Blackwell Publishing, Ltd.
European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization
Organisation Européenne et Méditerranéenne pour la Protection des Plantes
Data sheets on quarantine pests
Fiches informatives sur les organismes de quarantaine
DRAFT
09-15171 (08-14681)
Metamasius hemipterus
I
DENTITY
Name: Metamasius hemipterus Linnaeus
Taxonomic position: Insecta: Coleoptera: Curculionidae
Synonyms: Metamasius sericeus (Olivier)
Common names: silky cane weevil, palm and sugarcane weevil, west Indian sugarcane weevil
(English), Picudo rayado, Gorgojo de la raiz y tallo (Spanish), Metamasoi (Portuguese).
Notes on taxonomy and nomenclature: Metamasius Horn is a neotropical genus composed of approximately 100 species. These Coleoptera are medium sized, often brightly colored, generally breeding in palms, bananas and plantain, sugarcane, and bromeliads including pineapples
(O'Brien and Thomas, 1990).
Metamasius hemipterus was first described by Linnaeus in 1758. Vaurie (1966) recognized three subspecies based on colour: M. hemipterus subsp. hemipterus (Linnaeus), M. hemipterus subsp. sericeus (Olivier) and M. hemipterus subsp. carbonarius (Chevrolat). A number of authors have given these specific statuses, although after examining over 2000 specimens, Vaurie (1966) was convinced that they were conspecific, as the secondary characters of both sexes were extremely similar and no differences existed among the forms, except for the elytral, pronotal and ventral colour patterns.
EPPO code: METAHE
Phytosanitary categorization: EPPO A1 action list no. 356.
H OSTS
The major hosts of M. hemipterus are Cocos nucifera (coconut), Musa spp. (banana), Sacharum officinarum (sugarcane) (CABI, 2007; Vaurie, 1966).
Minor hosts include Ananas comosus (pineapple), Hyophorbe verschaffeltii (spindle palm), Jessenia bataua (seje palm) (Vaurie, 1966; CABI, 2007), Lantana (in Puerto Rico according to Wolcott, 1948),
Manihot esculenta (cassava) (found in rotten roots according to Anderson, 1948, Phoenix canariensis
(palm (Canary Island)), Ptychosperma macarthurii , Ravenea rivularis (Majesty palm), Roystonea regia
(cuban royal palm), Sorghum bicolor (sorghum), Washingtonia robusta (mexican washington-palm), Zea mays (maize) (Giblin-Davis et al . 1994; Pe
ña et al ., 1995; Vaurie, 1966).
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There is no indication from the literature of whether Phoenix dactylifera (date palm) is a host of
M. hemipterus .
Certain palm species seem to be more affected by M. hemipterus than others. Phoenix canariensis and Ravena rivularis , which have soft or fleshy frond bases, or Roystonia spp. and
Hyophorbe spp. which have crown shafts allowing weevils into the moist recesses between the exsheathing frond base and the next frond base, seem to be more prone to damage in Florida than palms with hard and split frond bases (Giblin-Davis, 2001). Palm species that have been reported as host plants are listed in Table 1.
M. hemipterus has also been observed on other species, but whether these species are true hosts remains uncertain: on stems of Roystonea borinquena (Lepesme, 1947); on palm stumps of
Iriartea ventricosa (Brazil) (Vaurie, 1966); on Chamaedorea cataractarum (Anderson, 1992).
Additionally, King & Saunders (1984) report that adults feed on damaged maize cobs, damaged fruit (e.g. ananas) and other sugary and decaying materials. Sosa et al. (1997) report Carica spp.
(papaya), Mangifera indica (mango), Psidium spp. (guava), Bromeliads and Bauhinia spp.
(orchids) as hosts.
Table 1. Palm tree species reported as host plants of Metamasius hemipterus
Palm species Reference
Hyophorbe verschaffeltii Giblin-Davis et al ., 1994
1)
Phoenix canariensis Giblin-Davis et al ., 1994
Ptychosperma macarthurii Giblin-Davis et al ., 1994
Ravenea rivularis Giblin-Davis et al ., 1994
Roystonea regia
Washingtonia robusta
Bactris gasipaes
Jessenia bataua
Phoenix roebelenii
Giblin-Davis et al ., 1994
Giblin-Davis et al ., 1994
Alpízar et al ., 1998
Vaurie, 1966
NPPO of Belgium (EPPO RS 2008/167)
Chamaedorea sp.
