What can brain based research tell about enhancing reading?
Annotated Bibliography:
What can brain based research tell about enhancing reading?
Diane Clark
5710
April 25, 2005
What can brain based research tell about enhancing reading?
My interest in brain research for reading was two fold. I am interested in how the
brain learns and in turn how that can affect the area of reading. I believe that teaching a
child or person to read is the most valuable gift one can receive. It enables that person to
communicate in a society that I believe functions on the ability to read. At the school
where I currently teach, Brain Booster workshops are being taught in a series of one-hour
sessions for eight weeks. These workshops integrate brain based learning strategies for
the classroom. I am using these strategies prior to teaching reading, to see if in act they
work. When deciding on a topic for question two, I decided on brain based research ideas
to enhance reading because I am currently involved with that in my classroom. The
following are the articles I found that involve studies and strategies for brain based
learning:
Banikowski, A., & Mehring, T. (1999). Strategies to enhance memory. Focus on
Exceptional Children. 32 2 (1-16).
The authors of this article give strategies to help enhance students’ abilities in
memory based on brain research. They detail several areas that affect memory in
learning. The areas are: attention, short-term memory, long-term memory semantic
memory, episodic memory, and procedural memory. Strategies that can help are giving
students clue or signals, which help student’s time to stop and focus or attend to the
teacher, using contrast, which can help students help attend to the content being covered.
(i.e. props, movement, sounds, changing the environment, and voice tone or inflection.),
and creating emotion, which can activate and stimulate the brain to recall information
better established a purpose for learning to better understand why that particular learning
is taking place. Organize the learning so that the learning can be facilitated in the best
possible way. Giving a big picture enabling for students to see what will take place and
then organizing that information so students see a process can be extremely helpful.
Other useful information the authors detail are strategies to facilitate prior knowledge,
strategies to involve student in the learning process, strategies to facilitate students in
their ability to construct meaning and strategies to facilitate students in demonstrating
their learning.
Strategies discussed to facilitate activating students prior knowledge are:
promoting a KWL graphic organizer, providing a prediction guide to recall previous
knowledge and using metaphors, analogies and imager.
Strategies to facilitate students in the learning process are: EPR (Every Pupil
Response), which can be small or whole group, using many techniques (i.e. chalkboard,
white boards, etc.) to initiate a student response. Utilizing cooperative learning for
engaging students in active learning (think-pair-share, chunking) is another way to
engage an active learning process. Reciprocal teaching is effective in working with below
level readers particularly in content areas. In using reciprocal teaching, other areas that
can be affected are: asking questions, summarizing, clarification and predicting. By
initiating role-playing, students can act out “real life” roles, which can activate learning.
The use models, and hands-on manipulative can facilitate learning by engaging student in
active learning.
Strategies to facilitate students and their ability to construct meaning can
happen through he use of graphic organizers, semantic mapping, story mapping,
What can brain based research tell about enhancing reading?
monitoring comprehension, understanding text and it’s structure, writing and it’s use in
organizing thoughts, which an aid in the comprehension of text.
Strategies to facilitate students in demonstrating learning can be again, organizing
material, rehearsing information and the use of mnemonics to recall information.
All of the strategies discussed can enhance student learning in the area of reading
by applying them in a classroom situation. Teachers’ goals are to create independent
learners who can take an active part in each lesson presented.
Brandt, R., (1997). On Using Knowledge. Educational Leadership. 62 3 (16-19).
Being able to apply knowledge from research learned about how the brain
functions are the main point of this article. Educators need to be aware of educational
items that they have known for some time; approximate time for a lesson should take in
the classroom, encouragement of students to be actively involved in a lesson, and the
emotional component of keeping students in tuned to a lesson. Teachers need to keep
abreast of changes in education in the subjects they teach and notice changes in subjects
they don’t teach but need to have an awareness of changes that take place in others. The
article discusses that teachers need to be aware that students will learn quickly if they are
showing interest in the subject matter.
An interesting fact found in this article is that one reason that children may have
trouble reading is that the brain may not see reading and writing as critical to survival and
that “importance and difficulty are not the same.” Teachers need to implement some of
the ideas they present to their students in learning through exploration, engagement in
activities of interest and discussion of what is learned. That needs to be applied in their
reading and writing.
I think all teachers would agree that keeping a student’s interest in the subject
matter would help them learn the content. By engaging students in active learning of the
subject, exploration and discussion may keep them highly motivated to pursue on their
own reading and writing in that area discussed, young readers or old.
Burmark, L. (2002). Visual Literacy, Learn to See, See to Learn. ADCD (Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development: Alexandria, VA.
