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Module 3
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3.1.1 Exploration: Machinability
Definition: Simply defined as a measure of the ease with which a metal can be
machined satisfactorily.
Question:
1. Explain how “cubic inches per minute of stock removed” can be related to
Machinability.
2. How could “cutting tool life” relate to Machinability?
3. How does the temperature of the cutting tool relate to Machinability?
3.1.2 Dialog: Cutting Tool Technology
A cutting tool is a device which causes material to be separated into it’s proper
size, shape, and finish. The cutting process is very complex but a basic explanation
can give one an idea of what takes place during the process. The material is forced
against the tool and is compressed. This compression breaks down the bonds
holding the material together and causes it to shear off and flow up the face of the
cutting tool. This process creates a byproduct called a chip.
There are three basic types of chips:
1. Type 1 or segmented chips are broken and segmented and form when
machining brittle material like cast iron.
2. Type 2 or continuous chips are formed when machining softer materials and
form a continuous segment.
3. Type or continuous chip with a built-up edge (BUE) is similar to type 2 but
some of the removed material sticks to the machine tool and causes a
buildup.
As the material is removed and chips are formed, heat is created in both the material
and the chip. The more force required to remove a chip the more heat will be
generated. Harder materials require more force to remove material. This can also
effect too life and the amount of time required to remove a specific amount of
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material. In order to make the operation efficient and cost effective one must
remove the material as fast and efficiently as possible.
View the video on chip formation: http://machinetools.netfirms.com/01_Chip_Formation.htm
3.1.3 Application: Cutting Tool Technology
Explain why cutting speed could affect the cost of manufacturing a product.
3.2.1 Exploration: Chip Removal Tools
There are three different types of chip removal tools: single-point, multipoint, and
random point.
Questions: Match the three types with the examples.
1. Single-point
Drills, milling cutters, hack saw
2. Multipoint
Lathe tools
3. Random-point
Grinding wheels, abrasive belts
3.2.2 Dialog: Chip Removal Tools
Single point tools have one cutting edge like a lathe tool.
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Multipoint tools have several cutting edges lie a end mill.
Random-point tools have multiple cutting edges arranged in random patterns like a
grinding wheels.
3.2.3 Application: Chip Removal Tools
Which type of chip removal tool would you use to make a one inch hole in a
piece of aluminum?
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3.3.1 Dialog: Cutting Tool Materials
Carbon tool steel has a carbon content of 0.9 to 1.2 percent. Tools made of carbon
tool steel have good strength and hardness but looses this hardness at
temperatures over 204ºC. Carbon too steel is usually used in short/low speed runs.
The materials that work best with carbon tool steel are wood, plastics, nonferrous
metals.
http://www.key-to-steel.com/ViewArticle.asp?ID=53
http://www.hocktools.com/steelrap.htm
http://www.deathstar.org/groups/ros/reference/steel.html
High-speed steels (HSS) retain hardness and cutting ability at temperatures as high
as 650ºC. One type of HSS is a T1 alloy which contains 18% tungsten, 4%
chromium, 1% vanadium, and 0.7% carbon. Another type of HSS is molybdenum or
“moly” that replaces the tungsten with molybdenum. A third HSS is cobalt which has
a higher heat and abrasive resistance qualities.
http://www.hitachimetals.com/products/hi_specialty/highspeed_steel.html
http://www.imoa.info/moly/applications_13.htm
http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article?eu=392398
Cast nonferrous alloys contain 15-20% tungsten, 25-35% chromium, 40-50% cobalt,
and 1-4% carbon. Cutting tools made of cast nonferrous alloys holds a good cutting
edge to 925ºC but loose their efficiency at room temperatures. Cast nonferrous
alloys can not be machined but must be cast and then ground to proper shape.
Cast nonferrous alloys are usually used with high speeds, deep cuts and low feeds.
http://www.precisiondiamond.co.kr/product/productinfo_e2.html
http://www.mmsonline.com/articles/mtg0003.html
http://www.itia.org.uk/tungsten/tungsten_app_spec.html
http://www.kennametal.com/en/metallurgical/matrix_powders.jhtml
Cemented carbides are produced using a sintering process. They are then ground
into shape and attached to a tool blank. Cemented carbides usually hold a good
cutting edge to 1200ºC but have initial high cost.
http://www.itia.org.uk/tungsten/tungsten_app_cem.html
http://www.ryotec.co.jp/english/wr-tools.html
http://www.smt.sandvik.com/sandvik/0140/internet/se01599.nsf/GenerateFrameset1
?readForm&url=http://www.smt.sandvik.com/sandvik/0140/internet/se01599.nsf/(Do
cumentsInternetWeb)/03AD67B4C5ED43EAC1256A81004558F9
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http://www.mitsubishicarbide.com/mmc/en/product/product_guide/introduction/introd
uction.htm
Sintered is often called ceramic tooling it is resistant to temperatures up to 1100ºC.
Extremely brittle, but hardness, ability to resist high temperatures, and low surface
friction can be run at extremely high speeds.
http://www.advancedtooling.net/freeze.htm
