Destination Branding: Differentiation and Synchronisation
Professor David Litteljohn
Cultural Business Group, Caledonian Business
School, Glasgow Caledonian University, Cowcaddens Road, Glasgow G4 0BA,
Scotland, UK
Tel: +44 (0) 141 331 8470
Email: dli@gcal.ac.uk
Abstract
Place branding is an important marketing tool and can have a major role for drawing
stakeholders together, providing a core set of values for the destination whilst
highlighting the need for market orientation. City – and by extension region - brands face
a number of challenges. One of their largest challenges is differentiation. Through and
examination of three different cities in the UK – London, Glasgow and Edinburgh –
development and positioning issues are studied to provide an overview of the branding
process.
Biography
David Litteljohn is Professor of Tourism and Hospitality at Glasgow Caledonian
University. His past career includes working for a regional economic agency, where he
was involved in tourism development. He researches in internationalisation, market
change and destination development in tourism from a strategic perspective.
September 2006
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Destination Branding: Differentiation and Synchronisation
Some hold branding as perhaps the most powerful marketing weapon available to
contemporary destination marketers confronted by increased competition (Morgan and
Pritchard, 2004: P60). The purpose of this paper is to understand some theoretical and
practical issues in the branding of city destinations. Three U.K examples are taken:
London Edinburgh and Glasgow.
Branding’s appeal
A brand is ‘an identifiable product, service, person or place, augmented in such a way
that the buyer or user perceives relevant, unique added values which match their needs
most closely. Success results from being able to sustain these added values in the face
of competition’ (Chernatony and McDonald, 2003, P25). Added values may be functional
and non-functional and take on meanings where consumer awareness is triggered
consciously or intuitively (McRae et al, 1995).
As Western societies become more affluent so branding becomes more complex. While
the basic brand proposition is important, communication is key to create consumer
awareness of brand values. Sustainability comes from stressing attributes that closely
match target markets’ needs and that create a product image consistent with the
perceived self-image of their buyers (Shiffman and Kanuk, 2000) superior to competition.
Major branders traditionally launch their messages through extensive advertising and
promotional campaigns. Procter and Gamble, reputably the largest global advertiser,
spent US$5.8 billion in 2002 circa euro 4.5 billion (Sorrell, 2004) on promoting its diverse
brand portfolio which includes Lacoste (fashion clothing), Pampers (baby goods) and
Lenor (cleaning products). Successful brands persist in spite of consumer setbacks:
consider Coca-Cola’s unsuccessful introduction of ‘New Coke’ in 1985 and their Dasani
(bottled water) flop in Europe during 2004. This does not mean that large promotional
spends bring success: what is important is positive interaction between brands and their
target markets.
Places, images and branding
Interest in branding tourism destinations emerged from the mid-1990s. Previously
attention had mostly concentrated on destination image but, as mature destinations
experienced greater levels competition, marketers searched for new approaches. Place
branding arose to position abstract notions of image formation within a tighter framework
which offered more guidance to destination managers.
While different destinations make generalisation impossible, it is fair to say that many
places (visited or not) generate an identity in the public’s mind. These may be positive,
negative or neutral, exciting, romantic, violent, fuzzy, etc. They arise from many
sources: e.g. arts, history and educational sources and contemporary events and media
coverage, as well as word-of-mouth. Promotions from tourism suppliers also plays a
part: however, impact may be low through the high volume of other sources and
because it may arrive late in decision-making processes.
Branding destinations styles itself as ‘strategic place marketing’ (Kotler and Gertner,
2004: P 46). It emphasises proactive management of image in relation to enhancing a
destination’s position by:
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


Understanding environmental forces that affect its marketability
Monitoring the external environment in relation to opportunities and threats
Involving all relevant stakeholders including government, citizens and businesses to
develop a shared image
 Setting and delivering incentives and managing the factors that may affect buying
decisions including image, attractions, infrastructure and people
(Kotler and Gertner, 2004)
Thus branding takes into account (i) factors that influence consumers decision-making
and (ii) effects on differences in consumers’ perceptions of destinations and their
satisfaction ratings. However, destination branding must incorporate the fixity of tourism
products provided by their location (destination size and composition of tourism supply)
and the images and perceptions currently held about it (Cai, 2002). Table 1, whilst not
comprehensive, extends this application of product branding to places.
