence upon the child- what aspects of child
development are influenced by these and as teachers and parents what impacts can be placed
on further developing the child?
 If genetics are a core influence, as teachers how can we place/change/influence the child’s
development.
How do children shape their own development?
How does the sociocultural context shape development?
In what ways is development continuous and what ways is it discontinuous?
 Continuous development suggests that we can predict the future development of a child.
 Discontinuous is that in which perspective recognize and find it difficult to determine the
child’s future prosperity of learning and developing.
Is change qualitive of quantative?
 Quantitative; more of the same- a 5 year old is seen as a ‘minature’ adult before the
beginnings of last century this was very much the typical view.
 Qualitative- a child is different to that of other persons- that is they are different
individually.
Are patterns of development universal or culturally specific?
 Do all children all over the world develop generally the same way?
 How is it that children are so different?
 How does development ‘fit in’ to the teaching environment?
See chapter 1-pg 9 for further explanation of external /internal influences.
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
Development is patterns of cephalocaudal and proximodistal. The physical development of a child,
takes and employs a continuous development.
Early Childhood
 Gross motor skills developed before fine motor skills
- Gross motor skills- set basis for further physical development. These include rolling,
jumping, throwing, clapping, those things that require the use of large muscle
groups. Gross motor skills generally develop consistently with the growth of the
child. Developed before fine motor skills. Note: In most aspects males lag behind in
motor skills than girls- this is only generally only by a few weeks.
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-
After gross motor skills are developed, center of gravity increases, leading to a sense
of balance, paving the way for development of fine motor skills.
Fine motor skills- these include using pencils and scissors- those things which
require the use of small muscle groups.
MIDDLE CHILDHOOD
 Increase in size, flexibility, strength and co-ordination.
 Sometimes overconfident- because activeness has developed significantly
due to the development of gross and fine motor skills, confidence is
developed. ACTIVENESS-> CONFIDENCE. A child then overestimates
their physical ability leading to accidents. Accidents generally peak at grade
3.
 Because at this age energy levels are also peaking, ‘breaks’ and ‘quiet times’
are significantly implemented. This refers to the encouragement of activeness
during recess/lunch as well as sporting activities implemented in schooling
curriculums. This is a result of a child’s inability to focus on small/’minute’
things -> loose concentration easily, this is recognized through a child’s
figityness, wanting to release their phsycial energy.
 By the end, some larger sender differences emerging on tasks. It is during
middlechildhood that main gener differences arise.
 Boys outweigh girls in kicking, throwing etc. Girls outweigh boys in balance.
This reinforces the fact that boys generally lag behind in the development of
motor skills.
ADOLESCENCE
 Puberty- growth becomes uneven and rapid
 Puberty begins with growth spurts
 Over the past 50 years the age of puberty has become younger. Girls generally enter puberty
before high school.
 Girls also generally have their growth spurts 18 months before boys.
 Generally, children are taller and heavier than their parents, when their parents were their
age. This is specifically the earlier stages of the childs life. This is largely a result of the
levels of nutrition overtime.
Gender differences in pubertal onset
1. Between years 8-9 it is the only period that the male is taller and stronger than the
female. This is a result of the physical pubertal onsets and lags of pubertal
development between genders.
BRAIN DEVELOPMENT
 Billions of nerve cells (neurons) store, transmit information.
 Neurons- cell bnody, axon, dendrites, synapses (diagram on pp13)
 Neurons are stimulated by surroundings which leads to growth.
 Process of myelenization- linked to changes in thinking
 Insulation of fibre which more effectively covers the cells and axons.
This allows for faster thinking and faster movement of impulses.
 Brain growth faster in early stages of development
- a child’s head takes a quarter of a child’s body when born
- A child’s earlier development is cruicial in learning and developing the brain- not
only physically but mentally and intellectually.
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
Importance of stimulation
- stimulants are crucial processes of brain developments
- If stimulants aren’t given out when needed, specific development will become
inactive. Activated cells develop the physical and mental aspects of a child’s
development. If cells and stimulants are left inactive, they drop out- leaving specific
aspects undeveloped.