http://www.morganadvancedceramics.com/aboutceramics.htm
3.3.2 Application: Cutting Tool Materials
1. When selecting tools for specific operations what material considerations
should you make?
2. Find and list 2 web sites that deal wit lathe tool selection and write a brief
description of each.
3.4.1 Dialog: Tool Geometry
The shape of a tool determines amount of power required to remove material. It
affects surface finish, smooth to rough. Tool shape needs to provides strong
support and a sharp cutting edge. Relief angle keep tool from rubbing against
material while it is removing material and the cutting-edge angle produces the
cutting edge or point. The rake angle allows chips to move away and determine at
what angle. The nose radius reduces the chance of tool breakage and produces a
smoother cut at higher speeds.
http://www.sherline.com/grinding.htm
http://easyweb.easynet.co.uk/~chrish/tl-tools.htm
http://www.glue-it.com/model-engineering/generalinformation/glossary/l/lathe_tools.html
http://mtamri.me.uiuc.edu/cmtsr/00-10.html
http://www.physics.emory.edu/faculty/koehler/relevanttalks/AdvAuto-Endres.pdf
http://www.radical-departures.net/2003/understanding_elements.asp
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3.4.2 Dialog: Cutting Speeds
Cutting speed is the rate at which various cutting motions remove the material.
Cutting speeds are measured in either feet per minute (fpm) or in meters per minute
(m/min). For rotary machinery the cutting speed is equal to the circumference
times the revolutions per minute.
http://www.hougen.com/tech_tips/cutter_info/cutting_speeds.html
http://www.hougen.com/tech_tips/cutter_info/cutting_speeds2.html
http://littlemachineshop.com/Reference/CuttingSpeeds.php
http://www.greenleafcorporation.com/pages/reference/turboform.html
http://www.sperdvac.org/cutting_speeds_and_feeds/cutting_speeds_and_feeds.htm
3.4.3 Application: Tool Geometry and Cutting Speeds
1. What is the cutting speed of a 4 inch piece of round stock rotating on a
lathe at 750 rpm?
2. How does cutting speed relate to different materials? Give examples.
3. What rpm would be required to drill a ½ inch hole in the end of a 6” round
mild steel bar at a speed of 80fpm?
3.5.1 Exploration: Tool Life
http://www.mmsonline.com/articles/1099scan1.html
http://www.menet.umn.edu/~klamecki/Machining/toolwear.html
http://www.tech.plym.ac.uk/sme/mfrg315/cuttool1.htm
Question: Explain what physical characteristics affect tool life.
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3.5.2 Dialog: Tool Life
Excessive heat can shorten the life of a machine tool. About 75% of the heat is
carried away with the chips but the other 25% is absorbed into the tool. Cutting
speed is one of the most important factors in tool life. If the cutting speed is too
high, excessive heat can shorten tool life but if the cutting speed is too slow one has
an inefficient operation and wasted time and money. Cutting Fluids can aid the
process by acting as a coolant and lubricating the surface.
3.5.3 Application: Tool Life
1. Name three different conditions that affect tool life and explain the effect.
a.
b.
c.
3.4 Machining Operations and Machine Tools
3.4.1 Exploration: Turning
Definition: Turning is the process that produces cylindrical or conical shaped parts.
The cutting motion is created by the rotation of the product and the cutting tool is
held stationary in relation to the motion of force. The cutting tool is usually moved at
right angles to or parallel to the working surface.
http://cybercut.berkeley.edu/mas2/html/processes/turning/index.html
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http://easyweb.easynet.co.uk/~chrish/techindx.htm
Examples of Turning
Facing and Center Drilling
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http://www.mini-lathe.com/Mini_lathe/Operation/Facing/facing.htm
http://www.mini-lathe.com/Mini_lathe/Operation/Drilling/drilling.htm
Turning Between Centers
http://www.mini-lathe.com/Mini_lathe/Operation/Turning/turning.htm
Recessing, Grooving and Parting
http://www.mini-lathe.com/Mini_lathe/Operation/Parting/parting.htm
Search the internet and see if you can find visuals for the following processes.
Boring
Reaming
Tapping
Knurling
Thread Cutting
Cutting Tapers
3.4.2 Examples of Turning
http://www.thurometal.com/cncturning.html
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3.4.3 Applications:Turning
1. To take a 1.00 inch piece of steel an reduce it to .075 inches we would
use a process called straight turning or taper turning? Explain
2. The process of removing material from the work-piece by moving the tool
at a right angle to the rotation is called facing or parting? Explain
3. Use the internet to see if you can find a definition for the following terms:
a. Forming
b. Necking
c. Parting
d. Boring
e. Knurling
f. Contour turning
g. Taper turning
h. Reaming
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3.5.1 Dialog: Equipment – Introduction to Lathes
There are three basic types of lathes: engine lathes, turret lathes, and special
purpose lathes. Most production work today is accomplished by engine lathes. The
size of an engine lathe is determined by the largest piece of stock that can be
machined. When selecting a lathe to produce a product the diameter and length
must correspond with the dimensions of the lathe.
3.6.1 Exploration: Lathe Safety
Taking into account the mechanical operation, develop 5 safety rules for operating a
lathe.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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3.6.2 Dialog: Lathe Safety