Table 1: Product branding and place branding: a comparison
Factor
Supply characteristics
Product branding
Destination branding

Focused around a few
variables
May involve a narrow OR
varied set of variables
dependent on resources at
destination
Follow a narrow offering
Relatively targeted – may
be mass or niche
May be many and varied
May be broad including mass
AND niche
Under control of one
organisation
Requires stakeholder buy-in:
co-operation and joint
budgeting/co-ordination
amongst various suppliers
Spend related to corporate
strategy
Spend related to general
indicators such as perception of
destination in key markets
Offering
 Quality variables
Demand/Markets
Brand building and
maintenance
 Allocation/
responsibility

Allocation/monitoring
/targets
Place branding is consumer-orientated: it should build lifestyle statements associated
with emotional relationships (Sheth, Mittal and Newman, 1999) as well as highlighting
tourist attractions. However, brand formation must also account for all stakeholders who
deliver brand values – either actively (e.g. tourism suppliers) or passively (e.g. local
communities who provide the bedrock economic and social life). The re-branding
Nottingham in the U.K. (near Sherwood Forest, home of the legendary Robin Hood)
shows a case of public dissatisfaction when traditional associations are replaced with
more direct positioning strategies (see
http://www.robinhood.ltd.uk/tourism/nottingham_n.htm).
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Tourism place brands may need to relate to associated brands: for example, supracountry brands where government decides to pursue a broad brand strategy. Other
tourism place brands differ by level and by type. There may be market segment or event
brands also. These are shown in Table 2.
Table 2: Tourism brands by level and type
Supra national brand
Supra national tourism brands
Location/Community/Destination Niche tourism*
Special interest
Region
Tradition & Culture based
City
Activity-based
Event Tourism
Cultural/Artistic
Political
Professional & Scientific
Leisure participant
Sporting spectator
* Derived from Novelli, 2005
Building a destination brand
Based on the theoretical perspectives above it is useful to consider tourism destination
brand development under four headings.
(1) Antecedents: To what extent must a new image reflect existing images/perceptions:
countries evolve over centuries and reflect many social, cultural, economic, religious,
aspects as well as contemporary features? The pull of tradition over more radical
change must be weighed.
This stresses the core values and the underlying nature of offer (physical opportunities
and emotional benefits on offer).
(2) Tourism Dynamic: Offers must be related to consumer’s desires and the stage of
market development. Thus Morgan and Pritchard (2004, P 69) propose a destination
‘brand fashion curve’ (adapting the product life cycle and Butler’s Tourist Area Life
Cycle, 1980) to suggest four stages: (i) fashion and high growth in demand; (ii) a famous
destination experiencing a slower, peaking growth; (iii) consumer familiarity as the
destination matures (iv) fatigue as demand declines to a minimum level.
This accentuates a role for planning and market research to ensure high market
orientation and to ensure that brands meet specific long and short-term requirements.
(3) Brand leadership and synchronisation: Leadership emphasises the need for direction
in the development and co-ordination of brands, very important in a fragmented industry.
Synchronisation relates to the need for brands to add value – particularly if a place is
encompassed in several brands, operating at different levels: differences in brands must
add value to target markets. Synchronisation with markets is particularly important as
brands evolve.
(4) Integration of branding with other activities: branding is one of many marketing and
promotional activities undertaken by tourism organisations. These include: research,
representation abroad; organization of workshops/trade shows; familiarization trips;
travel manual; supporting production and distribution of materials; participation in joint
marketing schemes; information and reservation systems; support for innovation etc.
(Middleton and Clarke, 2001: P342-346). Destination management organisations have
limited resources to finance and must ensure that resources are used effectively.
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City Brands in the UK
City and regional brands face particular issues of differentiation: whilst many countries
are closely associated to icons (e.g. an innovators, explorers) many tourism markets
(particularly foreign) are less likely to identify these to specific cities and regions (Anholt
City Brands, 2005, P2). There are many examples of city branding from Europe (e.g.
Rome, Amsterdam, Copenhagen) - this analysis spotlights three different cities in the
U.K.
The UK ranks sixth (24.7 million arrivals in 2004) for international tourism (World
Tourism Organization, 2005). It has a mature domestic market in leisure and business
tourism. It is not a cheap destination and has to compete in other ways to provide value.
One branding exercise saw the U.K as an ‘island of traditional heritage and the
unconventional’ where emotional benefits included enriching experiences and relaxation
in a friendly, open culture which, while it initially appears to have a cold personality, is
‘deeply friendly’ and ‘ordered yet quirky’ (Morgan, Pritchard and Pride 2002: P34-25).