Vaurie, 1966
1) Larvae were found infesting the palm species
G EOGRAPHICAL D ISTRIBUTION
EPPO region : Absent.
Africa : Cameroon, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Nigeria
Asia : Indonesia (restricted distribution) and the Philippines (restricted distribution)
North America : Mexico, USA (Florida).
Caribbean and Central America : Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Belize, Cuba, Costa Rica,
Dominica, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Guatemala, Haiti,
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Honduras, Jamaica, Martinique, Montserrat, Nicaragua, Panama, Puerto Rico, Saint Lucia, St
Kitts-Nevis, St Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago, Virgin Islands (US).
South America : Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana,
Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Uruguay, Venezuela.
Note :
M. hemipterus was first discovered in the USA in Homestead, Florida, in 1984. Ten years later it was found infesting sugarcane in Belle Glade, and a subsequent survey indicated that the pest was widely distributed throughout Florida where sugarcane is produced (Sosa et al ., 1997). It has been recovered between 1985 and 2008 in almost all areas of Florida (Peña, pers. comm.).
Within the EPPO region, M. hemipterus was intercepted in 2006 and 2008 in the Netherlands on a consignment of Phoenix plants originating from Costa Rica (EPPO Alert List), as well as in
Belgium on Phoenix roebelenii imported from Costa Rica in 2008 (EPPO RS 2008/167). There is also a record of this pest on imported banana material in the UK (Whitehead, 1991)
B
IOLOGY
The females are attracted to and oviposit in healthy banana pseudostems, rotting banana plants
(Castrillon, 1989), on palm sheaths or stems (Vaurie, 1966), as well as on damaged or stressed sugarcane stalks (Weissling & Giblin-Davis, 2003). More information is available on M. hemipterus oviposition habits on sugar cane than on banana or on palms. Sosa et al.
(1997) consider that the weevil is attracted to cane damaged by either mechanical cultivation, harvesting equipment, rats, borers, disease or natural growth cracks. Raigosa (1974) considers that
Metamasius females prefer to deposit eggs on sugar cane that has been damaged by Diatraea . In
Colombia this type of damage is known as the complex Diatraea-Metamasius . Metamasius has also been observed infesting canes used as seed pieces (Raigosa, 1974).
Weissling et al . (2003) found out in a study made in Florida that after pairing males and females, it took an average of 27 days for females to begin oviposition. The oviposition period lasted 56.8 days. Females lived 142.3 days and laid an average of 51.6 eggs. Castrillon & Herrera (1980) report that the female can deposit approximately 500 eggs, difference may be due to differences in ovipositional substrates given to the weevils. Weissling et al . (2003) report that mean production during the oviposition period is 1.1 eggs/day. Egg eclosion averaged 81.3% during the oviposition period. Females lay eggs singly in holes made with their rostrum (Castrillon,
1989), deep in the soft part of the vegetation, with preference for existing wounds (Lepesme &
Paulian, 1941). Eggs hatch in 3-7 days (Castrillon, 1989) after which the larvae begin to feed.
The cream-color, yellowish larvae (see Picture 1) are typical legless weevil grubs and similar in most aspects to other members of the Rhynchophorinae. Larvae moult several times during the
50-60 days of larval stage. Fully developed larvae are 1.3 to 2.0 cm. Then a fibrous pupal cocoon is constructed (similar to that of the giant palm weevil, Rhynchophorus palmarum ). The pupal stage is spent in this cocoon for about 10-20 days. Cocoons are reddish-brown and composed of plant fibers within the stem. In the case the host is Musa spp, pupation takes place mostly within the banana pseudostem. In Cameroon, some studies highlighted that pupation occurred within the larval galleries without cocoon formation (Lepesme & Paulian, 1941). Adult is 9 to 14 mm
(Woodruff & Baranowski, 1985) and may transform, may immediately break free or remain in the cocoon until weather conditions are favorable for emergence. Adults are mostly found in moist and dark places (Castrillon, 1989) and are often found on or within banana pseudostems, palm fronds, sugarcane sheats, and leaf litter. They are active flyers (Ashby, 1917), but data is
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lacking on their natural spread. The pest can fly 30 m (Alpízar, undated) .
