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Set By: Teshome Tadesse
CHAPTER I
THE ESSENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY: WHAT IT IS AND HOW IT
DEVELOPED
A Definition and Meaning of Psychology
In the early days, psychology was the branch of philosophy. Classical Greek philosophers
defined psychology as: Psyche- mind or soul
Logos- study or knowledge of something
So, literally, Psychology (being a Greek term) was developed to mean the study of mind
or soul.
But later on, Psychology, declared its independence and became a science. The scientific
definition reads as “Psychology is the science of human and animal behavior; it includes
the application of this science to human problems.” Underlined in this definition are:1. Psychology as a science
What does science do?
Science makes events systematic. Events could be systematic when they are classified
and categorized to form principles and rules that help us to predict and ultimately
describe new events efficiently. Science has two qualities:
a) Empirical: - which is measurement, experimentation and observation of events, and
b) Systematic: - which is making the experimented, measured, and observed results
sensible and meaningful.
In case of psychology therefore what is systematized is BEHAVIOR.
So, “Psychology builds laws and principles of behavior and infers what would come
about." In relation to this, there are four goals of Psychology as a science. These are
description, explanation, prediction, and control.
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Apart from its scientific quality, psychology is also an art since it is the application of the
science to human problems. The artistic quality of psychology, and any science as well,
is achieved by continuous practice and experience.
2. Psychology studies Behavior
What is behavior?
Behavior is what humans and animals exhibit.
a) Psychologically speaking, behavior could be observed, measured and recorded
objectively.
b) Psychology studies animal behavior. Why? Psychologists describe human behavior
by generalizing the laws and principles they found after investigating animal
behavior. Animals also have the right to be studied in Psychology.
3. Psychology is a mental processing
The external body movements and the internal “mental processing” like thoughts,
perceptions, and attitudes are core subjects of psychological studies. These internal
mental processing could be measured indirectly via peoples’ reactions and verbal
expressions to different experiences. As a result, psychologists try to make the study of
behavior as objective as possible by making inferences based on the observable and
externally exhibited responses.
Human behavior, being the primary element in the study of psychology, has two
classifications;
-
Overt behavior - which is the study of the directly observable part. It is clearly seen
and observed.
- Covert behavior - which is indirect, and inferred from what we say and act. It is hidden
and is difficult to observe directly.
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B Historical Roots of Psychology – Early and Modern
Approaches
i. Early Approaches
1. STRUCTURALISM:
Wilhelm Wundet ( 1832-1920) founded the first psychological laboratory in 1879, in
Leipzig University of Germany. Structuralists believed that Psychology is the study of
the “mental content of human kind.”
How images, thoughts, memories, feelings,
perceptions, etc., are structured in the human brain were studied in trying to find the units
or elements that makeup mind. Structuralists used introspection as their method of
research.
2. FUNCTIONALISM
William James (1842-1910) wrote the popular text under the title “The Principles of
Psychology” in 1890.
Functionalists developed their view in opposition from
structuralists saying that psychology should study the physical structure (anatomy) of
mind. This is because psychology is “the function of the state of mind and behavior.”
Psychology = f (mind + behavior)
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In strengthening their differences from structuralists, functionalists dealt not only with
what the mind is but also with the importance of behavior in understanding human
thought. Functionalists used introspection and quantified (objective) observational
methods of research.
3. BEHAVIORISM
John B. Watson (1879-1958) shifted the attention of the study of psychology from the
not-easily observable content of mind (unlike the former two) to the strictly measurable
and observable behavior of human beings. Overt behavior (the seen activity) is the one
that must be dealt with. For this reason, behaviorism rejects the influence of heredity
(genetic endowment) in shaping human behavior.
Methods used by behaviorists were:

Conditioning- which involves making response to stimuli.

Nurture- which is the environmental influence to behavior.
4. GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY
Max Wertheimer (1880-1943) and his colleagues developed the gestalt view in 1912.
Having the German word gestalt to mean “form” or “configuration,” this view believes
that psychology depends on what we perceive by giving meaning to our environmental
encounters. By patterning and organizing (i.e. by giving shape to) the external elements
in our mind, we best understand the world around us. Gestalt psychologists also describe
the subject of Psychology based on their principle, which says
than its parts.”
“the whole matters more
The method used by the followers of this school of thought was
experimentation.
5. PSYCHOANALSIS
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) developed the idea of Psychoanalysis by basing himself on
the experiences he got from his neurologically sick patients.
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Psychoanalysis mainly deals with the study of the unconscious which is one of the three
layers of consciousness. They are:
Conscious- What we are aware of now.