Always wear eye protection. Use industrial quality safety glasses with sideshields. Lathes can throw off hot metal chips that can cause permanent eye
damage. Don't ever operate a lathe without proper eye protection.

Wear shirts with tightly fitting cuffs if long sleeve or short sleeve shirts. Loose
sleeves can catch on rotating work and quickly pull your hand or arm into the
spinning material or chuck.

Wear steel toed leather work shoes if possible to protect your feet from sharp
metal chips on the shop floor and from tools or pieces of metal that may get
dropped.

Remove wrist watches, necklaces, and other jewelry. It's a good idea even to
remove your wedding ring since it can catch on rotating work and severely
damage your ring finger and hand.

Long hair can get caught in the rotating work. Tie any long hair back so it
can't get caught in any of spinning process.

Always double check to make sure your work is securely clamped in the
chuck or between centers before starting the lathe. Start the lathe at low
speed and increase the speed gradually.

Remove the chuck key immediately after use. The chuck key can be a
projectile if the lathe is started with the chuck key in the chuck.

Keep your hands clear of the rotating work and cutting tools. Don't try to
break away metal chips or take measurements while the lathe is in operation.

Never reach over the spinning chuck. For filing operations, hold the tang end
of the file in your left hand so that your hand and arm are not above the
spinning chuck.

Never use a file with a bare tang. Make sure any file you use has a metal or
wood handle.

Handle cutting tools and processed materials with care. There are many
sharp edges that can cause serious injuries.