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Table 3: Three city Brands in the UK: a guide to antecedents; tourism dynamics and leadership
City
Antecedent
factors
Tourism
Dynamics
2003 3
Brand
leadership
London
Population:
7,429,000*: UK royal
and government
capital: a
cosmopolitan, world
centre for arts,
entertainment and
education and
commerce.
4 major airports dealt
with 111.692 million
passengers in 20011
and 124 million in
20042. Also served
by London City
Airport. National
centre for other
transport networks
Total tourism
spending £9.1 billion
(65% from
international visitors).
High standard and
varied tourism
infrastructure
including arts,
entertainment and
major sporting
events. Tourism
activity concentrated
in central districts.
Annual hotel
occupancy varies by
standard of facility:
often + 75%
Edinburgh City
Population: 430,082*:
Scottish capital,
royal, legislative and
administrative
heritage. Financial
centre. Location of
the Scottish
Parliament (from1998
after suspension in
1707). Airport
handled 3.3 million
passengers (2001).
Major transport hub
for UK east coast
services.
Glasgow City
Population: 629,501*:
trading, artistic and
industrial heritage.
Major retail centre in
UK after London.
Development of
services industries.
Served by 2 airports.
Main airport handled
3.9 million
passengers (2001).
Major transport hub
for UK west coast
services.
Earned £985 million
from tourism (33%
from international
visitors). Tourism
strategy centred
around festivals:
including annual Arts
Festival with others
covering a spectrum
of art, scientific and
community events.
Some peaking of
demand in summer
months. Average
hotel occupancy c.
73%.
Earned £707 million
from tourism (21%
from international
visitors). Tourism
strategy launched in
mid1980s change
industrial image,
develop new
infrastructure
including large
conference and
exhibition facilities.
Demand relatively
evenly spread
throughout year,
average annual hotel
occupancy c. 62%.
City brand developed
by a local publicprivate partnership
City brand developed
by a local publicprivate partnership
Since 1970s strong
commitment to
industrial
regeneration by the
Regional/City council.
Branding located
within the tourism
function of local
government
Sources:
 Population: Office for National Statistics from, Census 2001 at
http://www.statistics.gov.uk/census2001/census2001.asp accessed 5 September 2006

1
Civil Aviation Authority, 2001, UK Airport Report - Passengers at Gatwick, Heathrow,
Luton, Stansted, Manchester, Aberdeen, Belfast City, Belfast International, Edinburgh,
6
Glasgow and Inverness Airports in 2001 available at
http://www.caa.co.uk/docs/81/Report2001.pdf (accessed 5 September 2006)

2

3
Civil Aviation Authority, 2004, Economic Regulation Group - CAA Passenger Survey
Report 2004 Survey of passengers at Gatwick, Heathrow, Luton, Manchester & Stansted
Airports available http://www.caa.co.uk/docs/81/2004%20Report.pdf (accessed 5
September 2006)
Figures for 2003: Edinburgh City available at
http://www.scotexchange.net/edinburgh_and_lothians_-_edinburghlothian_-_index and
Glasgow City available at http://www.scotexchange.net/glasgow_clydevalley_-_index,
both accessed 5 September 2006 and London from Visit London: Prospects for 2006/07
available at http://www.visitlondon.com/ems/images/1prospects2006.07.pdf (accessed 6
September 2006)
London – a holistic approach
London has a very strong international image: e.g. Anholt’s (2005) City Brand Index
placed it as the world’s favourite city. However, for nearly 20 years from the early 1980s
public sector efforts in London tourism were largely led by its local/district area councils:
no city-wide government body existed, through there was a city tourist board. On the
election of a London assembly with a Mayor in 1998 citywide initiatives emerged,
including a London branding initiative.
The original push to develop the brand was channelled through the London
Development Agency (LDA) which has a wide economic development remit. A holistic
city brand was built through consultation with many local stakeholders. The strategic
priorities of ‘Brand London’ are to position it as:
1. The world’s leading financial centre and Europe’s business capital
2. Europe’s number one city for culture
3. The host city to host major, globally recognised, events
4. A leading centre of research, science and technology
5. The place to study for students – foreign and domestic
Given the importance of tourism to its economy it is interesting that it is implied in the
priorities (especially 2 and 3 and, for business tourism, in 1), rather than being stated
separately. This does not mean that tourism is forgotten: the brand played a part in the
successful bid for the Olympics in 2012. The brand is also evolving in order to meet
environmental turbulence and negative effects of events: e.g. it has been used helped
minimise a downturn in domestic trips to London caused by the 7 July 2005 bombings.