Subconscious- the immediate past and the easily accessible part of consciousness.

Unconscious-the hidden (suppressed) part where the actual personality is formed.
Since sexual and aggressive urges are the ones that drive a person to live, for Freud,
and since both are taboos in the society, human beings suppress these impulses in
their unconscious and yet are highly influenced by them.
Childhood aversive
experiences are also suppressed in here. Methods used were hypnosis, dream
analysis, catharsis and also extensive case study of patients.
ii. Modern Approaches
1. BEHAVIOURISTIC VIEW
The direction of the modern behaviorism is a little bit different from what J. B. Watson
first intended. However, this one also rejects the contribution of heredity in making up
personality. In the modern behaviouristic approach, every element of personality is
learned or acquired from the world we live in So, if a behavior is rewarded,
the
likelihood that it is exhibited repeatedly is high. This is how human beings learn to live
and to cope up with their environment. Therefore, a key factor in learning is reinforcing
behavior, which is behaviorist Utopia. E. L. Thorndike also calls this the “law of effect”
that states that behaviors that are followed by a positive outcome are repeated while those
followed by a negative outcome or none at all are extinguished.
2. BIOLOGICAL APPROACH
According to this view, behavior is the result of genetic endowment, the material we
have inherited from our biological parents and ancestors. For this reason, all the inner
biological processing within us, like the juices secreted from the different glands in the
body chemistry and the works of the nervous system shape the behavioral characteristics
of human beings.
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3. COGNITIVE APPROACH
Cognition is defined as mental processing in making relationships, comparisons &
contrasts, reasoning & logic, inferences and judgments, conclusion, etc. Perception of the
external world by incoming information via our sensory receptors into our brain and their
processing is the underlined concept behind the approach. This view advocates that
human beings have a scientist-like nature as they strive to understand, interpret,
anticipate, and control the personal world of experience for the purpose of dealing
effectively with it.
4. HUMANISTIC VIEW
A. Maslow developed this view as a third force in the movement of psychology after
psychoanalysis and behaviorism. It is the 3rd force because it criticized behaviorism as
telling us only about behavior and psychoanalysis as telling us only about the unconscious
and the emotionally disturbed. Maslow believes that human beings are “good” in nature
and they are “worthy of respect.” In their uniqueness, they must be seen (studied) as
integrated wholes in which case every individual has “the potential for self direction and
purposeful personal growth.” Giving emphasis to the “self” of an individual as an
objective entity, C. Rogers also developed the humanistic view by dividing the self into
two sets:-
self-concept ( self image) - which is the subjective experiences of one and his/her
evaluation of the self as what it is
-
executive functions of the self - which is the effectiveness of one to compete in the
world by learning and becoming someone, and by giving interpretations to life.
The internal processing of
an individual must be seen from his/her own frame of
reference is the central point of humanistic view in psychology.
5. PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE
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Authors in this view are NeoFreudians like Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Erich Fromm, Karen
Horney, Erik Erikson, and Anna Freud (Freud’s daughter). C. Jung says that society
exerts a profound influence over personality development than sexual and aggressive
impulses. His view therefore advocates the contribution of ancestors, parents, peers and
friends, siblings, and closer persons like baby sitters and so on in shaping one’s motives,
thoughts, impulses, etc., and his /her general being. Another follower, A. Adler, says that
people are motivated to overcome inherent feelings of inferiority while K. Horney says
that humans have a basic need for love and security, and become anxious when they feel
isolated and alone. What are common between psychoanalysis and Psychodynamic views
are the importance of the unconscious and childhood negative experiences in the
explanation of human personality.
C. Methods of Psychological Research:I. The Experimental Method:- is “the most famous, precise and objective,” when it is
compared to the other methods.
This method, as its name indicates, undertakes
experiments both inside and outside laboratories (mainly, of course, inside labs). This
method is an active one since it can bring about some predictable changes. Compared to
the other methods, it is formal with wellknown sets of rules. Experimental method also
involves variables. “… a variable is an event or condition that can be measured and can
have different numerical values.”
1. Independent variable:- is the antecedent condition after which changes may occur on
the “behavior” which is measured. This variable is entirely upto the experimenter’s
responsibility to decide what it should be. It is always the cause that may change the
situation under consideration.
2. Dependent variable:- as the effect of change in the administration of a new situation
(the independent variable), the dependent variable is “ the behavior of the person or
animal in the experiment.”
DV = f (Independent Variable)
It is therefore the possible behavioral changes aroused by the antecedent conditions.