Sensitive periods- brain plasticity (Eg Romanians orphans) Find more info on this case late
1980’s study published in 1992
STUDY FOUND
 Children adopted after age of 6 months whom were now 6 years old, were found socially
undeveloped.
 Children brought up in deprived conditions spoke to anyone when they needed support;
whether it was a family member or stranger.
 Because of the depravity of close family connections, a child is unware of whom they
should talk to. This reflects the ‘broader’ aspects of a child’s mental development in that
isolation would cause a child to be unheard and the child would not confine in others. But if
a child is placed in an environment in which they have connections with others, they feel
comfortable in talking to others. But if they are not made aware of the personal nature of
their emotional self then they will speak to anyone.
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
o Language used to communicated ideas, thoughts and emotions. Language
characterizes us as human beings.
o Language areas on left hemisphere of the brain.
o Unique developments of the brain creates our ability to community; when there has
been damaged to this area of the brain, language development, communication can
be delayed or destroyed.
o Literacy (reading and writings) is a development of language- a delay in reading and
writing can cause major problems in students. Emotion and cognitive developments
go hand in hand with language development.
HOW DOES LANGUAGE DEVELOP?
Language ultimately enables us to think, social language use continues throughout our lifetime.
LENNEBURG: researcher of the 60s, while his theory is
relevant- language has developed beyond.
AGE
6 months
12 months
18 months
2 years
2.5 years
Babbling, resembling one-syllable utterances
(ma, mu, da, di)
Words are emerging (mamma, dada)
3-50 words, babbling of several syllables with
intricate intonation pattern using the information
that surrounds them.
More than 50 words, 2 word phrases
Fastest increase in vocabulary, utterances have
communicative intent- the child is clearly
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3 years
4 years
speaking to convey and because the want to
communicate their thoughts and wants
Vocabulary of about 1000 words, intelligible
even to strangers.
Language well established.
LANGUAGE INHERITED OR IS IT LEARNED?
Nature Vs Nurture Dispute
Behaviourist Position

Behaviourists are concerned with those aspects that can be observed and absorbed, this is
the same theory toward language eg language is largely environmental
Operant conditioning- The principle by which children learn to talk, produces language but doesn’t
allow for understanding.
 Any self initiative behaviour is the frequency by which can be effected by the response that
follows it.
 If the targeted behaviour increases as a result of the response that follows it, then we say that
the targeted behaviour has been REINFORCED. If the targeted behavior diminishes as a
result of the response that follows it, then we say that the targeted behavior has been
PUNISHED.
Eg swearing- parent hits the child as a result, this may be seen as punishment but if the child
continues to do this, then this is recognized reinforced. This way you respond to a child’s actions is
vital in order to produce desired results.
Successive Approximations- what if a child doesn’t have behavior there, they can’t talk or their
language hasn’t developed.
Shaping- (eg water)- child starts by imitating the adult, shaping describes the acquisition of
reinforcement of language.
Eg child says wawa -> adult reinforces
Child says wada- adult reinforces
Child says wata- adult reinforces
Child says water
Reinforcement is a continual process
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING (Pavlov)- This is used to lead to understanding of language.
Supporting evidence
 Providing verbal reinforces (Good, Uh mmm”) after
an adult has a said a particular class of word (eg
plural nouns), really does result in an increase in the
production of say plural nouns- operant
conditioning

Similarly if one adult is required to learn a list of
words and receives a mild electrical shock just
before one of the words eg milk, there the word will
hence forth be rated as unpleasant- classical
conditioning.
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Contrary evidence
 These experiments are removed for the developments in
language. This research is that it is somewhat removed
from the experiences of the developing child.
CHILD: Nobody don’t like me
MUM: No, say nobody likes me
CHILD: Nobody don’t like me
MUM: Now listen carefully. Say nobody likes me
CHILD: Oh! Nobody don’t likes me
Thus it’s not possible to condition a child to thins that aren’t
familiar with in their environment. The above content is unlikely to
occur in the home environment.