Use two hands when sanding material. Never wrap the abrasive paper
around the work-piece.
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Always treat the lathe with respect. The lathe is a precision instrument and
requires proper operation and maintenance to operate correctly.
3.6.3 Application: Lathe Safety
Taking into account the preceding dialog, revise your 5 safety rules for operating a
lathe.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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3.7.1 Exploration: Tool Selection
http://www.mini-lathe.com/Mini_lathe/Tool_grinding/tool_grinding.htm
In order for a lathe cutting tool to operate correctly it must be made of the correct
material and be ground at the correct angle. The most common tools are made from
high-speed steel(HSS) and relatively inexpensive. Tools made of carbides,
ceramics and alloys are common but more expensive than HHS. Single point tool
bits receive their name from the basic operation. A single point tool has only one
cutting process at a time. The drawing below represents some common cutting
tools.
Questions:
1. Which tool would you select for a rough cut feeding from right to left?
2. Which tool would you select for a finish cut feeding from left to right?
3. Which tool would you select to form a radius?
3.7.2 Dialog: Tool Geometry
http://www.mini-lathe.com/Mini_lathe/Tool_grinding/tool_grinding.htm
http://its.foxvalley.tec.wi.us/MachShop2/cuttools/Toolshapes.htm
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Lathe tools are characterized by the function they perform. A right-hand roughing
tool is ground for rough cutting and to cut from right to left. The rake and relief
angles must be properly ground so that there is enough support for cutting but the
tool does not rub the material.
3.7.3 Application: Tool Geometry
Grind a piece of high speed with a left hand roughing tool on one end and a
right hand finishing tool on the other end.
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3.8.1 Dialog: Tooling Principals
Set-up time: time required to set up a machine for a certain operation.
Work-handling time: time consumed in mounting and removing the work.
Machine-handling time: time required to get tool in proper position for cutting.
Cutting time: time required to cut material to correct dimensions.
Question: A lathe operator turns out 500 pieces in 4 hours at a cost of $25 per hour.
What is the cost to the company if the work-handling time is 15%?
http://www.glue-it.com/model-engineering/general-information/glossary/l/lathe_tools.html
Speeds and Feeds
http://its.foxvalley.tec.wi.us/MachShop2/Speeds/feedrtcalc.htm
http://its.foxvalley.tec.wi.us/MachShop2/Speeds/RPMcalc.htm
http://its.foxvalley.tec.wi.us/MachShop2/Speeds/spdFeedop.htm
MRR = vfd
Material removed (mm3/s)= v (cutting speed m/s ) X f (feed mm) X d (depth of cut
mm)
Question: Explain how the formula MRR = vfd relates to metal removal.
Cutting Tool Holding Devices
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http://www.mini-lathe.com/Mini_lathe/Reviews/TS_QCTP/holders.jpg
http://www.mini-lathe.com/Mini_lathe/Modifications/Tool_holder_y.jpg
3.9.1 Exploration: Milling
Definition: Machining process that usually uses a multipoint tool that rotates in a
circular motion to create a flat or curved surface. The cutting tool is held stationary
and the material is feed through the cutting tool.
http://www.mfg.mtu.edu/marc/primers/milling/#Introduction
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3.9.2 Application: Milling
1. Define peripheral milling.
2. Define face milling.
3. Define end milling.
4. Define down milling
5. Define up milling.
3.9.3 Dialog: Equipment – Introduction to Mills
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http://www-me.mit.edu/Lectures/MachineTools/mill/intro.html
Types of milling machines
http://its.foxvalleytech.com/MachShop3/basicmill/machtypes.htm
3.10.1
Exploration: Mill Safety
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Taking into account the mechanical operation, develop 5 safety rules for operating a
lathe.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
3.10.2
Dialog: Mill Safety
A) SAFETY GLASSES MUST BE WORN AT ALL TIMES WHEN IN THE AREA OF
THE MILLING MACHINE!
B) Know how to stop the milling machine before you attempt to start the machine.