In society with imagery being able to convey a multitude of emotions with facts
through the use of technology; it is immediate in how one may perceive information. This
book relates the significance of visual literacy in education and the importance of
processing words and pictures. The brain research the author uses is adapted from
Howard Gardner in his theory of multiple intelligences and that “each child’s intelligence
is actually a unique combination of multiple intelligences, linguistic, logicalmathematical, intrapersonal, spatial/visual, musical, bodily kinesthetic, and naturalist.” It
is stated, “combining visual images with written text can help students remember what
they read.” Allan Paivio is also mentioned with information regarding “that visual and
verbal information are encoded and is decoded by separate, specialized perceptual and
cognitive channels in the brain.” “Dual coding” takes place when the information is
presented in different forms. An exploration of visual literacy is detailed with
What can brain based research tell about enhancing reading?
communication being addressed through graphics generated in the classroom. Aspects
touched on in the book are: context and the importance of it, readability, color in the
classroom, visual impressions, enhancing instruction through visual literacy, successful
presentations, and the use of imagery with words.
The book focuses on the use of imagery in society and how it influences students
with ideas to better educate them in a way that is more significant than what has been the
norm in past traditional teaching. The use of imagery is widely used in education to
evoke ideas and new learning in all grade levels. Teachers can use visual imagery in
reading to help implement reading ideas. I use a print rich environment to introduce new
concepts in reading and to review them daily.
Caulfield, J., & Kidd, S. (2000). Brain-Based Instruction in Action. Educational
Leadership. 11 58 (62-65).
In this article, brain based research was involved in a study by researchers at a
high performing school. This study involved a staff at a good school that wanted to make
their school better through research, collaborative efforts, sharing and analyzing
information they obtained about how information was taught at the school. The staff at
Valley Park Elementary in Kansas City entered into a partnership with CARE, the Center
for the Advancement of Reform in Education at Rockhurst University in Kansas City,
Missouri. Brain compatible practices were the focus. Their findings fell into three
categories. The first category was “ the brain changes physiologically as a result of
experience.” External experiences can change the brains structure and function to a
response. For teachers, this means they need to continually change their environment so
that it is challenging, not to easy or not to hard, for the brain will not function when those
latter are present. The second is “ education influences learning”. The article states that
“people retain more of what they learn when the brain recognizes an experience as
useful.” Positive emotions would be receptive where those aligned with fear or negativity
would not be receptive to students and they would shut down. Teachers should provide
an emotionally positive environment for learning to take place. The third category is
“intelligence is multiple”. Multiple intelligences can play a factor in learning rather than
just relying on recall of facts. When an understanding was made in those areas, the school
put it into practice. They created an environment aligned with the district’s character
education plan. They developed yearlong themes with spiraling the context. Teachers
organized the material in novel way that kept the children interest. Through multiple
intelligences, teachers allowed mastery of skills in appropriate developmental practices.
Through these steps, the teachers allowed for effective curriculum with multiple
perspectives to be implemented with a collaborative effort.
I think all teachers could learn how to more effectively create a better
learning situation in all areas but particularly reading through what this staff did at Valley
Park Elementary. Through the implementation of creating positive experiences, have a
positive environment and providing multiple intelligences in instruction, students will
gain more in learning particularly reading. If the teacher is interested then children tend
to be more interested in what they are learning.
What can brain based research tell about enhancing reading?
Davis, S. (2000). Look Before You Leap: Concerns About “Brain-Based” Products and
Approaches. Childhood Education. Winter 77 (100- 107).
This article addresses the pitfalls that one can encounter when reading about
research that states what a teacher should do to make their classroom the best for the
children in their care. The author states that at a symposium (for the foundation for
academic Excellence), that focused on brain development in the area of Art and Music
neuroscientists and educators were to speak of their findings in brain research, but when
how asked how the brain actually worked, one scientist stated that he did not know how it
worked, which set the tone for this article. There are four areas discussed in this article,
“what does brain research tell us about critical periods in development, what does brain
research tell us about enriched environments, does brain research offer any applicable
knowledge and what about the future.”
A study done on children (infants to age fifteen), who had some neurological
disorder (seizures) using position emission tomography. Brain activity during children’s
maturation was the focus of the study, and the results were that the brain activity stayed
higher than adults. The most interest finding was that “repeated use of neuronal pathways
will result in certain connections being strengthened.” The downside of this study is that
it doesn’t state the items of activities that show strong connections or those that do not.
The conclusion is that some loss maybe natural in brain activity.
The study for enriched environments involved rate and their ability to function in
complex environments. No correlations can be made for infants and preschoolers with
this particular study.
What kind of knowledge can be offered from brain research? The authors state
that there have been some studies that my show direct connections of educational
practices and the physiologic function of the brain, but they haven’t been done as of yet.