The total number of possible sentences in language is so great that
it would be impossible to learn every one of them through
conditioning.
Language is thus very much a response and result of the
environment.
Nativists Position (CHOMPSKY)
Nativists focus on unobservable aspects of language such as the child’s intention and knowledge of
grammatical rules while behaviorists focus on what can be observed, nativeists focus on a child’s
intentions.
Language acquisition device.
 Chompsky believes that human beings are genetically endowed with a highly specific
language capacity which he calls the LAD.
 The LAD is an innate language reservoir in the brain which is filled with information about
the rules of language structure. Takes the syntactic inforation provided by the child’s
caregivers and generates the grammer of that child’s native language.
 The LAD does not determine how a child’s language is developed- this is called reservoir
can not be seen, whereas observation is vital to skinner’s theory.
How does this LAD operate? Lets say the child hears a caregiver say “do you want some milk?”
The child deduces that the word milk (and not “do” or “you” or “want”) is the label that refers to
her concept of milk because her LAD allows her to differentiate nouns from other parts of speech.
Children move rapidly from their acquisition of their first word to the realization that everything has
a name. This leads to great increases in vocabulary size. The child begins to use words with a
communicative intent; if they say water, they want water.
The role of the environment in which the child grows up is de-emphasized according to chompsky
the child will learn regardless of their environment.
SUPPORTING EVIDENCE
The innate (biological) argument is supported by observations that”
 Virtually all humans acquire language.
 Only human beings are capable of acquiring and using language as we understand it.
(Behaviorists would ask, what about chimpz?)
 The language centers of the human brain have been identified
 Children learn language too quickly to have learned it from others (this argument is in
dispute)
The grammatical argument comes from
 Language is essentially the same for all humans irrespective of language, culture and
upbringing “spiders weave webs, birds build nests and humans talk” all languages have rules
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
Chihldren apply grammatical rules to words that are exceptions to the rule eg “I taked a
cookie”. This over-regularisation could not have been learnt from adults as adults don’t say
it (see pg 17)
Chomsky would say the child knows the promotional rules but didn’t apply it properly.
CONTRARY EVIDENCE
 Lack of support for TGG (transformational generative grammar)
 Deaf children who lack experience develop their own signs, but these signs usually lack
structure that one would predict if they had an innate knowledge of promotional rules. So
only when they “hear” the rules do they learn them, this is a strong argument.
 There is evidence that adults do in fact provide information about grammar and not just
about meanings.
 It is now thought that language is not learned as rapidly as was once thought- they used to
say a child knew about language before they started school, this has changed.
SOCIAL INTERACTION APPROACH- This is the middle ground of the previous 2 positions.
This approach shares many views from both the behaviorists and nativeists position.


This theory emphasizes the importance of the social- communicative function of language.
Children acquire language because they need it to communicate with others. This makes
them active participants in their use of language, as they endeavor to make sense of the
world.
The social interactionists emphasize on the child’s social environment and that it relies
heavily on research on the special ways caregivers (usually mothers) communicate with
their children. This phenomenon is known as child-directed-speech (CDS) or motherse.
Mothers vary their speech as a result of the cues from the child. They:
 Exaggerate the infant’s babbling sounds.
 Impute intentions and meaning to their infant’s speech sounds
 Exaggerate their own intonation patterns
 Repeat and expand their child’s utterances
 Use simple grammatical constructions (short sentences)
 Ask lots of questions
 Teach social conventions “bye-bye”
From these
exchanges a child
begins to produce
structures of
language
Note: they do this to facilitate communication, which is the object the exercise.
Evidence FOR AND AGAINST
 Mothers who use complex sentences re more likely to have children whose language
development is delayed. This research was based on small sample sizes and does not
indicate whether the relationship is causal.
 In short, while the social interactionists provide the most promising explanation of language
development, the theory has not been around long enough to have been truly tested.
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THE MIND OF THE LEARNER: PIAGET
General principles of development
 People develop at different times
 Development is relatively orderly
 Development takes place gradually
Until Piaget’s work, people only thought
that children were ‘miniature’ adults.