C) Loose clothing, long hair, personal stereo wires and jewelry may become entangled in
rotating equipment leading to serious injury or death! Make certain that such articles are
removed or securely fastened to avoid entanglement.
D) If improperly used, milling cutters may shatter. If this occurs, sharp fragments of metal
will fly off at high velocity. Persons in the path of such missiles will be injured
E) WARNING!! Milling cutters can be extremely sharp. When changing tools, always wrap
the cutter in a rag. Do not touch the cutting edges with your bare hands. NEVER touch a
rotating tool bit.
F) The chips produced in the milling process can also be razor sharp. Always use a brush to
clean a machine. Do not use compressed air to blow the chips off of the machine or your
clothes.
G) Never attempt to measure parts or clean the machine while the milling cutter is rotating.
H) Never reach over the machine while the cutter is rotating.
I) Before changing tools, make certain that the power to the drive motor is shut down. Do not
simply shut off the spindle.
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J) The spindle must be completely stopped before attempting to change from low gear to
high gear or vice versa. Conversely, speed selection within a gear range should only be done
with the spindle running.
K) Make certain that the work-piece is securely fixtured and that all components of the
fixture are securely fastened to the table. Because of the enormous forces involved in milling,
failure to check security may result in items being flung from the setup causing bodily injury.
If you are not sure if your setup is safe, have your shop supervisor check it out before you
begin cutting. Pay extra attention to the position and angle of toe clamps.
L) Before powering spindle up, make certain that the milling cutter, its tool holder, and the
spindle, are free of the work-piece and will not run into any of the fixture components. Also,
make certain all loose hand tools, spindle wrenches, chuck keys, and measuring tools have
been removed from the machine and put in the proper location.
M) Calculate the proper spindle speed and table feed rate before beginning a cut. Make
certain to use a proper safety factor for the rigidity of the set up and the condition of the
tooling.
N) Make certain that the feed direction being used does not result in a climb milling
operation.
O) Make certain that the milling cutter is rotating in the proper direction before beginning a
cut, otherwise the milling cutter will burn up.
P) Check that table or spindle locks are off before engaging the associated power feed.
Q) Know how the physical properties of the material being cut affect the way that cut should
be done.
R) Apply all coolants to the tool bit in a safe manner. The use of spray bottles is highly
recommended. REPORT ALL OIL AND GREASE SPILLS IMMEDIATELY! These are an
extreme slip hazard!!
S) If the work-piece begins to vibrate, or the cutter makes excessive noise, stop cutting
immediately.
T) Do not attempt to take a heavier cut than the cutter or the work-piece setup can handle. If
you are not sure what the proper depth of cut is, ask your supervisor!
3.10.3
Application: Mill Safety
Taking into account the mechanical operation, develop 5 safety rules for operating a
lathe.
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
3.10.4 Examples of Milling
www.thurometal.com/ cncmilling.html
3.10.4.a Vertical Milling
Vertical milling machines have the head located at right angles to the table. Some
models have a head that moves up and down and also swivels. The table has XYZ
axis movement and is usually used to position work in relation to the cutting tool.
The vertical mill is especially useful in face and end milling, drilling and boring.
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http://www.prolinesales.net/images/showroom%20mills.JPG
3.10.4.b Horizontal Milling
Horizontal milling machines have a drive spindle that is horizontal in relation to the
work table. Horizontal mills have a more rigid cutting spindle and can make heavier
cuts than a vertical mill. The horizontal mill is best suited for plane surface milling or
slotting but can also be used for gear cutting.
www.machinetools4sale.com/ pro-yc3.htm