Teachers fall into the trap of reading an article that may state how using a
program or activity that may advertise as one that will meet the educational needs of
students in their care, and they purchase it. Teachers should find out all they can before
delving into a program. As the author states, “educators need to keep reading about
scientific findings and keep asking questions.” In the area of reading, especially for
teachers who teach the very young, there are a multitude of programs that address new
techniques. It is very hard not to purchase something because it looks good or says it will
create better readers. Teachers who do their homework and check out the new programs
through research will provide what their student’s best interest is in the area of reading.
Lyon, R. & Chhabra, V. (2004). The Science of Reading Research. Educational
Leadership. 3 40 (13-17).
Reid Lyon and Vinita Chhabra state that “ the schools fundamental responsibility
is the ensure that all students read proficiently.” These authors state that the process to
teach all children to read may be difficult due to several factors: teacher training may be
inadequate relying on experience and anecdotal information give to them, student
advantages versus students that come from disadvantaged backgrounds. Those from lowincome backgrounds are not as skilled at phonological sensitivity. This may be due to
What can brain based research tell about enhancing reading?
having low literacy interactions while in pre-school years. They may catch up to peers
but it would take a trained teacher to know how to teach those essential reading
components: phonemic awareness, phonics, reading fluency, vocabulary and reading
comprehension. The instruction needs to be systematic and students need to be identified
early. Older children may require more extensive instruction, but under the right
instructional conditions may make great gains.
I had the opportunity to be involved in training in the Orton-Gillingham method
for reading. I tutored a student for a year using that method. There are some of those
techniques that I use today in my classroom within a small group setting to help my
students succeed. I can understand the findings in this article; I have seen children come
into a school situation “behind” according to the standards set before us by our county. I
use a systematic approach and it works. Teachers who are trained and know what to look
for in Reading programs can make huge differences in their student’s lives by knowing
what works.
McGeehan, J. (1999). Brain Compatible Learning. Green Teacher. 64 (7-12).
“Understanding the workings of the human brain can be the catalyst for dramatic
and needed changes in classrooms.” This article discussed three key findings from brain
research: “emotion in learning, intelligence is a function of experience, and that the brain
stores most effectively what is meaningful from the learners perspective.” In dealing with
emotions, Dr. Sylwester stated, “Emotions drive attention, which drives learning,
memory and just about everything; thus when it comes to learning, the body and brain are
inseparable and interdependent.” Some things that teachers can do to help with emotions
are provide a safe predictable environment, model respect through common language
where respect is developed, provide activities that promote trust, and caring, build a sense
of community, and allow for students to know the “big picture”, that will take place by
posting agendas. In understanding that intelligence is a function of experience, the
teacher can provide a rich, sensory filled lesson with well-meaning instruction. The
article states this can be done without worksheets or books. By providing real world
experience, input to the brain allows dendratic growth to create new connections to that
understanding. In understanding first hand experiences allows for such growth, gives
teachers the reason for having a classroom that is vigorous in it’s learning. (Allowing for
collaborative learning, cooperative learning, think alouds, and think-pair-share.) Creating
meaning from information is something that students do based on experiences they have
previously had. Teachers can help in this are by presenting information that the students
care about allowing for meaning making to take place in long term memory. By acting on
these key findings, students’ will and can build success.
Can these findings work within a reading program? I believe they can. Creating a
safe environment can only increase awareness to the many aspects involved in reading.
Allowing new experiences can help in creating rich stories, which allows for many
reading functions to be explored. Allowing for personal meaning allows the student to be
more involved in their learning.
What can brain based research tell about enhancing reading?
Molfese, Victoria. & Molfese, Dennis L. (2002). Environmental and Social Influences on
Reading Skills as Indexed by Brain and Behavioral Responses. Annals of Dyslexia. 52
(121-37).
This study was involved in electrophysiological and behavioral assessments in
infants and children’s measurements of environmental factors that are linked to reading
as well as the development of language and reading abilities through EPR (Event Related
Potentials). The study tries to create understanding of how the environment plays a part
in brain responses in the area of language and reading skills. The study involved several
factors: biological factors, (what influences language and reading), and environmental
factors that can play a part in intelligence in an environment. Certain variables can affect
young and older children, i.e. reading materials, books, magazines, as well as other
reading materials in the home, proximal variables. Distal variables can affect children as
well. (i.e. socioeconomic variables, parent education). The authors state that research
reports “ that children develop larger vocabularies, better reasoning skills and more
advanced reading abilities in environments where conversations skills are encouraged.”
This would be particularly valuable in homes that are low socio-economically and have
very young children.
In this study, the use of ERP cam from electroencephalogram was used to
measure the brains electrical activity. One important finding is through usage; it can
“study an individual’s perceptions and decisions during tasks or following a learning
situation. Speech perception has been studied using ERP, focusing on phonological
processing.
Involving a child’s environment the authors state that the factors are related to the
development of language and reading skills. Cognitive tests were performed that showed
influences in intelligence. The results showed that “there is a strong case for the
influence of home environment in development, suggesting that the child’s environment
plays an important part n the development of intellectual skills.”