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An unwanted variable that could occur in any experimental situation, and that should be
controlled is the extraneous variable. This variable is extra (uninvited) and damages
(negatively affects) the value of the experiment if it is allowed to involve in the
experiment.
We should always try to control this extraneous factor by making the
experimental environment conducive only to the independent variable we have set to vary
across the subject under study.
Designs of Experimental Method
A. Two- group design
i) Control group - is the group that is designed not to accept the independent variable. It
is put as a control for comparison purpose.
ii) Experimental group - is the group that accepts the independent variable. This may
therefore bring about a certain change.
Apart from accepting and not accepting the independent variable, these two groups must
stay equal. Equalization is always necessary so that the extraneous factor could be
controlled. For this, the assignment of subjects to either groups is preferred to be random.
After accomplishing the experiment and comparing the results of the two groups, there
could be three possible outcomes of the experiment;
1. The change in the experimental group may direct towards the positive.
2. The change in the experimental group could be negative.
3. The third possibility of the experimental situation could be observing no change on
the experimental group. Both groups (the experimental and the control) stay equal.
B. One-group Design
In this design, the same group of subjects are tested (by the experimenter) twice - before
and after the administration of the independent variable. When the experimenter makes
assessments on the subjects before the experiment (pre-test), it is said that he/she is
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defining the baseline behavior. The experimenter then makes assessment on the same
group after administering the independent variable (post-test). The outcome of the
comparison of the two results could be one of the three above.
The one- group design of experimentation is more dependable in controlling the
extraneous variable since it does not involve individual differences (variation within)
that is apparent between the two groups in a two-group design. The subjects in the onegroup design serve as their own control.
Advantages of the Experimental method;
In lab situations,
- Precision of measurement and control of extraneous variables
- Easy replication
Outside lab situations (in field settings)
- Manipulating independent variable in natural setting, hence results are more
generalizable
Disadvantages;
- Some phenomena cannot ethically be manipulated in real settings
- Some phenomenal cannot be studied in the lab
- Studies cause-and-effect relationships only
II. Correlation Research:- is a research that studies relationships between two
variables. The researcher uses statistical methods in describing the correlation
between two variables by using the coefficient of correlation. The coefficient of
correlation is symbolized by r (note that it is a small r) and the range of correlation is
-1  r  1. If a correlation between two variables is found to be -1.00 or 1.00, it is
said to be a perfect correlation. A correlation that ranges from ±0.60 to ± 1.00 is
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judged to be very high, a correlation coefficient that ranges from ±0. 20 to ±0.60 is
said to have “practical and theoretical value” in helping us make useful prediction,
while a correlation that which ranges from 0.00 to ± 0.20 is minimum to make a
considerable prediction.
In studying the relationships between two measured variables, we may see three possible
results:1. Positively related variables- When two variables show a relationship that goes to the
same direction, we say that they are positively related.
2. Negatively related variables - the two variables
under study show an opposite
direction.
3. Nil correlation- when there is no relationship between two variables under study, we
say that the correlation is nil.
Note: Unlike experimentation, correctional research doesn’t involve the cause and effect
relationship of variables.
The advantage of correlation research is the possibility of describing and predicting
behavior while the disadvantages are having no control over variables and inability to
determine causality.
III. Observational Method- This is systematic observation of behavior as it happens- in
natural and realistic situations, and then describe the actions. There are two ways of
conducting observation: participant and non-participant.
After identifying the problem, the researcher must always ask the question ‘why?’ so as to
be able to find the cause. But finding the cause is not an easy business. An observer must
always be careful not to project his/her own biases and wishes. This method is very
tedious and time-consuming for the observer. The information found could also be biased
since subjects behave the way they feel they should behave when they are aware of an
observer’s presence.
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Advantages:
-
No artificiality of laboratory
-
Gain insight and understanding into the important factors attributed to subject
(problem) of study
Disadvantages:
-
No control over the variables
-
Cannot determine cause-and-effect relationship
-
Possibility of observer bias
-
Subjects reactivity when they are aware of the observer’s presence
IV. Case History (Clinical Method):-
in this method , psychologists study the
background history of individual patients, groups of people with known interests or
institutions. They collect intensive information about the subjects.
There are two ways;
-
Reconstructing biography - The deepest bottom history of one’s life is constructed by
the method of retrospection
-
Longitudinal study - A person may be studied by observing and recording his/ her
behavior in the life span. The observation is made with periodic intervals for an
extended period of time.
