Era of Religious Wars

Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis (France and Spain) marked end of Habsburg-Valois
Wars, with Spain as winner, especially in Italy.
o Historical Significance: ended era dynastic wars and marked beginning of
religious/political wars

Post-Reformation Landscape
o HRE: Medieval ideal of unified Christian society governed by one
political ruler, the emperor, and one church for everyone sorely tested.
o France: Valois dynasty coming to a close, and Calvinism emerging on the
scene.
o Netherlands: Many attracted to Calvinism, partly out of desire for reform
and partly out of desire for political independence from HRE.
o Huge, expensive armies that change the character of war (e.g., guns,
cannons).
o Govt uses religious faith to coerce heavier taxation.
o Govt uses religious differences as motivating force for people to
participate in wars.
o Govt uses propaganda, pulpits, and printing press to arouse public opinion
to support war.
o Ruling class does not believe state could survive if members are of
different faiths.
o Catholics think Calvinists and Lutherans could be reconverted (e.g.,
Jesuits) and they think Roman Church should be destroyed.
o By end of religious wars, with Peace of Westphalia, it will be clear that (1)
medieval concepts of universal church and universal monarch are finished;
(2) sovereign states emerge, with the concept of the balance of power; and
(3) Europe must have religious tolerance so that it doesn’t destroy itself.

French civil war
o Trace troubles back to Francis I (1515-1547) and his son Henry II (15471559).
 Francis tried to centralize and strengthen French monarchy.
 Although he taxes and taxes and obtains right to sell church offices
thru treaty with Pope (Concordat of Bologna), it is not enough for
his support of arts or ambitious foreign policy (aka sabotage
Habsburgs).
 Appointed French clergymen are civil servants. Not likely
to improve intellectual and moral standards of church.
 Unreformed church and wasteful monarchs.
o Calvinism in France
 Calvinism in particular appeals to France. Calvin is French, he
writes in French, and wide circulation due to printing press.
 Converts include: clergy, middle classes, artisan groups, and major
cities.
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
Monarchs are pretty repressive: universities condemn, govt bans,
and heretics burned at stake. # of Protestants grew.
 At time of Henry II’s death, 40 well-organized Calvinist churches
and 1/10 of population. For nobles, more. Up to ½ of the nobles
become Calvinist. Why? Assert political independence.
o Examples: Bourbon family (e.g., Gaspard de Coligny
and Henry of Navarre)
o Catholics v. Calvinists
 Armed clashes between lords of different religions
 Both believed that the others’ books, services, and ministers
polluted the community.
 Preachers incited violence and ceremonies such as baptisms,
marriages, and funerals triggered it.
 Saint Bartholomew’s Day Massacre
 King’s sister Margaret of Valois was to marry Protestant
Henry of Navarre (Protestant side of Bourbon family),
which was intended to help reconcile Catholics and
Huguenots
 Henry of Guise (leader of Catholic aristocracy) tried to
have Gaspard de Coligny assassinated (leader of Huguenot
party and one of noble Montmorency family)
 Rioting and slaughter followed. Huguenots gentry in Paris
massacred and religious violence spread to provinces.
o 12,000 died
o Henry of Guise kills Coligny himself
o Henry of Navarre given choice to convert to
Catholicism or die.
o War of Three Henrys
 Catholic Henry of Guise v. Protestant Henry of Navarre v. Catholic
King Henry III
o Guise
 Goals: allied with Catholic nobles (i.e., Holy League) to
destroy Calvinism and replace Henry III with member
of own family. Backed by Spain and Jesuits
 Will end up supporting Catholic Cardinal de Bourbon
(second in line to throne after Henry of Navarre)
o Henry of Navarre
 He flip-flops back and forth between Calvinism and
Catholicism. With no child, he is officially Henry III’s
heir.
 During war, he makes great advances and then relaxes
(fight, make love, drink) and loses gains
o
Henry III (Valois family)
 Switches alliances during war. With mom Catherine de
Medici, he starts with Guise.
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