When involved with environmental influences on brain responses, opportunities a
child has within a family structure and home activities correlate with the child’s general
language and reading abilities.
Although the study was concerned with biological and environmental factors that
may shape cognitive abilities within the foundation of language and reading skills, the
authors report that other researchers state there are other factors that can influence
language and reading skills and that one must be careful when evaluating reading ability.
Factors that should be considered are working memory, information retrieval,
automaticity, and symbol manipulations.
The information in this article is important to all teachers as it can give them a
glimpse into a child’s home life and what they have been exposed in terms of reading
materials and exposure to language, whether it be one rich with language experiences or
one without. The information can help a teacher prepare more adequately for the children
in their room.
What can brain based research tell about enhancing reading?
Perry, B. (2000). How the Brain Learns Best. Instructor. 11 110 (34-37).
“All learning is brain based.” Teachers can enhance learning, by learning
themselves how the brain works best, to include brain senses, processing and retrieval
information. Teachers need to be aware that as they already know learning requires
attention, that attention is mediated by neural systems in the brain and can fade just as
one draws a sound in singing, the note eventually fades as their breath leaves. Learning is
done by neural sets that connect, just as facts are connected in context, with out a set of
facts or new learning, it stops. The brain will only address factual information for about
four to eight minutes, then it seeks other stimuli (internal or external), a teacher who just
teaches the facts will certainly have a room with some non-learners. There are certain
elements that need to be used to be effective to gain and sustain a learner’s attention.
Factual information needs to be present in a creative or novel way in its presentation.
This article focused on “ the bob and weave lecture.” Moving back and forth allows
interrelated neural systems to connect. By providing students “with a story to provide
context, making sure to touch the emotional parts of their brains will activate and prepare
the cognitive parts of the brain for storing information.” Students can share information
more easily if there is humor, sadness, fear or an emotional component attached to it.
While providing context in a story, connecting facts and concepts begin to build neural
transmitters. Allowing for those facts to be reinforced through the “bob and weave”
within the other facts of the narrative is a good technique to use for effective teaching.
This technique will work I feel in any grade level. I find that in teaching the very
young in reading not only bob and weaving works well, but bringing in novel approaches
to lessons may peek interest in the subject matter, (gadgets, and funny apparatus’).
Pool, C. ((1997). Maximizing Learning. Educational Leadership. March (11-15).
“All learning is brain based.” The maximization of learning is documented in this
article with twelve principles.
* “the brain is a complex dynamic system.
* “the brain is a social brain.”
* “the search for meaning innate.
* “the search for meaning occurs through patterning.”
* “emotions are critical to patterning.
* “every brain simultaneously perceives and creates parts and wholes.”
* “learning involves both focused attention and peripheral perception.”
* “learning always involves conscious and unconscious processes.”
* “we have at least two ways of organizing memory.”
* “learning is developmental.”
* “complex learning is enhanced by challenge and inhibited by threat.”
* “every brain is uniquely organized.”
Studies made by Renate Nummela Caine found that “neurological pathways critical for
later life are laid down from age zero to three. These pathways can affect the way
What can brain based research tell about enhancing reading?
interaction that takes place during developmental stages. They form the beliefs that
children have about the world around them.”
Two ideas discussed in this article are threats and how the brain copes when
feeling threatened, and downshifting, the idea that when children feel threatened the
development of perceptual loops occur. They look for the familiarity in their environment
to help them cope. Downshifting occurs when the lack of possibilities is apparent. One
may feel that they cannot take a risk because of a threat, and it does take place in schools.
To help children with threats, the teacher can provide a sense of safety through repetition
and memorization. It is not compatible with higher order thinking or making connections,
a lot of prior learning would have to take place. By creating a relaxed alertness, one will
have a low threat atmosphere, which can create better learning opportunities. “Children
learn best if they are immersed I complex experiences and are given the opportunity to
actively process what they have learned.” To create a “big picture” that allows
experiences that relate to real life.
A classroom teacher who supports learning with challenges and provides the
resources to explore possibilities will create brain based learning. By providing
immersion in learning, a teacher will provide many models to maximize learning.
Cooperative or “process groups” seem to help foster ideas set forth by the teacher. If used
with multiple intelligences, it can create success in the classroom.
I feel that all of this information is vital to teachers now. All teachers need to
know what to do to maximize learning for their students in a reading environment..
Would this be vital in teaching reading? Absolutely! Providing a relaxed, safe
environment, with low threat situations and modeling can help students succeed. It is
important for teachers to know what to do to create the best possible learning
environment so that their students can learn.
Roberts, J. (2002). Beyond Learning By Doing: The Brain Compatible Approach. The
Journal of Experiential Education. 25 2 (281-285).