WHAT DEVELOPS
 The structure of intelligence- people believed that the function of intelligence was conducted
through equilibration
Equilibration- the process of seeking and restoring cognitive balance between present
understandings and new experiences. Setting up atmospheres that are imbalanced between new/old
experiences can have a crucial effect on students. It involves the process (or tendencies) of
organization (into schemes) and adaptation (assimilation and accommodation)

Stages of thinking- Piaget believed that stages of thinking were invariant and universal.
These included:
 SENSORMOTOR- (0-2years)- this is the use of senses, touching, smelling,
manipulating as well as the use of motor skills.
 PRE OPERATIONAL (2-7yrs)- at this age thinking is “egocentric”, the child is
beginning to recognize the symbolic use of language.
 CONRETE OPERATIONAL (7-11yrs)- the child begins to apply knowledge to
concrete experiences.
 FORMAL OPERATIONAL (11-adult)- The child begins to think hypothetically and
beings to apply logic.
Every stage of cognitive development is age related. The process of cognitive development is
psychological rather than physical.
HOW DO CHILDREN DEVELOP?
ADAPTATION:
 Assimilation- using existing things and new things and modifying them together to create
something the child will understand. Eg a child sees a pony and calls it’s a big doggy. An
adult can step in can correct the child which reflects that the scheme has been
accommodated.
 Accommodation- the process in which the child has become aware of the ‘final product’.
ORGANISATION
 Schemes- these include grabbing, hitting, hanging- actions, which a child develops by their
curiosity. These are also known as behavioral schemes.
Note: there are times when information is neither assimilated or accommodated, hence if there is
something too new or difficult for the child to understand, the child will ignore it because of the
inability to assimilate or accommodate the info.
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WHAT INFLUENCES DEVELOPMENT?
 MATURATION- Eventually through these schemas, assimilation and accommodation
process, the child’s thinking also changes and develops.
 ACTIVITY- this is the physical interaction with the work of objects. This is the most
important influence in relation to Piaget’s theory.
 SOCIAL TRANSMISSION AND SOCIAL INTERACTION- Social transmission is
considered as education in the broader sense. This influence considers looking at ideas from
children that cause an imbalance in cognitive development. Social transmission and
interaction are the driving forces of cognitive imbalance.
PIAGET
VYGOTSKY
Scaffolding- part of Vygotsky’s theory: you help the child grow and you graduall back off until
they can do things themselves.
Language ability, private speech, the child is developed- this is Vygotsky’s view (private
speech-babbling)
Zone of proximal development- learning zones need to be at this level, if a child is in an
environment that is too hard, they won’t understand n vice versa. The child must be placed in
the suitable environment.
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PIAGET was drawing from our biology- the standard functions of accomodationa nd
assimilation result in different outcomes.
PIAGET’S DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES
SENSORMOTOR (0-2yrs) DEVELOPMENTAL MILESTONES
 Object permanence: realization that objects still exists when we can’t see them, this
understanding is necessary for a child to learn.
- Beginning of goal directed or intentional action; by 2 years old a child should be able
to link between action and purpose- they become aware of schemes. This is a gradual
process as they learn that everything has a purpose in which it works.
- Deferred imitation- copying an action that hasn’t just happened- this reflects the
development of symbolic thought eg seeing off family for a trip, after this process of
saying goodbye the child begins to say goodbye whenever someone goes away.
PRE-OPERATIONAL (2-6yrs- DEVELOPMENT MILESTONES
 Symbolic thought, especially the use of language and play; symbolic thought recognizes
that a child’s beginning to focus on specific things.
 Children beginning to acknowledge the link between language and the fact that words
meaning something
Limitations
-
-
EGOCENTRIC- unable to think from another person’s perspective eg child puts
their hands over their eyes and says you can’t see me. This also means they can only
focus on one thing at a time.
PERCEPTION BOUND- thinking relies on looks, colours aways attract children.
ANIMISTIC- children look at the world by things that are living and those things
that are not.