The brand is currently being managed by Visit London, the city’s tourism arm, in close
consultation with Mayor’s office.
Edinburgh – getting buy-in
Tourism is embedded in Edinburgh’s economy. It is the top city destination for overseas
visitors to the U.K after London. It is an affluent city and possesses Europe’s sixth
largest financial centre. It hosts many special events throughout the year ranging from
the established arts festival – the International Edinburgh Festival - which anchors a
number of complementary art events into a mega-event. Another well known event is its
annual New Year’s celebration (Edinburgh’s Hogmanay). The city’s local government
have supported tourism strongly and have helped finance a city/regional marketing
bureau. There is also a separate regional economic development body. In recent years,
one of the main ways the City has addressed issues of repositioning largely through
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developing a co-ordinated policy for its festivals and events (see documents at
http://www.edinburgh.gov.uk/internet/Leisure/Arts_and_entertainment/Arts_Development
/CEC_cultural_policy_and_art_strategies ).
Edinburgh City Region brand was established in 1998. It is a public/private partnership
with representation from across major sectors that work with branding specialists.
Branding is holistic, focusing on economic, education, community and tourism. The
brand positions Edinburgh as an attractive location for industry and talent for world-class
research and education, high quality tourism and, for its local population, a high quality
of life as a contemporary city region with a remarkable heritage (see
http://www.edinburghbrand.com/ ). The building process pays particular attention to
producing brand specifications so that all major stakeholders can buy-in and participate
in the brand through a dedicated website and regular communications.
Glasgow - styling a city, restyling a brand
Glasgow has a rich trading and industrial heritage, though a recent strategic involvement
in tourism. The city closely addressed its image since its transformation to a services
economy from the early 1980s: ‘Glasgow’s Miles Better’ slogan (1983); National Garden
Festival (1988) and European City of Culture (1990) all had major tourism components.
Changes were often made on a tripartite basis - City Council, its tourism arm and the
local development body - but were inevitably associated with the local tourist board
which was well networked and under charismatic leadership.
Tourism branding for Glasgow has to take into account that the duality of excellent
attractions and some of the poorest neighbourhoods in the U.K. Tourism markets
particularly promoted are large-scale business/association conferences and congresses
through the development of infrastructure and a Convention Bureau as part of the city’s
tourism investment. The city also hosted Glasgow: European City of Architecture (1999)
and the European Capital of Sport (2003).
Its most recent re-branding (2004) was the launch of the ‘Glasgow: Scotland with Style’
campaign (http://www.seeglasgow.com/glasgow-the-brand ) launched at a cost of £1.5
million (Mooney, 2004) by the City’s Marketing/Tourism Bureau. Drawing inspiration
from Glasgow architecture and design style movement of the early 1900s and capturing
a contemporary appeal of its cultural and retail strengths. The brand both acknowledges
its national affiliation while highlighting the city’s strengths. It was developed and is
currently managed by the city’s tourism bureau.
There are moves to capitalise on the tourism brand by evolving it into a holistic city
brand as part of a new economic strategy for Glasgow. This, it is intended, will be
achieved by adapting the brand to new, international audiences through a step-change
programme that widen brand reach. Thus, Glasgow, which has used tourism as a major
strategy in developing its service-base is planning to restyle its tourism branding into a
broader strategy.
Conclusion
This brief analysis has introduced and briefly discussed place branding. It is now an
important marketing tool and can have a major role for drawing stakeholders together,
providing a core set of values for the destination whilst highlighting the need for market
orientation. It is also clear, from the examples analysed, that branding may help change
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perceptions and, as London exemplifies, how it may focus marketing responses in times
of crises.
City – and by extension region - brands face a number of challenges. One of their
largest challenges is differentiation: how does one place distinguish itself in areas of
culture, arts and economic opportunities, for example, when the target markets may
identify these issues more with the country? While a resort destination may feel more at
ease than a city in this respect, hard work is needed for it to gain attention if it lacks
differentiation from other destinations: this is where niche sub-brands may figure.
Although not a component of this paper, they nevertheless merit greater study. Their
use also brings up a second major challenge of place branding: synchronisation – how
do brand relate to each other in ways that will add value to the visitor experience?
Related to the general point of synchronisation are subjects of impact and resources.
Place brands are often supported by limited funding and it is necessary to be realistic as
to its role and important to ensure integration into the wider promotional effort. The
analysis has identified the fact that city brands may be holistic rather than aimed solely
at tourism. This is not necessarily negative, but adds to the weight of more case studies
and research into the building, evolution and impact of place branding.
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