This article explores brain compatible approaches with experiential education.
Discussed within the article are finding of how the brain best learns, principles and
practical applications concerning brain based learning and quick tips by application that
can be used. Information regarding new information of brain functions yielded
interesting information. “The brain changes physiologically as a result of experiences
and it can happen quicker than previously thought; that the environment in which the
brain operates determines to a large degree the functioning ability and that the brain
simultaneously processes a wide variety of information all at once.” Principles of brainbased learning were given and within those principles functions of the brain were given.
Patterning and how the brain processes patterns, the tendency to figure out patterns,
disregarding those that do not make sense, and integrating those for new information can
be valuable to reading teachers. It can help in building a framework for reading concepts.
Another area explored is the aspect of the brain being multi-tasked. Processing using
VAKT, in an environment that presents information in a multi-sensory complex way, can
be helpful. Exploration of the “stress and threat” factor was explored. Teachers who can
lower stress in a learning environment by facilitating activities (i.e. games, sharing,
cooperative learning), can build trust and alleviate stress in their students. Chunking
What can brain based research tell about enhancing reading?
information and presenting information in a “big picture” format are two techniques that
teachers can use to make the information they are trying to present more meaningful.
Chunking allows the brain to be able to process patterns and make sense of the
information. Allowing the students to see the “big picture” gives them a glimpse of the
learning experience about to take place, thus allowing for background patterning to take
place and allow them to build on that.
I found this article to be meaningful in the way I teach. I use the “big picture”
method in allowing the students to know what we are about to do; it makes them more
comfortable in their leaning and allows the stress level to be minimal. I use the multisensory techniques everyday to reach as many students as I can. In teaching reading,
patterning and chunking is very evident, in word ending, spellings and in the way some
words work. I can see the elements of this article to be valuable for teaching reading.
Schiller, P. (2003). A Joyful Journey to Literacy. The Great Debate. Child Care
Information Exchange. Nov. Dec. (6-12).
Daniel Greensburg stated, “When the brain is ready, you can’t stop a child from
reading.” Developmental milestones are highlighted in this article, outlining when
specific areas relate to reading. A “native language map” is developed between the forth
ant eighth month in a child’s development. Neurons for every sound of that native
language develop. While in utero, the mechanisms for hearing are forming in the fifth
month of development. Does this mean that every child can read? The author states that
“children need multiple and repetitive opportunities to play with the language.” Before a
formal process in learning to read takes place. Children need experiences with language,
evaluating what they have learned about the language, experiment with the language,
exploration within that language, (language games, rhyming songs, finger plays), in
finding patterns to reflect on how language works before they learn to read.
Four principles of literacy the author states are: “literacy is social”, it takes place
with peers and family. “Literacy begins at birth”; through brain development literacy is
developing. “All aspects of literacy, listening, speaking, reading, writing, and thinking
develop interdependently.” “Literacy develops along a continuum such as intellectual and
physical growth.” “Leaving children to develop at their own pace, on their own timetable
is the best practice.”
Other areas touched upon are disposition (desire to read), peer approval,
motivation and challenges in reading are all important.
I could relate to this article due to my teaching the very young. Understanding the
need for exploration of the language, the need for real life experiences to draw upon,
focusing on patterning, and allowing time for children grow and be ready for the formal
process are all important areas to look at when teaching the very young to read.
Shaywitz, S., & Saywitz, B. (2004). Disability and the Brain. Educational Leadership.
61 6
This article focuses on reading research with neurological science to provide
information for effective teaching in the area of reading. Highlighted areas of the article
include topics in understanding reading disabilities, dyslexia, fluency and the importance
What can brain based research tell about enhancing reading?
of language acquisition. According to the authors findings they make the case that
“Reading reflects language, and reading disability reflects a deficit with the language
system.” An agreement drawn from the article states that evidence suggests that: “reading
reflects language, and when there is a disability, there is a deficit in the spoken sounds.”
They state that researchers, through brain imaging found there could be a problem in
neural circuitry in those individuals who have problems in reading and learning to read.
Reading instruction and scientific studies to assist in teaching reading are mentioned.
Information regarding the brain imagery and information to how the brain reacts when a
disability is acknowledged is examined. In the article, research in the area the language
acquisition, the phases of literacy, using the front of the brain and back of the brain for
articulating sounds is documented. Fluency builds by brain connections that are made
through a step-by-step process. Applications of the connections made in deciphering a
word are made analytically. A study made by the authors suggested that out of the 144
children involved, they identified the area of the brain that makes it possible for readers
who are proficient read automatically. The occipital-temporal region, back of the brain is
functioning in words at a rapid pace. They state, “The word form system appears to
predominate when a reader has become fluent. As a result of the finding, the left side of
the brain is a key component in becoming a skilled reader. Compensation may take place,
as readers who struggle get older, by the “development of alternate reading systems in the
front of the brain, a functioning system, but not an automatic system.”