CONCRETE OPERATIONAL 6-12 years) DEVELOPMENTAL MILESTONES
Ability to understand certain logical principles eg
 Identity
Underpin conservation tasks- the change of appearance does not necessarily need
 Reversibility
to change for object obe the same eg liquid.


Classifcation- beginning to understand objects can be put into categories; class inclusion
if you belong to a category you belong to a bigger picture
Seriation- put things in order
Limitations- Principles are applied specific concrete cases only;
If you use concrete experience the child will understand clearer.
Formal operational (12-adult)
 Thinking is systematic and organized- thinking propositionally; don’t need to refer to
‘real world’ experiences.
 Thinking and can deal with abstract and hypothetical situations; by thinking
hypothetically and applying them- a specific example of formal operation is the
development of scientific reasoning.
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Note: Piaget looked at the developing child in the ‘possibilities’ rather than concrete realities, this
clearly links to form and content. The key to this is there are a number of variables that effect
what’s happening if you understand how something works, you have to systematically play around
in theory base.
STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF PIAGET’S THEORY
STRENGTHS
o Developmentally appropriate education
o Focuses on the process of thinking, not just the outcome or product
o Recognize the crucial role of children’s active involvement in their own learning, this shows
the acceptance that individual processes are different.
o Acceptance of individual differences in developmental progress, same sequence, different
rate (or stage not age)
o Emphasises that children’s thinking is different from that of adults.
WEAKNESSES
 Issues of timing- piaget underestimated the abilities of young children, while he
overestimated he abilities of adolescences.
 Ideas of stages
 Lack of emphasis on the importance of others in cognitive development (see
vygotsky)
 Lack of emphasis on the importance of memory in cognitive development (see
information processing accounts)
 Lack of emphasis on the importance of affect (emotion) in cognitive development
KEY TERM DEFINITIONSSchemes/Schemas: an organized pattern of thought or action that helps us interpret some aspect of
experience and guide behavior.
Adaptation: the process of adjusting schemes to the environment by means of assimilation and
accommodation.
Assimilation: fitting and interpreting new experiences into existing schemas.
Accommodation: Modifying existing schemas to fit new experiences/situations.
VYGOTSKY’S THEORY

According to Vygotsky the child’s own active striving was what allowed him mto recognize
and analyze the child’s development.
 Learning and development occur within a socio-historical context.
Higher cognitive development occurs with social interaction- this enables and influences the
child to being a able to problem solve.
Culture- the skills needed to develop are influenced through culture in which the child was
developed.
Skills that enable them are developed through a specific context.
Different culture, different skills, different thinking.
 Learning occurs within the zone of proximal development (ZPD), this is the distance
between what a learner can achieve, unassisted and what they can achieve with the help of
others.
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
Language is a tool for thinking;
- Interaction with others is necessary for learning: joint interaction with older people
helps children begin to master a higher level of thinking- Vygotsky
- Piaget argued that child development is more successful when interaction occurs
with their peers- their age group; Vygotsky say with the ‘older’ and more ‘expert’.
Examples:
-Scaffolding, co-construction.
- Role of language- co-constructive
- 1st level- inter-psycholgocail
- 2nd level0 intra-psycholocal
Note: Vygotsky looked a the wider world around a child, even in basic stages of life, there are
people structuring the child’s development, i.e father picking up his child’s hand and helping them
wave goodbye.
THE SELF OF THE LEARNER- IDENTITY
DEVELOPMENT
How we perceive ourselves and how others perceive us; personal and social influences; pre-puberty.
ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY
 Social identity is a result of social influences
 Erikson takes social view on idenity, he considered the social context, what consistutes
development. See pg 78.
Erikson’s theory is derived from social problems; dilemmas. Crises can have a detrimental effect on
development- unresolved dilemmas must be solved to ensure continual, balanced development.
ERIKSON’S STAGES:
Infant/Pre school
1. TRUST/MISTRUST- Infant will only develop a balance only through trust, the main
period of this connection occurs from birth to 12-18 months.