Depending on temperature, the life cycle is completed in 2-3 months. With trapping of adults, Peña et al.
(1995) determined that populations build up during the spring, summer and early fall in Florida.
Picture 1: Adult, larvae and pupal cocoon. Picture PPD.
Natural enemies
Lepesme & Paulian (1941) conducted studies in Cameroon and report that very few natural enemies are recorded. The ant Ectatomma quadridens feeds on the larvae, and some entomophyte fungi have been recorded, but their impact seems negligible on M. hemipterus .
Peña et al. (1995) report that natural enemies of M. hemipterus include ants of the genus
Tetramorium and a complex of generalist predators (e.g. Hololepta quadridentata
(Histeridaceae), and Propagaleriat bicolor (Carabidae)). The naturally occurring entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana (Clavicipitaceae) is an important mortality factor for M. hemipterus in Florida (see paragraph on biological control).
D
ETECTION AND IDENTIFICATION
Symptoms
Palms
The larvae form an irregular gallery which does not extend below the root neck (Lepesme &
Paulian, 1941). Larval tunneling in palm starts in the petioles, wounds in petioles, crown, or stem then extends into healthy leaf or stem tissue ( Weissling & Giblin-Davis, 2003) causing extensive physical damage which can lead to the death of sensitive palms such as Hyophorbe verschaffeltii
(spindle palm) and Ravenea rivularis (Majesty Palm) (Giblin-Davis et al ., 1994; Giblin-Davis,
2001). Affected palms are often characterized by the production of an amber-coloured and gummy exudate and chewed plant tissue issuing from windows in the galleries at the base of fronds, where they break prematurely.
Sugarcane
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In sugarcane, larvae feed in the pith, sometimes boring on healthy tissues. According to Wyniger
(1962), feeding on sugarcane causes retarded growth, plants turn a yellow colour and become stunted, and the stalks are riddled with large galleries. Additionally, as soon as the larvae have begun their development, the rotting cane stalks acquire a distinctive odour of acetic acid
(Wolcott, 1948).
Banana
Cardenas (1976) reports that damage to banana plants is found mostly on plants bearing fruits.
However, the damage is to the pseudostem and not to the fruit. Plants show slowed growth, leaves wilt and wither, the pseudostems are heavily mined and often broken, and young plants turn yellow and collapse (Wyniger, 1962).
Morphology
Eggs
The egg is 1.31 mm (range=1.17-1.44 mm) in length, and 0.44 (range =0.39-0.51 mm) in width
(Weissling et al ., 2003). They are translucent, oval creamy white to yellowish colored (Fennah,
1947; Castrillon, 1989)
Larva
Larva robust, thickest through abdominal segments 5 and 6; white, thoracic and abdominal sternites yellowish; body length 15-17 mm. Head brown, usually with paler stripes dorsally; free, vertical; as broad as long, broadly oval posteriorly; width 3.2-4.5 mm. Typical abdominal segments with three dorsal folds. Posterior margin of abdominal segment 9 smoothly rounded or transverse. Body without stout asperities. Abdominal segments 1-8 with distinct spiracles
(description by Lepesme & Paulian (1941) and Anderson (1948)).
Pupa
Body elongate, quite narrow, contracted anteriorly and posteriorly; length 14.5 mm. With five pairs of functional abdominal spiracles, visible from above (description by Lepesme & Paulian,
1941).
Adult
Colour variable, entirely black with basal red band of varying extent on elytra, or elytra streaked with red and black longitudinally; pronotum and venter black or various combinations of red and black; femora red, red with black stripes, or red with black bands or smudges; 9-14 mm in length. Head with rostrum measured from apex to top of eye about as long as pronotum; rostrum basally inferiorly not angulate or toothed, but may have feeble sinuation (males), rostrum with divided patch of tomentose yellow hairs above insertion of antennae (females). Prothorax with pronotum at base medially either virtually flat, or with a weak longitudinal depression; prosternum with distinct yellow hairs around front coxae. Scutellum not bilobed, but may be slightly emarginate anteriorly. Elytra with striae composed of punctures narrower than intervals.