In this article the authors draw from the National Reading Panel report as a “well
designed scientific study to guide reading instruction.” They state that there are factors
which should be used in order to teach children to read: alphabetics, phonemic
awareness, phonics, reading fluency, vocabulary, and reading comprehension. They state
that these should be taught systematically. They give several key factors in choosing
reading programs in schools: “ is there scientific evidence that the program is effective,
was the program reviewed by the National Reading Panel?, is phonemic awareness and
phonics taught systematically and explicitly?, how are students taught in approaching
unfamiliar words?, does the program include opportunities for students to practice
reading, develop fluency, build vocabulary, develop reading comprehension strategies,
write, listen and discuss stories.?”.
In this article, I found that the information regarding research could be valuable
for teachers in understanding how the brain functions in reading. The information from
the National Reading Panel, I have seen and understand that those components stated are
certainly important to have in a reading program but that information could be considered
biased because not that many studies have been done on a specific area and teachers need
to know who exactly is doing the study and for what reason. The information is good,
but other studies need to be looked at as well.
Shaywitz, B., Shaywitz, S., Blachman, B., Pugh, K., Fulbright, R., Skudlarski, P., Mencl,
W., Constable, R., Holahan, J., Marchione, K., Fletcher, J., Lyon, G., & Gore, J. (2004).
Development of left occipitotemporal systems for skilled reading in children after a
phonologically based intervention. Biological Psychiatry. 55 5 (926-933).
This study deals with imagery of children using magnetic resonance to find out
what the effects would be in “phonologically based reading interventions on brain
What can brain based research tell about enhancing reading?
organization and reading fluency”. This study came about due to investigations that
showed failure in part of the brain (left hemisphere), to function normally in students and
adults that have reading disabilities. The many authors of this study hypothesized that
reading interventions would improve reading fluency with the occipitotemporal with
helps in reading. Seventy-seven children were used for this study, with the criteria being
that their standard score was below 90on a Word Identification or Word Test of the
Woodcock Achievement tests, (on average of two tests). One group received no
interventions other than those that would have been provided in the school environment.
(Speech, remedial, special education, resource and tutoring) In the experimental group,
they were provided interventions of fifty minutes daily. This included individual tutoring
and a 5-step process: 1. review of sound-symbol in the alphabet, 2. practices of phoneme
analysis and blending by manipulating letter cards, 3. timed reading for fluency, 4. oral
reading and 5. dictation of spelling with regular phoneme patterns. The intervention took
eight months. Through MRI imaging taken during cross model letter identification tasks,
the finding indicated that “ the nature of remedial educational interventions is critical to
successful outcomes in children with reading disabilities and that the use of evidence
based phonological reading interventions facilitates the development of those fast paced
neural systems that underlie skilled reading.” In the summary it stated that “ intensive
evidence-based phonological reading interventions brings about significant and durable
changes in brain organizations so that brain activation patterns resemble those of typical
readers with the appearance of the left occipitotemporal area and improvements in
reading fluency.”
After reading this study I was assured that reading suggestions I have given to
teachers and those used in my classroom in terms of reading interventions was a good
strategy to help children in the understanding of reading.
Vaughn, S., & Linan-Thompson, S. (2004). Research-Based Methods of Reading
Instruction Grades K-3. ASCD (Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Development: Alexandria, VA.
This book contains a wealth of information for K-3 teachers using what has been
researched in the area of reading from a science–based background to help students
effectively read. It includes many activities that are designed to work with the students in
the classroom setting that are validated by research. The activities are intended to work
with all students regardless of any special case situations. Lessons are provided and have
been used in the classroom setting and are designed for teachers to use easily in their
established reading program. The reading elements covered in the book include:
vocabulary: “effective vocabulary practices, assessing and the comprehension of
vocabulary, and activities to promote vocabulary learning.” Comprehension: “the critical
elements of reading comprehension, assessment practices, and instructional activities.”
Phonemic awareness: “discussion of what phonemic awareness is, “the most complex
part of a phonological awareness continuum that include rhyming and segmenting words
and sentences, the ability to identify the phonemes of spoken language and how that can
be separated and manipulated”, designing instructional lessons, and activities to promote
phonemic awareness.” Phonics and word study: “the design of sequencing skills and
those components that make a good instructional lesson.” Fluency: “how to teach
What can brain based research tell about enhancing reading?
fluency, monitoring the progression of fluency and activities to promote fluency in the
classroom.”
All of these elements and the way they are presented make it easy for any teacher
to follow and use in addition to the reading program they may currently use in their room.
The school that I teach at currently was given this book from the county office. I was
made aware of it at a faculty meeting, and checked it out for further investigation. The
information in this book would be helpful to all teachers especially those not aware of
what is involved in teaching reading.