2. AUTONOMY/SHAME/DOUBT- ‘Holding on’ ‘letting go’ child learns independent
things. Shame can come from toilet training. The main period of this occues 18mnths
to 3 years.
3. INITIATIVE/GUILT- Some things aren’t allowed, if a child breaks this trust they
may feel guilty. Occurs during 3-6 years.
Primary School
4. INDUSTRY/INFERIORITY- Building relationships- feeling incompetent about
dealing with social interactions. Occurs during 6-12 years.
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Adolescents formation
5.
-
IDENTITY/ROLE CONFUSION- Who am I? Questioning
Identity formation centrally important
Set in framework of family, cultural, ethical, economic, social view
Not knowing one’s self creates role confusion.
YOUNG ADULT
6. INTIMACY/ISOLATION- intimacy refers to the commit to relations. A failure to do
this may ultimately lead to isolation.
MIDDLE ADULTHOOD
7. GENERATIVITY/STAGNATION- feeling as if you want to leave your mark, you
want to be someone; feel important
8. EGO INTEGRITY/DESPAIR- Individual who has worked out the things in their
life. A part of a culture, a family, a part of a social group. The downfall is that not
feeling as one who fits in, they don’t feel apart of a group this leads to despair, this
the fruit of the 7 stages.
Extending Erikson’s work:
Identity statuses:
 Foreclosure: accept rather than question
 Diffusion: no sense of identity present
 Moratorium: Search for identity from a number of identities, living out a number of
identities in search of who they are- this is described as ‘healthy’
Critique of Erikson’s theory
Benefits
 Stage theory- lifespan approach
 Individual plan on active role
 Social/cultural forces- interplay with environmental forces
 Scope for negative/positive experiences
Limitations
 Age ranges
 Vague- difficult to quantify
SELF CONCEPT, SELF ESTEEM, SELF EFFICACY
Source of difference
 Gender- Male/female go through stages differently, female development more complex than
male’s self-esteem, how we value ourselves individually and socially.
 Culture- social cultural differences a large influence to the development of self-concept.
 Age- young children develop self concept through looks; older children through getting to
know each other.
Self-concept
 Cognitive structure/schema
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
Self perceptions- multi-dimensional- made up of many different dimensions. We have at
least 3 different dimensions by age 6
Academic self-concept
- mental abilities
- subject specific abilities
- physical abilities
Non-academic self-concept
-Peer relationships
-Skills
-appearances
SELF ESTEEM
Affective/emotional evaluation of self: high/low
Based on personal and social confidence positive self concept leads to positive self esteem which
leads to greater academic levels
Eg “I scored in the top50% on the test I should manage this exam” foestering positive self esteem
SELF EFFICACY
- Beliefs about personal ability and sucesss
- Links to emotional dimensions of self worth, how we feel about ourselves
- Research by BANDURA
Simitation approach- this is not an overall evaluation of one’s self, it is how we perform in specific
tasks.
Instrumental conditioning
- trial and error
- consequences of what a person does cause them to learn
- consequence that are bad and that have no consequence are not repeated.
KEY WORDS
Shaping- reinforcement of gradual approximations of the target behavior eg when mother responds
to a baby’s ‘m m m’ by saying mum and smiling.
Chaining- whe one action functions both as a reinforced for the previous action and as a stimulus
for the next.
Cueing- using a specific stimulus to elicit a desired response.
Prompting- providing an additional stimulus to elicit a desired response.
Modeling- a form of prompting that involves demonstrating a desired response for someone to
imitate.
Task analysis- Breaking a task into a series of manageable steps so as to assist learning.
Premack principle (Grandma’s rule) – Any behavior that is enjoyed and that occurs often can be
used to reinforce behaviors that are not enjoyed and that do not occur often.
Extinction- reduction and cessation of a response following the withdrawal of reinforcement
Maintenance- the continued performance of a learned action after instruction has ceased.
Generalization- learning to respond to stimuli that are similar to but not the same as those that
previously triggered a response.
Fair Pair- build up one behavior when diminishing one other behavior.
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