CHAPTER 9 -- “A WISE AND FRUGAL GOVERNMENT”: THE DEMOCRATICREPUBLICANS IN POWER, 1801-1815
Chapter Overview
Chapter 9 covers the development of the United States from 1801 to 1815. After a peaceful transition of
power from the Federalists to the Democratic-Republicans, the Democratic-Republicans began to implement
their domestic governmental philosophy by cutting taxes, reducing the army and navy budgets, reducing the
size of the national debt, and allowing the Alien and Sedition Acts to expire. Furthermore, they appointed
fellow Democratic-Republicans to governmental offices and attacked Federalist control of the judicial branch
of the government. The attack did not succeed. In fact, under the direction of Chief Justice John Marshall, the
Supreme Court successfully claimed the power of judicial review, which allowed the Court to develop as a
coequal branch of government. The Court also asserted the supremacy of the federal government over the
states.
While the Supreme Court expanded its powers and the powers of the central government, Jefferson, in
the face of political reality and national interest, showed a willingness to alter his strict constructionist view
of the Constitution. Seeing the possibility of doubling the size of the republic and removing major obstacles
to future commercial growth, Jefferson accepted the idea of implied executive powers and agreed to the
Louisiana Purchase. In the aftermath of the purchase, Jefferson commissioned Meriwether Lewis and William
Clark to explore the area for both scientific and political purposes.
These years also witnessed continued competition between Federalists and Democratic-Republicans and
the further development of democratic party politics. Although older Federalists remained disdainful of direct
appeals to voters, Younger Federalists attempted to imitate the campaigning style and tactics of the
Democratic-Republicans. In those areas where Federalists and Democratic-Republicans competed for voter
support, party organizations emerged. This, in turn, brought increased voter participation in the political
process. In spite of movements in the direction of party politics, intraparty factionalism and personal rivalries
prevented the emergence of political parties in the modern sense. The Hamilton-Burr duel is an excellent
example of these factional forces in operation.
The United States also faced challenges from abroad during these years. Caught between two warring
powers, the United States found its independence and nationhood challenged, with the greatest challenge
coming from Great Britain. The adoption of the policy of “peaceable coercion” by President Thomas
Jefferson and President James Madison created a situation in which the use of federal power had a
tremendous economic impact on the lives of individuals and on the future economic development of the
country—an ironic development in light of Jeffersonian beliefs about the role of government in society. As
disruptions to commerce caused by embargoes and war made domestic manufacturing more profitable, the
number of cotton and woolen mills in New England grew from 20 in 1807 to more than 200 by 1813. It was,
in fact, in 1813 that a radical transformation of textile manufacturing occurred with the chartering of the
Boston Manufacturing Company and the development of the Waltham (Lowell) system.
The policy of “peaceable coercion” did not bring an end to the humiliations experienced by the young
republic at the hands of the British navy. Ultimately, because of continued affronts to its independence and
because of the assertiveness of expansionists within the republic, the United States was drawn into the War of
1812. Lack of preparation for war, the presence of internal divisions, and the emergence of a pan-Indian
movement in the Northwest could easily have spelled disaster for the nation. Instead, defeat of the pan-Indian
movement of Prophet and Tecumseh caused the collapse of Indian unity in the Old Northwest and ended
effective Indian resistance to American expansion in that area, and England’s preoccupation with war in
Europe resulted in military stalemate with the United States and led to the status-quo antebellum Treaty of
Ghent.
Despite the nature of the peace, the American victory at the Battle of New Orleans (fought after the
signing of the peace treaty) caused most Americans to perceive the war as a major victory against the English
and as a reaffirmation of the nation’s independence, strength, and vitality.
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Chapter Outline
I.
Introduction
Thomas Jefferson’s inauguration heralded a change from the Federalist-controlled government that
had preceded. The nation’s political system became better defined and its nationalistic and
international positions grew clearer over the next 15 years.
II.
The Jefferson Presidency and the Marshall Court
A. Jefferson’s Inaugural
In his inaugural address, Jefferson tried to heal the wounds of the 1800 campaign by appealing
to the electorate as citizens with shared common beliefs.
B. Democratic-Republican Ascendancy
Jefferson refused to recognize any of Adams’s late-term Federalist appointments and where
possible filled government positions with loyal Democratic-Republicans. Secretary of the
Treasury, Albert Gallatin, cut the federal budget and moved to reduce the national debt.
C. War on the Judiciary
Jefferson had Congress repeal the Judiciary Act of 1801. The Democratic-Republican Congress
also impeached and removed Federal District Judge John Pickering. They could not, however,
remove Supreme Court Justice Samuel Chase.
D. John Marshall
As Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, John Marshall upheld federal supremacy over the states
and protected the interests of commerce and capital. Under Marshall, the Court became an equal
branch of the government.
E. Marbury v. Madison
In this case, John Marshall ended criticism that the Supreme Court functioned as a partisan
instrument. He also advanced the concept of judicial review, enhancing the independence of the
judiciary.
III.
Louisiana and Lewis and Clark
A. Louisiana
Spain’s decision to deny Americans the right to store their products at New Orleans prior to
transshipment to foreign markets and the subsequent transfer of the Louisiana Territory to the
French, threatened the American economy.
