Theories of Psychosocial and Cognitive Development
Brittany Scully
Ivy Tech Community College of Indiana
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Abstract
Three leading theories of psychology are explained, applied, and evaluated in this paper.
Erikson’s Theory of Psychosoical Development, Piaget’s stages of cognitive development, and
Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development are all thoroughly explained in this paper. Along
with detailed descriptions of these three theories, examples of how each theory’s usefulness can
be applied in the classroom are also included. To better evaluate each theory, this paper explores
the strengths and weaknesses of the three theories. As a result, future educators are familiar with
students’ developmental stages and are able to apply these theories, which provide the best
learning experiences possible.
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There are three leading theories that have paved the way in determining how one
develops and learns. These theories have allowed educators the opportunity to provide positive
and constructive learning environments for students. These theories can be used as protocols to
assist teachers in accommodating students’ various developmental and learning stages. From
evaluating each theory’s strengths and weaknesses, one is able to decipher which theory is the
most appropriate for their classrooms’ needs.
Psychosocial development refers to the mental development of how people interact and
adapt to their environment. How a person psychologically develops, in a social setting
throughout their life, affects their identity. The process begins during infancy and lasts
throughout maturity and old age. Erik Erikson believed children developed in a “predetermined
order”. With that belief in mind, he developed the Theory of Psychosocial Development. His
theory is based on two principles, the epigenetic principle and psychosocial crisis. The epigenetic
principle was Erikson’s idea that environmental factors have an influence on the characteristics
and genes one is born with. Psychosocial crisis refers to each stage Erikson developed. From
progressing through each stage, Erikson’s theory states that positive, as well as negative qualities
are obtained. People successfully adapt to their environment when they possess both a negative
and positive quality. However, the positive qualities must outweigh the negative ones. If the
negative qualities outweigh the positives qualities, it leads to failure of that stage and prevents
progression to the next one. One can only continue to the next stage if the previous one is
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successfully completed.
Five to eighteen years old is a crucial time in adolescents’ social and emotional
development. According to Erikson, five year olds’ main conflict is initiative versus guilt. If
successful in this crisis, children feel secure with themselves and the decisions they make. If
children are too controlled, they are left feeling guilty and will lack initiative. Six to eleven year
olds deal with the conflict of industry versus inferiority. This is when children develop
confidence and take pleasure in accomplishing goals. However if children are not praised for
their accomplishments and effort, they instead develop inferiority. Twelve to eighteen year olds
go through the development of identity versus role confusion. In this stage, adolescents learn to
establish independence and explore various potential roles and capabilities as adults. If this stage
is blocked or prevented from successful completion adolescents can become easily confused
about who they are and what role they play in society (Snowman & McCown, 2012, p.29).
This theory is very useful in the classroom, because it guides educators in how to
promote and encourage a healthy and positive learning environment. Educators can do this
through using significant types of instruction that are specific to each stage of development. To
assist children in developing initiative, I would incorporate some sort of service learning project.
My ideal activity would allow students to choose their own project. Students would be able to
facilitate their own ideas and then perform them around the school. Once they have chosen an
activity they would have to stick with it; it cannot be changed. I would allow time once a week
for an entire semester for students to complete their service learning projects. Through their
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planning, creativity, and making a difference around the school students establish initiative. To
guide students in developing industry the goal is to incorporate an activity they will successfully
accomplish and be competent in. In my classroom, the focus would be more on praise and
encouragement, rather than the actual activity. To promote industry, it is critical for teachers to
create an enjoyable atmosphere where students are encouraged to complete their tasks and
praised for their effort in completing their tasks. Developing identity can be fostered through
exploring various cultures. One activity I would assign to foster this would be a research
presentation. Students would be assigned to pick a historical figure who shares a similar heritage
or culture as them. They would write a paper about that person, how they compare to the
students’ own culture or heritage, and present it in class. This allows students the opportunity to
compare and contrast their lives to the ones they are listening to. It also give students the chance
to learn about and explore their own culture and heritage.
Unlike Erikson’s psychosocial development, Jean Piaget’s focus was more on cognitive
development. Cognitive development refers to the alterations of cognitive procedures and
capabilities; although Piaget refers to it as the way humans adapt to their environment.
“Piaget was interested in how an organism adapts to its environment (Piaget described as
intelligence.) Behavior (adaptation to the environment) is controlled through mental
organizations called schemes that the individual uses to represent the world and designate
action. This adaptation is driven by a biological drive to obtain balance between schemes
and the environment (equilibration)” (Huitt & Hummel, 2003, p.3).
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According to Piaget, two sub-processes are used throughout one’s life in effort to adapt,
assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation describes the process of absorbing new
information into an already established scheme. Accommodation involves changing one’s
scheme to fit with the new information. It is important for children moving through the stages of
Piaget’s Cognitive Development to maintain a balance between assimilation and
accommodation. Piaget called this balance equilibration. He believed children were just as smart
and capable as adults; they simply analyze and comprehend concepts differently.
He produced stages to represent cognitive development. The first stage is called
sensorimotor and involves those from birth to two years of age. In this stage, schemes are
developed through sense and motor activities. Preoperational is the next stage. It involves
children two to seven years old. During this stage, children learn to reason, develop imagination,
and become able to represent objects with symbols. Seven to eleven year olds are classified in a
stage known as concrete operational. Adolescents in this stage are capable of using logic and
solving problems by generalizing from concrete experiences. The last stage is formal operational,
which includes everyone eleven and older. Those in this stage gain the ability to think abstractly
and hypothetical, as well as the ability to systematically solve problems (Snowman & McCown,
2012,p.39).