Wagmeister, J. & Shifrin, B. (2000). Thinking Differently, Learning Differently.
Educational Leadership. 11 58 (45-49).
This article discusses how the use of technology and brain based instruction can
help students who have difficulties in learning to read and write are integrated. The
Westmark School has revitalized their teaching through the latest neurological research in
the school’s instruction and curriculum. They based their program on “ the theory that
the brain responds to challenges, stimulation, and interactivitey and that it learns
spontaneously”. This article states that a brain-based program “creates a safe, nurturing
environment where children expand their knowledge and find patterns, make
connections, and take risks.” By providing such a program learning can take place. This
school provided multiple modalities in learning to let students, teachers, and parents
know about their strengths in learning and learning styles. They implemented several
ideas of brain research to make a learning environment, one rich with learning
experiences and engaging activities (putting on a news broadcast), for those students with
language based reading difficulties. They implemented thematic instruction with an
integrated curriculum, which allowed students to build on previous learning and build on
prior learning in patterning. They used musical stimulation to develop language and
temporal and spatial development. By using multiple intelligences, they provided
complex activities through different learning styles to make sense of diverse information.
(i.e. field trips). By using multi-sensory specialized programs they knew that “these
programs are based on brain plasticity which suggests that learning alters the functional
organization of the brain.” Programs utilized for this were: Lindamood processes,
Phonemic sequencing, (LIPS), Visualizing and Verbalizing, Symbol Imagery for
Phonemic Awareness and Sight Words. These programs helped in sensory-cognitive
skills, phonological awareness and written language skills. They learned that creating a
safe learning environment allows the brain to respond in a non-threatening way. Through
use of assistive technology and the many programs available in computer technology
allows students to be in contact with numerous resources at their fingertips.
A teacher can collaboratively work with a student to understand strengths and
needs as well as learning styles to make the learning effective. Teachers can make a
difference in their student’s education by seeking information on what work in the area of
brain research.
What can brain based research tell about enhancing reading?
Walsh, P. (2000). A Hands-On approach to Understanding the Brain. Educational
Leadership. 58 3 (76-78).
“Intelligence is a function of experience.” The information in this article assists in
the understanding of the functions of the brain and strategies that could be useful in the
classroom by integrating brain compatible techniques. The author highlights six areas in
helping understand how brain functions are best utilized: absence of threat, procedures,
facility design, cooperative learning, multiple intelligences and level of impact. In
creating a classroom with out threat, the instructor limits the negative options in a
learning situation. By providing a set of procedures, not just written, but also modeled, an
experience can be created thus building familiarities in processing the information
desired. Brain based research stated that by placing music, color, correct lighting,
providing water when needed, and having plants, enhances learning in the facility design
of a room. Cooperative learning can enhance learning in group dynamics intertwined
with social and emotional communications that occur. Skills learned in this model will
allow for respect to take place throughout the learning environment. Multiple
intelligences taken from Howard Gardner’s theory combines the various intelligences and
how they can overlap and work together to promote optimal learning. The article states
that the brain needs “rich sensory stimulation” to learn. In providing levels of impact, one
would provide such an environment, rich with “real world” experiences to process
information for the best learning possible.
In reflecting on this article, I realized that I could relate to some of the strategies
used. In my room I use water bottle, plants, lots of color, technology to expand on real
world experiences, natural lighting, and music for transitioning. I try to incorporate
cooperative learning activities when appropriate. Our school is currently doing Brain
Booster workshops that incorporate multiple intelligences; I am using these strategies
before reading time to see if it makes a difference in the performance of my students. I try
to create a non-threatening environment by presenting a positive classroom atmosphere
where all participants are respected in all areas of learning. When presenting
information, I try to use body kinesthetic learning so that once modeled, the children can
maximize on the learning taking place. This reminds me of the VAKT, where using
visual, audio, kinesthetic, and tactile, can help children understand the concept being
presented. All of the strategies in the article have merit and if tried a teacher may see
increases in knowledge in their students.
Westwater, A., & Wolfe, P. (2000). The Brain-Compatible Curriculum. Educational
Leadership. 11 58 (49-52).
This article discusses what many teachers may already know about brain research,
“learning is linked to real-life experiences.” The brain’s main function is to find ways to
survive; it is continually trying to find meaning of the environment and the information
within it. At our present time, information comes at a fast pace, so learning it is not only
vital to keeping up with the constant changes in our society, but it is a teachers job to
provide as many resources as they can so students can make sense of those changes.
When provided information, the brain tries to make sense through recognizing features or
patterns and connect the new information to previously learned information through
What can brain based research tell about enhancing reading?
linking. “Educational researchers have demonstrated that previous experiences enhances
the understanding of new information.” This can lead to good retention. Linking
information though experiences can help students by “ already having some knowledge
of the information and personalizing it, can give substance to the new information by
providing interest. In the area of reading a way to do that would be by providing
analogies, metaphors and similes.