Metasternum almost three times longer than diameter of middle coxa. Legs with middle and hind tibiae not or scarcely perceptibly expanded and sinuate; males with inner edge of hind tibiae straight; tarsal lobes, except narrow glabrous midline, entirely hairy. Sides of body below, except abdomen either impunctate or very finely punctate. Male genitalia, with median lobe truncate apically, in lateral view with entire lateral line (description from Vaurie, 1966).
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Detection and inspection methods
Because the weevils are attracted to damaged and rotting plant materials, these should be checked regularly. Various traps using fermenting sugarcane provide a convenient tool for any extensive surveys, looking for the presence of reddish-brown or black weevils up to 14 mm in length (CABI, 2007).
Young plants should be examined carefully for signs of stunting, yellowing, wilting or lodging; also check if stems smell of acetic acid, a characteristic sign of larval infestation. Stems can be dissected to look for large irregular galleries in the pith, starting in damaged, unhealthy portions and not extending below the root collar. Larvae will be white, curved and legless, with brown heads and body length up to 17 mm. Cocoons will be reddish-brown and composed of plant fibers within the stem.
P ATHWAYS FOR MOVEMENT
Over long distances, all stages living inside the plants can be moved with their host species. The species has been intercepted 2 times in Florida before establishing: one was found dead in 1973 in Miami in a Cuban store, another one was collected on Euphorbia trigona (Euphorbiaceae) shipped from Dominican Republic (Woodruff and Baranowski, 1985).
Anderson (1948) reported the presence of larvae in a banana stalk from Cuba, in sugarcane from the Panama Canal zone, from sugarcane stalks from Peru and in royal palm ( Roystonea regia ) in
Puerto Rico.
Palm trees represent a pathway of entry. Presence of the weevil at all stages - larvae, pupae, adults - can be overlooked on palm trees (depending on the palm size and infestation level).
Many times, damage to palms goes undetected until the palm starts collapsing or wilting. The species has been intercepted in Texas in stem of Chamaedorea sp. (Vaurie, 1966). It has also been intercepted in the Netherlands on Phoenix spp. imported from Costa Rica in 2006 (EPPO
Alert List) and in 2008, as well as in Belgium on Phoenix roebelenii imported from Costa Rica in 2008 (EPPO RS 2008/167).
Banana plants can be a pathway since pupa of the weevil and teneral adults can be found on the banana pseudostem. M. hemipterus has been intercepted in Queensland (Australia) in 1920 on banana plants from Jamaica (Tryon & Benson, 1920), in San Pedro, California on banana stems from Panama or Costa Rica in New York City docks (1924 and 1925) (CABI, 2007). Hustache
(1932) found adults in rotten banana plants in the Lesser Antilles and Vaurie (1966) collected adults from within the rain-soaked fibres of banana stalks rotting on the ground in Guadeloupe.
Lepesme and Paulian (1941) found adults, larvae and pupae in the trunk of a banana plant near
N'Kongsamba (Cameroon). Lepesme and Paulian (1941) also reported that in 1921 and 1922, weevils were removed four times in USA ports from material originating in the Antilles.
M. hemipterus may also enter as a hitchhiker on fruits, as they hide on bunches . M. hemipterus has been intercepted on bananas and pineapples from Cuba in Miami, Florida (USA) in 1920 and
1940, and probably as well on banana fruits in the UK (Whitehead, 1991). The finding on pineapple fruits might be a misindentification because other Metamasius spp. are infesting pineapple in the Caribbean and South America, i.e. M. dimidiatipennis (Venezuela), M. fasciatus
(Venezuela), M. Richeei (Jamaica) (see Petty et al ., 2002). Adults of Metamasius hemipterus can be found on banana bunches, but oviposition on fruits has not been recorded (J Peňa, pers. com.