Finally had Guise assassinated and arrested Cardinal de
Bourbon, who then died.
 15 years of religious rioting and domestic anarchy. Agriculture
destroyed, commercial life declined severely and starvation and death
everywhere.
 Enter politiques. These are moderates of both faiths that believe only
restoration of strong monarchy could reverse trend toward collapse of
France.
 After assassinations, Henry of Navarre renounces his Protestantism,
becomes Catholic (i.e., Paris is worth a mass), and king Henry IV.
o Henry IV
 Valois family replaced with Bourbon family on French throne.
 His sacrifice of religious principles to political necessity saved France.
 Edict of Nantes (1598): affirm Catholicism is official religion, but give
Huguenots liberty of conscience and public worship in 150 towns.
 His goal was a united and strong France
Netherlands
o
Bkgrd
 Charles V: vast territories from Habsburg inheritance
o Inherits Spain + New World, Sardinia, Sicily and Italian holdings
from mom
o Inherits Austria, Southern Germany, Low Countries, and FrancheComte in France from dad
 He is pivot around which European money, diplomacy, and war
revolved
 When reformation hits Netherlands, he will react with condemnation
and mild repression. But, he was born and raised Flemish, so people
loyal to him (i.e., served as check to Lutheranism).
 Big problem once he abdicates throne at age of 55.
o Gives his brother Ferdinand (Austria and HRE)
o Gives his son (his Spanish son) Philip II Spain, Low Countries,
Milan, Sicily, and American holdings
o
Netherlands
 Netherlands are made up of Belgium, Luxembourg and Netherlands of
today. They were divided culturally (German, French, and Flemish
speaking) and religiously (Catholic, Calvinist, Anabaptist, and
Lutheran).
 17 provinces. Cities (e.g., Antwerp) grown wealthy from exchange of
products from Baltic and Italy, international commerce and
finance. They are historically self-governing, make laws and
collect own taxes. Only thing connecting them was economic
relationship and Charles V as HRE. Southern towns traditionally
French, and Northern towns traditionally Dutch.
 See Lutheran tracts, Dutch Bibles introduced in 1520s and 1530s.
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
o
o
By 1560s, strong militant minority of Calvinists. Calvinism appealed
to middle classes because of its intellectual seriousness, moral gravity,
and emphasis of work.
 Unlike Lutheranism which counseled respect for powers
that be, Calvinism encouraged opposition to “illegal” civil
authorities.
With Philip II in charge, what began as desire of people for church reform
ended up as struggle for Dutch independence.
Revolt (1566-1587)
 August 1566: high grain prices, fanatical Calvinists, primarily of
poorest classes, embarked on rampage of frightful destruction.
 Incited by popular preaching
 Attacks at religious images/structures
 Sack and burn churches and libraries (NO!!!)
 Destruction spread to other provinces
 Philip II’s reaction
o Identified religious tolerance with growth of heresy, civil disorder,
violence and bloodshed.
o Determined to crush heresy in Low Countries. Hired mercenaries
using American silver.
o Note, however, that Philip is preoccupied. He’s got the Ottoman
Empire knocking on his door.
o Ultimately sent 20,000 Spanish troops to pacify Low Countries. His
man – duke of Alva – ruthless extermination of religious and
political dissidents. COUNCIL OF BLOOD. 1500 men executed.
Only inflamed situation.
 1568-1578: civil war: Catholics vs. Protestants; 17 provinces vs. Spain
o 17 provinces will unite under William of Orange (Silent)
 After his death, South will ultimately remain with Spanish
Habsburg. In 1578, duke of Parma crushes revolt using
German mercenaries. Avoided pitched battles, fighting by
patient sieges. Southern cities fell, including Ghent and
Antwerp. Calvinism forbidden: convert or leave.
 In North, you have 7 provinces led by Holland (i.e., Union
of Utrecht). 1581 is Independence. United Provinces.
They are mostly commercial aristocracy and are tied up in
English affairs (e.g., they are chief market for wool; no
English wool exports, no money for English crown). So,
they get Elizabeth I to help them after William falls.
England worried that Spain would sweep through
Netherlands and ultimately invade England (e.g., Philip’s
conspiracy with Mary, Queen of Scots, cousin to
assassinate Elizabeth, and Pope’s promise to pay Philip 1
million ducats to invade England).
o Philip II sends Spanish Armada to England
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
130 ships. Bad weather, supplies, luck. English ships
faster, smaller, effective, with greater firing power.
England victorious. Only 65 ships make it home.
Devastating to Spanish morale, while a positive for
England.
 Significance: prevented Philip from reimposing religious
unity on western Europe by force.
o 1609: Philip recognizes United Provinces. The borders of 1581 are
permanent.
 Thirty Years War (1618-1648)
o “The last of the religious wars”
o Since Peace of Augsburg (1555) (i.e., faith of prince = faith of subjects),
religion had still played an important divisive role in Germanic states of Holy
Roman Empire.
o Made peace between Lutherans and Catholics, but no provision for
Calvinists.
o Luther also gaining more German bishopries.
o Jesuits reconverting several princes to Catholicism
o Frederick, the Calvinist leader of Palatinate created Protestant Union (1608) of
German territories. The Catholics react with own league under Max of Bavaria
-- Catholic League (1609).
o By 1609, divisions clear and situation heated.
o To feed the fire, the Habsburgs were trying to consolidate power over all the
territories and were looking at their Spanish branch for help. The opposing
princes looked to France for help in retaining some independence.
o FOUR RECOGNIZED PHASES OF WAR
 Bohemian Phase (1618-1625).
 The princes had accepted Catholic Habsburg Ferdinand
as their king but were upset. He closes some Protestant
churches and tries to reCatholicize many of the
Catholics in the area. In May 1618, some Protestant
nobles threw 2 catholic Habsburg nobles out of a
window of the royal castle in Prague. The nobles lived
and the Catholics used this as evidence of whose side
God was on, the Protestants tried to point out that they
had fallen into a pile of manure.
 Frederick of Palatinate, Protestant, becomes leader of
Bohemia ousting Ferdinand’s rule. Disaster strikes.
 Ferdinand allies with Max of Bavaria and Catholic
League and uses Spanish troops to crush resistance at
the Battle of White Mountain outside Prague in
November of 1620. Frederick’s power over Bohemia
and the Palatinate was over as he found self-exile in
Holland.
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
Bohemia was now Habsburg and Catholicism was sole
religion. Protestant nobles lost their land. The Spanish
attach the Dutch again.

