Social Psychology Definition: The scientific study of how we think about, affect, and related to one another. 1. Social Thinking (How do we explain other’s behavior, how do we form our beliefs and attitudes, and how does what we think affect what we do?) (a) Attribution theory (Heider, 1958): People tend to attribute other’s behavior either to their internal dispositions or to their external situations. -Fundamental attribution theory: A tendency to overestimate the influence of internal dispositions (i.e., personality) and underestimate the influence of situations in explaining other’s behavior (“Never judge a person in a situation”). -The effects of attribution on our behavior: Negative driving either situational (i.e., he must be ill) or dispositional attribution (he is crazy) “safe driving or dirty look.” (b) Attitudes: Beliefs and feelings that predispose our reactions to objects, people, and events. -Our attitudes guide our actions if: External influences on what we say or do is minimal The attitude is relevant to the behavior (good health smoking, Love yelling at their mate. Running is good Only when they do exercise). We are keenly aware of our attitudes (nit mindlessly follow social expectations or habit) (c) Do our actions affect our attitudes? Yes! -The foot-in-the door phenomenon: A tendency for people who agree to a small request to comply later with a larger one (i.e., salesperson). -Role-playing: Adopted a new role Feel like “playing house,” artificial, forced, etc. Later, feel natural. Why actions affect attitudes? -Cognitive dissonance theory (by Festinger): The tendency to change our attitudes to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) resulting from inconsistency between our attitudes and behavior (i.e., Smoking is bad smoking a lot to act for a play smoking is not bad). 2. Social Influence: How do we influence each other? Behavior is contagious! (a) Conformity -Chameleon effect: People tend to mimic other’s behavior (confederates’ rubbing face or shaking foot make participants increase the behaviors) -Asch, 1955): We tend to go along with what the group agrees (i.e., line size comparison) -Factors strengthening conformity: At least 3 group members, when one is made to feel incompetent or insecure, when the group is unanimous, one admires the groups’ status and attractiveness, when other group members observe one’s behavior, when one has not prior commitment to other responses, When one is in a culture values social standards, when the issue is important). Why do we conform? -Normative (due to a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval) vs. Informational (due to a person’s willingness to accept others’ opinions about reality) social influence. 3. Obedience: -Milgran (1965, 1974): Participants (teachers) obeyed to an experimenter and administered electrical shocks to other participants (learners) (63% to the last switch). -“I was simply following orders.” “Ordinary people can become agents in a terrible destructive process.” -Deception or stressful? Ethical? 4. Group Influence: How do groups affect our behavior? (a) Social facilitation: In the presence of other people, people tend to perform better (But no social facilitation if the tasks are difficult and not yet mastered). (b) Social loafing: The tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal that when individually accountable. (c) Deindividuation: The loss of self-restraint and self-awareness in group situations that foster anonymity and arousal (Anonymous people can be very mean, aggressive, and destructive). (d) Group polarization: The enhancement of a group’s prevailing attitudes through discussion within the group (Jury decision). (e) Groupthink: The tendency for people in a decision-making group to desire for harmony ignoring realistic appraisal of alternatives (i.e., J.F. Kennedy’s decision on invading Cuba. Groupthink is often subject to group polarization, self-justification, overconfidence, and conformity. 5. The power of individuals: (a) Self-fulfilling prophecy: A person’s belief about others or things leads the person to act in ways that induce the others or things to conform the belief. (b) Minority influence: The power of committed few individuals can sway the majority of other group members (especially when the minorities are consistent and confident, and the majorities are sympathetic). 6. Prejudice: An unjustifiable or negative attitude toward a group or its members. (Ex) Any two randomly chosen humans are 99.8% alike in the alphabetic sequence in their genetic code. Only 6% of their 0.2% difference is racial, 9% is ethnic, and 85% is individual differences within one’s group. (a) Ingroup: People with whom one shares a common identity. (b) Outgroup: Those perceived as different from one’s ingroup. (c) Ingroup bias: A tendency to favor one’s own group. (d) Scapegoat theory: Prejudice may spring from one’s effort to find a target to blame or express anger. (e) Just-world phenomenon: The tendency of people to believe that the world is just and people get what they deserve and they deserve what they get. (EX) Bystanders phenomenon, Prejudice, Hindsight bias. 7. Aggression (a) Testosterone (b) Alcohol (c) Frustration-Aggression principle: Being blocked short of a goal frustrated aggression. (d) Hot temperature (South vs. North. Summer vs. Winter) (e) Learning (violent games, movies, peers, parents): Not catharsis !! 8. Attraction: (a) Proximity (geographic nearness): Mere exposure effect: repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them) (b) Similarity (c) Familiarity 9. Bystander effect: The tendency for any bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present (Notice incident?Interpret it as emergency?assume responsibility?Help) 10. Social exchange theory: Our social behavior is governed by the aim of maximizing benefits (i.e., pride, social approval, less guilt) and minimizing costs (time, discomfort, anxiety) (EX) blood donation. 11. Social trap: A situation in which the conflicting parties become caught in mutually destructive behavior because each rationally pursued one’s self-interest ignoring another’s interest and well-being.