6

2008). So far, the only records of oviposition of Metamasius species on fruits are for those that attack pineapple ( M. ritchei Marshall) (Sherwood et al ., 2004).
Regarding natural spread, M. hemipterus adults are good fliers and more active than
Cosmopolites sordidus (Hord & Flippin, 1956). The adults of M. hemipterus are considered to have a high ability to find breeding and feeding sites (Sirjusingh et al ., 1992). (see also biology).
Pest significance
M. hemipterus is considered as the species which is probably the most damaging member of the genus Metamasius on palm (Giblin-Davis, 2001) (see picture 2). It is generally regarded as a secondary pest of sugarcane, bananas and palms especially attacking dead or wounded tissue.
However, the pest causes serious damage in palms and sugar cane in Florida (Weissling et al .,
2003).
Economic impact
The impacts on palms are a major concern. Damage has been observed on Phoenix canariensis grown in fields, landscape and neighborhoods. Field grown nursery palms can be 3 to 6 meter tall. In Florida, 5 nurseries have reported problems related to the pest, but more nurseries could be infected. Each palm cost between $500 to $1,000 dollars depending on the size, therefore, each farm lost a minimum of $20,000 US dollars x 5 = $100,000/year (J Peña, pers. com. 2008).
Concerning impact on landscape, it is difficult to place a dollar value to palms infested on backyards. However, in Miami Beach, a very tall palm (approx. 9 m) located in a very fashionable avenue (many restaurants, shops, etc) was attacked by M. hemipterus . According to the park superintendant, the cost of replacing that palm was $10,000 US dollars. No chemical treatments were looked for, because of problems with bad publicity, environment, and location (J
Peña, pers. com. 2008). In addition, palm stress created by M. hemipterus infestation can increase the chances of infestation by Rhynchophorus cruentatus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), being lethal to palms such as Phoenix canariensis .
Damage to the pseudostem of bananas will cause early fall of the plant, particularly when bearing bunches. There are no written records of costs caused by economic damage (J Peña, pers. com. 2008).
In Florida (USA), where M. hemipterus is now widespread (Sosa et al ., 1997), infestation levels on sugar cane stalks ranging from 8 to 32% of the cultivar CP 85-1382 were reported at 3 farms.
The larval stage was the most frequently encountered growth stage (89%), with an overall mean of approximately 2 larvae per stalk. There were significant differences in most yield components between infested and uninfested stalks. A 32% stalk infestation caused an estimated loss of
$402.40 US/ha, or almost $ 6 million industry-wide. In the US Virgin Islands, a report of M. hemipterus destroying 10% of the sugarcane crop was made by Wilson (1923). Woodruff and
Baranowski (1985) considered that although M. hemipterus prefers to feed on unhealthy plants, even small injuries attract adults to oviposit, and the resultant adult feeding and subsequent larval infestations can cause serious damage, at least to sugarcane. When damaged or rotting cane is left in the field, populations often build up to re-infest the next crop.
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Additionally, the adults have been reported as active flyers in Barbados and have been implicated in the transmission of fungal spores causing leaf-bitten diseases of coconut (Ashby,
1917). In eastern and north-eastern Trinidad, of 465 adults sampled, 13 harboured
Bursaphelenchus cocophilus (Aphelenchoididae) nematodes (8 alive and 5 dead), the causative agent of red ring disease (Hagley, 1964). These observations suggest that M. hemipterus is involved in transmission of the nematode but has, thus far, not been shown. The red ring disease has a very serious economic impact on cultivated palm trees in South and Central America, but
Bursaphelenchus cocophilus is absent from the EPPO region.
Picture 2: Damages of Metamasius hemitperus on Royal Palm. Picture R Gigglin Davis.
Control
Cultural control
Damaged or rotting sugarcane should be removed from fields to prevent re-infestation of the next crop (Woodruff & Baranowski, 1985). Reduction of cultural practices that wound the fronds or stems of susceptible palms should reduce damage caused by these weevils (Giblin-Davis, 2001).
Pruning consisting in removing healthy green palm leaves for aesthetic purposes is not advised since it creates wounds attractive to M. hemipterus (Weissling & Broschat, 1999). Also, this weevil appear to be most damaging in consistently moist and shady situations (Giblin-Davis,
2001).