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3.11.1 Tool Selection
www.sidewinderblades.com/ tools1.htm
www.sigmatools.com/ prods.htm
http://www.carmet.com.au/suppliers.htm
3.12.1 Exploration: Tool Geometry
Milling machine uses multiple point tooling with each point of the tool working like a
single point tool. This process of using multiple points speeds up the manufacturing
process and reduces the production cost.
http://www.techsavvy.com/industry/file/national/09p2b/hnc15.html?id=130525&comp
_id=09P2B&base_region=*
http://www.hannibalcarbide.com/tech_support/end_mills_tech_info.php
3.12.2 Applications: Tool Geometry
1. What is the relationship between tool cutting edge and tool life?
2. What is the relationship between the number of flutes on a cutting tool and the
material being milled?
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3. What properties would cause “chatter marks” on a finished product?
3.13.1
Dialog: Speeds and Feeds
Calculate mill spindle speed using the following formula:
Speed 
(CS ) * 4
D
Speed is the calculated spindle speed in revolutions per minute (rpm).
CS is the cutting speed of the material, a property that you can find in
reference books. It is measured in surface feet per minute (sfpm). Our
shop uses the following values:
500 plastic
300 aluminum
200 brass
100 mild steel
50 stainless steel
D is the diameter of the tool in inches.
Example: If you were using a 3/8”-diameter end mill on mild steel, you would
perform the following calculation
Speed 
(100sfpm) * 4
 1067 RPM
0.375"
Feed Speed (in/min)= Number of teeth in cutter X Chip load per tooth X RPM
Example: If you were calculating the feed speed for a 4 flute end mill, with a
chip load of .002 per inch, and an RPM of 480
4 X .002 X 480 = 3.84 in/min
3.13.2 Application: Speeds and Feeds
1. Calculate the cutter speed for a ¾” diameter 2 flute end mill that has a .004
chip load per tooth and a feed speed of 14.48.
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2. Calculate the RPMs for a ¼” diameter drill with a cutter speed of 100.
3. What is the surface feet per minute for a 9/16” diameter drill that turns at
320 RPMs?
4. What is the diameter of a reamer that turns at 768 RPMs with a cutter
speed of 120?
3.14.1 Exploration:
Tool holding:
http://its.foxvalleytech.com/MachShop3/basicmill/Toolhold.htm
3.15.2
Mill Accessories:
http://its.foxvalleytech.com/MachShop3/basicmill/accessories.htm
Work holding: http://its.foxvalleytech.com/MachShop3/basicmill/WorkHold.htm
1. Cut a piece of aluminum bar stock to length on a bandsaw.
2. Use a vertical milling machine and appropriate measuring devices to mill
the part.
3.
3.16.1 Application: Manual Machining/Lathe
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Objective: Experience a metal removal process in order to become more familiar
with the terms and procedures used in machining. Also, to identify important factors
which must be considered when machining objects.
Introduction: In order to proceed with this lab you should be familiar with the basic
operating and safety procedures associated with a manual lathe.
Materials:
Procedure:
1. Cut a piece of 1 ½ “ aluminum round stock to a 7” length on a band saw.
2. Place the material in the lathe and set up for turning between centers.
3. Make sure your stock is secure!
4. Place a right-hand roughing tool in a straight or left-hand tool holder.
5. Set the lathe for the correct rpm for the project.
6. Adjust the lathe feed for a rough cut of about .008 to .012 inches.
7. The final diameter is 1.125 inches and we want to rough cut to about
1.145 inches. That leaves a .030 finish cut.
8. Make a rough cut across the entire length of the project.
9. Mark your project in the center. Then place a mark ½ “ on each side.
10. Starting at the ½ “ marks, turn the material on both ends to 1.030”.
11. Now measure 1 ½ “ from center and mark your stock. Turn the project to
.780” on each end.
12. Now measure 2 ½ “ from center and mark your stock. Turn the project to
530” on each end.
13. Place a right-hand finishing tool in a straight or left-hand tool holder.
14. Using your micrometer, check the diameter and remove the necessary
mater with a finish tool and adjusted finish speed.
15. Your finished diameters should be 1.125, 1.000, .750, .500 inches.
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