Teachers who provide a meaningful curriculum help create new neural
networking. They can do this by proving actual experiences in the classroom and school
community using numerous resources. Story telling, Art, Music, Drama, games,
mnemonics, graphic organizers and hands-on-experiences as well as debates can
strengthen learning in the classroom.
Can brain based research help enhance reading?
My answer after researching brain-based information is yes. Can brain based
research ideas help enhance reading for all readers? The answer is that it might be able to;
a better answer is that it may make the process of learning to read a more enjoyable
experience if some of the strategies are used in teaching reading. My findings for this
question involved the understanding of how the brain works and situations that can help a
learner learn better with certain elements present in a learning situation. As I learned in
the articles I researched, if there are certain elements present in a learning situation
optimal learning can take place. Elements presented in the articles that may enhance a
learning situation in reading are: teach students about the brain itself, and explain how it
functions, provide a non threatening, or low threat environment, provide a big picture of
the learning about to take place where if needed written procedures are provided, provide
a positive environment, provide interactive, challenging and engaging lessons where
students are active participants in the lessons, provide real-life experiences and models
when presenting information, create a supportive classroom built on respect, emotionally
sound, and allow for humor to present, create an atmosphere where students can make
connections through sensory modalities – VAKT, create experiences that are meaningful
and personal for students so that strong connections can be made in learning, design the
teaching environment where music, color, plants and lighting, and water is available.
All students want to learn. By teaching the students about how the brain functions
through models, or using their hands as Patty Walsh described in her article, it can help
visualize what the brain looks like. Is this important in reading? It is if it can help instill
in students the importance of using the brain to gain knowledge. Some students are
naturally curious about the “why” in the process of teaching a particular procedure being
used. In teaching about the brain and how it functions it may make some students
comfortable in their learning.
A non-threatening, or low threat environment allows for a student to engage in the
lesson. Once threatened, their choice or option available to them is a negative one; they
can become fatigued easily, and shut down to the learning situation. In a non-threatening
classroom where respect is included, students will be comfortable and takes risks; they
can envision possibilities in their learning.
The “big picture” provided by the teacher, allows the student to anticipate what
will happen in the learning about to take place. Preparing students in their learning allows
What can brain based research tell about enhancing reading?
for connections to be made by the brain. The brain is constantly looking for patterns in
prior learning to make sense of the world. The “big picture” allows time for the students
to make sense of the lesson that is about to unfold. Along with the “big picture” is writing
down an agenda, syllabus, or guidelines to help the student understand what is to take
place. Organizing the learning taking place, helps students maximize time management in
their school environment.
A positive environment allows for maximum learning to take place. This
correlates with providing a non-threatening environment. When a positive atmosphere is
present students become more interested in the material covered in the lesson; they are
more likely to become engaged in the activities presented by the teacher. Some examples
of a positive environment may include: keeping aware of the physical and visual areas of
the room, and keeping in mind the emotional atmosphere of the room.
The brain is always looking for a challenge. It processes material through
patterning and makes connections formed from experiences. By engaging students with
an interactive classroom, it allows for growth to take place. Students who are provided
models to understand concepts, and are taught using a variety of teaching strategies
(VAKT, SQ3R, graphic organizers, charts, and guidelines analogies, and metaphors),
allowing more opportunities for all students to learn. Alter the way information is
presented, visually, orally, and contextually by making the information interesting. Use
the “bob and weave” technique to reach all students. Teach utilizing cooperative learning
so all children can engage in the lesson. A teacher who provides lots of information in
stimulating and different types of texts to reach all readers can make a difference.
Integrating real life experiences can enhance learning for all students. The
information becomes more meaningful and connections can be made when the student
understands that it may make a difference to them. Some ways to provide real life
experiences is by simulating stories through acting, providing simulated models of an
activity, bringing in guest speakers on a noted subject, and taking field trips.
Character education is being utilized in schools more and more in this fast paced
society. By building a classroom using the character traits such as respect, fairness,
trustworthiness, responsibility, and caring it allows a student to emotionally become
involved with the class as a whole knowing that a sense of community is being instilled.
The student may become more involved knowing that negative traits will not be allowed
in the room. This may be hard to do, but after time, and building a positive atmosphere,
students will come to understand the workings of the classroom.
The design of the room can enhance the learning by providing plants that allow
for not only oxygen to generate in the room, but the emotional aspect of a room that
visually looks accepting and one that students would be willing to take risks in their
assignments. Music can be used as a signal for transition times, alerting students for
what may come next. Water can be used to hydrate the brain so it functions more clearly.
All of the above strategies can help create the best reading environment for
children.
What can brain based research tell about enhancing reading?