Piaget’s theory is valuable and beneficial in classroom. In his theory, Piaget recommends
teachers play an active role in mentoring and guiding students. To help students develop through
the sensorimotor, bright colored objects and musical objects should be utilized to engage them in
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an activity using their senses. For the preoperational stage, I would encourage the use of
students’ imagination. Through dress-up, students would be able to put their imaginations to use.
I would incorporate a dress-up activity with lessons students’ are currently learning. To assist in
students developing in the concrete operational stage, I would fill up two glasses that are the
exact same size with the same amount of water. Then I would pour the water into a glass that
was the same size just a different shape. This would teach them conceptual principles. For the
formal operational stage, my focus would be on encouraging logical reasoning skills. I would
incorporate activities that would allow students to really brainstorm and deliberate their thoughts
and views.
Like Piaget, Lev Vygotsky also had a theory about cognitive development. However,
Vygotsky had a different view on the major factors that play a role in forming cognitive
development. Lev Vygotsky concluded that cognitive development comes from social
interactions. He believed that these interactions later on suppress into cognitive processes.
Vygotsky’s theory states that children learn through psychological tools. He describes these tools
as “cognitive devices and procedures with which we communicate and explore the world around
us” (Snowman & McCown, 2012, p.49). When these tools are passed down, children gain
knowledge which in return advances their cognitive development. However Vygotsky clarifies,
the only way for cognitive development to advance is if one includes mediation. Vygotsky
defines the process of mediation as “when a more knowledgeable individual interprets a child’s
behavior and helps transform it into an internal and symbolic representation that means the same
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thing to the child as to others” (Snowman & McCown, 2012, p.50). Vygotsky also views the
interaction with fellow peers as an adequate way to develop knowledge.
The two main principles of Vygotsky’s theory are MKO and ZPD (McLeod, 2007). More
knowledgeable others (MKOs) are those who have a better understanding and more experience
than the learner (McLeod, 2007). ZPD is the zone of proximal development. ZPD refers to the
difference between what a child can do on his/her own and what is done with help from a MKO
(McLeod, 2007). Vygotsky declared that there is a difference in types of concepts learned in
early childhood and concepts learned in actual school. Spontaneous learning takes place during
early childhood. This is when children learn unsystematic concepts, how to talk, and how to
classify objects (Snowman & McCown, 2007, p.50). Once children attend school they administer
to scientific concepts. Vygotsky believed that these psychological tools can only be learned in an
instructional classroom setting. These concepts allow students to systematically shape the
environment around them (Snowman & McCown, 2007, p.51).
Vygotsky’s theory is useful in the classroom due to his theory on learning from more
knowledgeable and experienced others; this includes teachers and students alike. To promote
Vygotsky’s theory in my classroom, I would use various collaboration activities. To incorporate
the zone of proximal development, I would pair a student who has a wider zone with a student
who has a narrower zone. This would allow students the opportunity to learn from one another. It
also keeps the student, who has a wider zone interacting and occupied by helping the student
with the narrower zone. In return, the student with the narrower zone will, hopefully, experience
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a greater cognitive development.
Each theory has strengths and weaknesses. For some, the strengths outweigh the
weaknesses. One strength of Erikson’s theory is the fact it is broken down into eight concrete
stages. Each stage is then explained in great detail and represents each stage of life. This sets his
theory apart from the other two theories; which are briefer than and not as elaborate as Erikson’s
theory. This strength, however, can also be considered a weakness. Some may view Erikson’s, as
well as Piaget’s theory as too rigid, in the sense that not everyone develops at the same time or
age. Neither theory leaves much room for development outside of the specified age range. A
strength of Piaget’s theory includes the belief that children should learn at the level they are
developmentally prepared for. Schools construct curriculum around children’s developmental
stage and level; which leads to a weakness in Vygotsky’s theory. Vygotsky believed that
curriculum should be aimed above students’ current capabilities. He thought this would act as a
guide to pull them along in the direction of advancing cognitive development. If it actually
works, then yes, it is great for a child. The problem occurs when it does not work; and it will not
work for every child. Those it does not work for actually end up severely hurt, in more ways than
one. Teaching what is just outside of students’ capacity can damage self-esteem, which leads to
frustration and discouragement. The end result is a negative learning experience.
In conclusion, all three theories have played a major role in determining how children
develop and learn. In return, educators have been able to use these theories as guidelines to
provide the most specific and significant curriculum and activities based on students’
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developmental stages. Although all three theories have strengths and weaknesses, they all aim at
providing social and cognitive developmental stages to assist in the most positive learning
experiences possible.
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References
Erikson’s Stages. (2011, Nov. 29). Retrieved from
http://allpsych.com/psychology101/social_development.html
Huitt, W., & Hummel, J. (2003). Piaget's theory of cognitive development. Educational
psychology interactive, 3(2).Retrieved from
https://studentlife.tamu.edu/sites/studentlife.tamu.edu/files/EDM%20Workbook.pdf
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McLeod. (2007). Lev Vygotsky. Retrieved from
http://www.simplypsychology.org/vygotsky.html#sthash.khoq50y3.dpbs
Morgan. (2013). Classroom Activities Using Piaget’s Theory. Retrieved from
http://www.ehow.com/info_8663307_classroom-activities-using-piagets-theory.html
Nicolopoulou. (1993, Feb). Play, cognitive development, and the social world: Piaget, Vygotsky,
and beyond. Human Development, Vol 36(1), 1-23. doi: 10.1159/000277285
Snowman,J., & McCown, R. (2012). Psychology Applied to Teaching. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth
Cengage Learning.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Waterman. (1982, May). Identity development from adolescence to adulthood: An extension of
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