The method of case history is widely exercised by psychoanalysts who believe that one’s
childhood experiences are the basis for adult life. The second best in using this method
are clinical psychologists.
Advantages:
-
Rich description of subjects’ behavior
-
No need for a control group as subjects serve as their own control
-
No need for large group of subjects
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-
No need for random assignment
Disadvantages:
-
Generalizability of the results is decreased by the small sample size
-
Subjects may not be like the rest of the target population
V. Survey method- in some cases, where a larger population is needed to accomplish
research and when experimental, naturalistic observations, and case histories are at
stake, psychologists employ the survey method.
In accomplishing surveys,
questionnaires and interviews are very helpful. Psychologists may send problem
checklists to the samples (who are randomly chosen to represent a certain population)
to choose or to write what they feel, think or do. Items in questionnaires could be
objective or subjective.
Interviews could also be used in surveys. Interviews are one -to- one or panel – to - one,
face- to – face, through the phone, or electronic communication between the interviewer
(a trained personnel who can efficiently ask questions that may seek helpful answers)
and the interviewee (the person who is asked).
Questions in an interview could be structured and / or unstructured.

Structured interviews- are questions that are prepared earlier (before the
interview session). They are standard and uniform to all interviewees. These
are recommended to use since they help the interviewer ask relevant
questions.

Unstructured interviews- are questions that are posed when the interviewer
and the interviewee meet.
The former may ask questions that need
clarification from the answers given by the latter. In some instances, both
methods of interview are used and help to collect extensive data. Interviews
also help in counseling.
In some cases, both methods of interview are used and help to collect extensive
data. Interviews also help in counseling.
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There are times when both questionnaires and interviews are employed to collect
data on certain research.
D. Sub-fields in the Study of Psychology
The sub-fields (specialization) in psychology are the different ways of applying the
principles of the science to real life problems.
1.Clinical Psychology:- constitutes the largest population of psychologists. Clinical
psychologists dwell in mental and veterans hospitals to help those who are emotionally
disturbed and who misbehave. The disorder could be of all types and at all stages (mild,
moderate, or severe). They use psychotherapy as their method of assistance. They make
investigations on the problems by administering different standardized tests and by doing
research on “ diagnosing, treating and preventing behavior disorders.”
The other thing that must be noted is that there are some overlappings between
Clinical Psychologists and Psychiatrists. The later are M.D (Medical Degree) holders
who are legible (entitled) to prescribe medical drugs and who admit patients to hospital
beds while the former use psychotherapy as their major method of treating patients.
2. Counseling Psychology:- use psychotherapy as method of treatment, and method of
investigation to learn about the patients is administering different test batteries.
However, counseling psychologists mainly deal with mild emotional and personal
problems. Most counselors work in schools. But marriage and family counselors are
also in this category. Verbal assistance is what is considered to be the major method
in the counselor’s psychotherapy.
3. School and Educational Psychology:a) School Psychology:- deals with immediate problems in schools. “Children’s school
achievement, mental health, and social adjustment” are focus of attention to school
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psychologists. It is necessary to have school psychologists in schools of every level.
School psychologists help students whose position is in either of the two exteremes
(the retarded children and the exceptionally intelligent), and special attention is
provided to the physically disabled. By testing and diagnosing learning difficulties
and by contacting parents and teachers about individual students, school psychologists
give remedies to the prevalent problems.
b) Educational Psychology:-
Psychologists in this category mostly deal with more
general, less immediate problems. Educational psychologists accomplish research on
issues like the efficiency of learning, student motivation and educational objectives,
(which is the design of the curriculum), school administration, student-teacher
interaction. Educational psychologists settle themselves in areas like Universities,
curriculum development agencies, research centers, and firms for education through
massmedia (especially the radio and the TV).
4. Developmental Psychology:- It is the study of change in behavior (emotional,
intellectual, physiologically, moral, social, linguistic ability, etc.) in the life span of an
individual. Psychologists in this area study change in behavior being the result of
changes in chronological age. This is the effect of maturation in bringing about
behavioral changes starting from
conception upto old age, at every level of one’s
growth. Developmental psychology has two aspects: research and applied.
Since raped changes in development are observed during childhood (in the early years),
developmental psychologists devote much of their time on Child Psychology. But this
doesn’t mean that changes do not occur during the other periods of the life span.
The development of human beings is classified into two:
1. Prenatal development: this is when the child is in its mother’s womb. There are
three stages in one’s prenatal ages:-
a) Zygote = 0 to 2 weeks of conception
b) Embryo = 2 to 8 weeks of conception
c) Fetus = 8 weeks to birth
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2. Postnatal development:- this is the time from birth to death.