The Danish Phase (1625-1629)
 Denmark was led by King Christian IV who was a
Lutheran. The Danes enjoyed dominance over the
Baltic. Christian decided to enter the war to support the
Protestants of Northern Germany, but was totally
defeated by a Bohemian noble, Albrecht Wallenstein.
 The Danes will never reign supreme over the Baltic
again.
 Parts of Northern Germany were occupied by Catholics
and Emperor Ferdinand issued the Edict of Restitution
in march 1629 which prohibited Calvinist worship and
gave the Catholics control of all land and towns that
had been Protestant.
 This immense power frightened nobles of any faith that
they would lose some of their independence.

The Swedish Phase (1630-1635)
 Sweden had become a power over the Baltic and
entered under King Gustavus Adolphus on the side of
Lutheranism in Northern Germany.
 Sweden successfully pushed into Southern Germany
however Adolphus’ death in battle led to the emperor
making peace. He annulled the Edict of Restitution of
1629.
 But Sweden was finished fighting and France’s
Cardinal Richelieu got Louis XIII involved.
 The Franco-Swedish Phase (1635-1648)
o Religious issues had been set aside by this phase of the war.
o Catholic France entered in on the side of Protestant Sweden and
Northern Germany with the aim of keeping the German states
divided and weak. This was enough to defeat the Hapsburg armies
to a point of peace negotiations.
o However, France and Spain continued to fight until the Peace of
the Pyrenees in 1659. Spain had been reduced to a second tier
European nation.

Peace of Westphalia (1648)
o All German states, including Calvinist, may determine their own
religion.
o France gained parts of Western Germany including Alsace
o Austrian Hapsburg did not lose territory but lost some authority.
o The three hundred states of the empire gained much independence,
ending the HRE as a political entity
o Pope was ignored in negotiations, separating religion and politics.
o Sweden, Brandenburg, and Bavaria gained territory
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