Host-plant resistance
In Florida during September 1994, ten commercial sugarcane cultivars were evaluated for susceptibility to M. hemipterus . CP 80-1743 was the most resistant (16% infestation), whereas
CP 85-1382 was the most susceptible (21% infestation) (Sosa, 1997). On three farms in Florida, little or no infestation was detected in other cultivars growing next to CP 85-1382. Thus, hostplant resistance may be an important strategy for management of this pest (Sosa et al., 1997).
Chemical Control
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Chemically based pest controls, currently recommended by some control programs, represent a short term and questionable strategy for resource farmers in Florida and the Caribbean Region with accompanying health and environmental concerns for the entire area. Giblin-Davis et al .
(1996) demonstrated that adults of M. hemipterus sericeus were killed by labeled rates of acephate, carbofuran, chlorpyrifos, cyfluthrin, disulfoton, imidacloprid, isofenphos, lindane and vydate. In Ecuador, Raigosa (1974) and Rossignoli (1972) examined the use of sugarcane poisoned traps with a mixture of water, molasses and parathion and determined that this method was adequate for control of M. hemipterus sericeus while Nogueira (1976) and Sarah (1990) demonstrated that chemical control is not always possible against M. hemipterus sericeus .
Mass-trapping
Mass-trapping (“attract and kill”) is being used in Central and Southern America in sugar cane to control the pest (Rossignoli, 1972; Oehlschlager et al ., 2002). The usual practice is the placement of 30 insecticide-laced sugarcane-containing bamboo traps per ha at time of planting
(Oehlschlager et al ., 2002).
Castrillon and Herrera (1980) suggested the use of a "sandwich trap" using banana pseudostem as an attractant. Peña et al . (1995) used the same method in Florida, and warned that the number of weevils collected at these traps was consistently low. Giblin-Davis et al.
(1996) optimized trap designs and protocols that can be used for enhanced monitoring of weevil populations in the field. Perez et al . (1997) identified major male-produced aggregation pheromones and host kairomone compounds. Oehlschlager et al . (2002) showed that mass trapping could be improved by addition of a pheromone to the trap. Alpízar et al.
(1998) showed that damage to Palmito palm on commercial plantations in Costa Rica decreased significantly using pheromone lures for both Metamasius hemipterus and Rhynchophorus palmarum .
Biological Control
Entomopathogens
The use of entomopathogens provides a promising, yet still expensive means of control of
Metamasius hemipterus . Entomogenous fungi, Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo) Vuillemin and
Metarhizium anisopliae (Metchnikoff) Sorokin, have gained considerable attention as potential control for weevils (Mesquita et al ., 1981; Peña et al ., 1995; Giblin-Davis et al., 1996). For example, a study undertaken by Peña et al . (1995) demonstrated that naturally occurring B. bassiana was an important mortality factor to adults of M. hemipterus in Florida. B. bassiana infection increased up to 70% between March and April 1991 when more than 10 weevils were captured per trap (Peña et al ., 1995). However, more information was needed on the effect of this fungus before pest management decisions could be made.
Giblin-Davis et al.
(1996) demonstrated that the nematode Steinernema carpocapsae was efficacious against larvae but not adults of M. hemipterus and concluded that because of the high potential for high weevil production per palm in Florida and the cryptic habitat of the boring stages of this weevil, chemical insecticides and entomopathogenic nematodes will need to be applied frequently and over a long period of time for effective management.
Parasitoids
Surveys for biological control agents (predators, parasites) of M. hemipterus have been unsuccessful (Peña, unpubl. data). Classical biological control is expected to provide additional, possibly more effective, biological control of M. hemipterus in Florida and the Caribbean.
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Siqueira et al . (1996) identified predators of Metamasius at the family level and stated that they were more abundant in Brazil than were parasitoids. The predacious families included
Labiduridae, Histeridae, Staphylinidae, Carabidae, Cicindelidae, Formicidae, and Reduviidae. A parasitoid was observed and identified as a tachinid. Search of host-specific parasitoids in one of the areas of origin have not provided any positive results (Peña, unpubl. information).
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