In rough description:
a) Infancy = birth to 24 months
b) Childhood = 2-11 years
c) Adolescence = 11-19 years
d) Adulthood = 19-60 (55) years
e) Old age = 60(55) years and above
In conclusion, therefore, developmental psychologists “describe, explain predict, and try
to modify behavior from birth through old age.”
5. Social Psychology - “Development [always] takes place in the context of other
persons:-
parents, siblings; playmates, and school companions…” Social
psychologists’ emphasis goes to human beings’ interacting with each other and
making influences on one another. Psychologists in this area make research on how
individuals are influenced by individuals or groups, and vice-versa, in the process of
interaction. The way we perceive others and how these perceptions affect our
behavior is also an interest of social psychologists.
Social psychology is different from sociology (though there are many overlappings) since
the former mainly deals with the individual while the later is with societal institutions.
6. Industrial and Organizational Psychology:-
a) Industrial Psychology:- Psychologists in this area mainly deal with selecting the
right person to the appropriate place (vacancy) in an industry (any firm). For this
reason, they are sometimes called personnel psychologists as they work more on
the applied side of the specialization. In the selection procedure, such
psychologists may use different tests. They may also work as consultants and
advisors both to employers and employees.
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b) Organizational psychology:- These psychologists deal with “the moral, payment,
growth and quality of work product, the conduciveness of the working
environment, the necessary incentives to motivate the workers, in any
organization.” They therefore accomplish research on how the employees could
become effective, what makes the employees more secured in specific firm, what
schemes boost employees’ work morale, and related topics.
7. Experimental Psychology:- In this field, psychologists study the fundamental causes
of behavior. They make research on how human beings learn and retain knowledge,
how they think and process information in the mind, how they perceive the world
around (environmental awareness), what motivates them to behave the way we do,
what are the biological bases of behavior, etc., as experimental psychology is a
broader research area. In most cases experimental psychologists undertake their
experiments in laboratories and use human beings and animals as their subjects.
8. Other sub-fields
Community psychology:-
such psychologists, as the name indicates,
work in
communities, and their job is not that much specific since they accomplish everything
that is important in their communities. They are said to “apply psychological principles,
to help solve social problems and to help individuals adapt to their work and living
groups.”
Examples of community psychologists:-
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Community mental-health movement:- Psychologists in this category are clinical
psychologist who settle themselves in clinics and try to reach and help the mentally
sick individuals in the community.
Social-Problem community psychologists:- work in the community to alleviate
social problems like smoothening the relationships of people in any one community
or providing certain kinds of valuable information to the members of the
community.
Physiological Psychology:- Psychologists here study how the nervous system in our brain
(both the Central Nervous System and the Peripheral Nervous System) and the different
glands in our biochemistry affect behavior and also bring about changes in behavior. This
sub-field of psychology is sometimes categorized as part of (neuropsychology) and also
experimental psychology.
Psychometrics:-
As a science, psychology applies numerical analysis to behavior.
Psychometricians develop psychological tests like personality, aptitude, achievement,
interest, etc., so as to measure people’s effectiveness in their schools or working
environment, their IQ (Intelligent Quotient) - a measure of intelligence- their outlook
towards the world, and so on. Psychometricians are not interested in the measurement
only but they also give interpretations to the data they have collected. Therefore, they
“design tests by identifying the characteristics they want to measure, develop the test
items, and then interpret the scores using statistical methods.”
Environmental psychology:-
Psychologists in this area are “concerned with
environmental issues: problems of noise, air and water pollution, overcrowding, and the
psychologically optimal design of working and living areas.” Such psychologist,
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therefore, are interested in making human life less straining and more comfortable by
dealing mainly with the physical surrounding.
Forensic psychology:- In this specialty, the accountability of the field psychology in the
areas of law is observed. Psychologists here are interested in studying the problems and
behaviors of prisoners, criminals, and delinquents. They then make reports to judges and
the Police about the mental competitiveness of the accused persons. They may also make
corrections on behaviors of the delinquents and criminals in cooperation with the latter’s
families or with the government. Such psychologists work in remand homes and jails
(prisons).
Psychology in Computer Science (Computer Psychology):- In this field of specialization,
psychologists formulate and develop computers and robots that may accomplish skills
that were only of humans. By this, they are exploring what is called artificial intelligence.
Apart from this, psychologists “may plan the design and data analysis of large-scale
experiments and surveys that require the kind of complex calculations that can only be
done with a computer.”
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