B. Louisiana Purchase
James Monroe joined Robert Livingston in France with orders to buy New Orleans. Napoleon
offered all 827,000 square miles of the Territory to the United States for fifteen million dollars.
C. Lewis and Clark
Meriwether Lewis and William Clark were commissioned by President Jefferson to head an
exploratory expedition to the Pacific coast.
D. Corps of Discovery
The Corps of Discovery was a diverse groups consisting of immigrants, Clark’s slave York, the
French Canadian trader Toussaint Charbonneau and his Shoshone wife, Sacagawea. The
expedition brought valuable information on the West to an expansion-minded United States.
E. Exploration of the West
Zebulon Pike’s wanderings led him to tour and describe Spanish holdings.
IV.
Political Factionalism and Jefferson’s Reelection
A. A New Style of Campaigning
Popular campaigning and political organization would become an essential part of the new style
of democracy. Several younger Federalists decided to emulate the political style of the
Democratic-Republicans.
B. Grassroots Electioneering
The new style of campaign was symbolized by political barbecues. Federalists, however, never
mastered the art of campaigning.
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C. Hamilton-Burr Duel
In American politics in the early nineteenth century, divisiveness and personal animosities were
as strong a force as ideology. And, as seen in the Hamilton-Burr duel, political disagreements
sometimes erupted into violence. In the famous duel, Burr killed Hamilton. Burr then conspired
to create a political empire in the Southwest. Tried for treason, he was acquitted and fled to
Europe.
D. Jefferson’s Reelection
Jefferson carried 15 of 17 states in the 1804 election.
E. Indian Resistance
F. The Prophet
Before the War of 1812, Shawnee brothers Tecumseh and Prophet attempted to create an Indian
federation. Prophet (Lalawethika) claimed to have returned from the dead, and he encouraged
Indians not to fear whites.
G. Tecumseh
Prophet and Tecumseh encouraged resistance. Tecumseh turned Prophet’s religious message
into a political one and traveled widely in an attempt to unify northern and southern Indians.
V.
American Neutrality Imperiled by a World at War
A. Impressment of American Sailors
Britain resorted to stopping American ships to remove deserters, although many of them had
become American citizens.
B. Chesapeake Affair
In 1807, the crew of the H. M. S. Leopard attacked and boarded the U.S.S. Chesapeake in
American waters. The incident led many Americans to demand war, but Jefferson responded
instead with “peaceable coercion.”
C. Embargo Act
The Embargo of 1807 forbade virtually all exports from the United States and became
extremely unpopular as the American economy collapsed.
D. Election of 1808
Jefferson, emulating Washington, declined a third term leading to the contested nomination of
Democratic-Republican James Madison who later won the election.
E. Non-Intercourse Act
The Non-Intercourse Act of 1809 resumed trade with all countries except Britain and France. In
1810, Congress substituted Macon’s Bill Number 2, which Napoleon used to trick the United
States into declaring non-intercourse with Great Britain.
VI.
Commerce and Industry
A. Stimulants to Industry
After 1807 embargoes and war stimulated domestic manufacturing.
B. Waltham or Lowell System
This system combined all manufacturing processes in a single location, thereby eliminating
numerous problems for the textile industry. To find the people necessary to staff the mill at
Waltham, inducements were offered to New England farm daughters and the managers accepted
responsibility for their living conditions.
VII.
The War of 1812
A. The Vote for War
The War of 1812 revealed a deeply partisan Congress.
B. Recruiting an Army
Payroll and supply problems hampered recruiting efforts in the West. Many Federalists
considered the conflict to be “Mr. Madison’s War,” and raising an army in New England also
proved difficult.
C. Invasion of Canada
The British captured Fort Dearborn and turned back American troops north of Niagara and near
Lake Champlain, thwarting American efforts to invade Canada.
D. Naval Battles
The navy provided the only good news during the first year of the war; however, the British
continued to rule the waves.
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E. Great Lakes Campaign
Oliver Hazard Perry’s victory gave the Americans control of Lake Erie and allowed William
Henry Harrison’s forces to win the Battle of the Thames, killing Tecumseh and crushing Indian
unity. However, in August 1814, the British occupied and burned Washington, D.C. In
September 1814, the Americans held firm at Baltimore and Francis Scott Key wrote “The Star
Spangled Banner.”
F. Campaign against the Creeks
Andrew Jackson overcame problems with his own militia to defeat the Creek nation, annex most
of their lands, and become a national hero.
G. Battle of New Orleans
Andrew Jackson became a national hero when his troops defeated 6,000 British soldiers near
New Orleans. Ironically, the battle occurred two weeks after diplomats had signed the Treaty of
Ghent.
VIII.
Peace and Consequences
A. Treaty of Ghent
The treaty, signed on December 24, 1814, restored the status quo antebellum. European
conflicts had ended, so both sides could afford to accept the accord.
B. Consequences of the War of 1812
The war brought a sense of nationalism and isolationism to Americans, it destroyed Indian
resistance, it exposed weaknesses in the national defense and transportation systems, it
stimulated economic growth, and sealed the fate of the Federalists.
C. Hartford Convention
Made up of Federalist delegates from New England, the convention that met in Hartford,
Connecticut, in the winter of 1814-1815 endorsed radical changes to the constitution.