EARLY AMERICAN PHYSICAL EDUCATION Introduction of German Gymnastics o 1823-1833--Round Hill School--Northampton, Mass.--Joseph Cogswell and George Bancroft o Daily sports and gymnastics o 1825-1830--Charles Beck--turner and friend of Jahn o Established an outdoor gymnastics area o Translated Jahn's book Charles Follen--turner and pupil of Jahn's o Established gymnasium in Boston in 1826 o Taught the first German gymnastics at Harvard in 1826 Francis Lieber--pupil of Jahn and Turner o Directed the Boston gymnasium in 1827 o Started a pool there in 1827 Decline of interest in German gymnastics in the late 1820s and 1830s o Round Hill School closed; Follen and Lieber went into other jobs along with Beck o Newness wore off o Too much strength emphasis with nationalism o No American teachers, only German ones Revival of German gymnastics o 1850s--German immigrants--especially to the Midwest o By 1860--22 turnvereins with 1,672 members o 1866--Normal School of the North American Gymnastic Union--initially set up in New York, then Milwaukee, then Indianapolis--(1941--Indiana University) o Introduced into the public schools--Carl Betz in Kansas City--1880s Catharine Beecher o Director of the Hartford Seminary for Girls (1824) and the founder of the Western Female Institute (1837) o Calisthenics--"a course of exercises designed to promote health and thus to secure beauty and strength" o No special room or apparatus o For the whole family, especially for women--diagrams of how to execute exercises o Principles from Ling's Swedish gymnastics o Her program was probably the first system adapted to the needs of Americans o She was one of the first to actively struggle to establish physical education as a part of the school curriculum on a daily basis Dio Lewis o Light gymnastics or exercises with wands, rings, bean-bags, dumbbells, and Indian clubs with music--teacher directed exercises o Borrowed ideas from Beecher and Ling o 1861-1868--Normal Institute for Physical Education in Boston--first teacher training school for physical education in America SWEDISH GYMNASTICS IN AMERICA Hartvig Nissen--Norwegian o 1883 to Washington, D.C. and taught Swedish gymnastics o Teacher at Harvard Summer School, Sargent Normal School and PosseNissen School Baron Nils Posse o Graduate of the Royal Gymnastics Central Institute o Came to Boston in 1885 o Taught at Boston Normal School of Gymnastics (1889-1890) o 1890--Posse Normal School established Boston Normal School of Gymnastics--1889 o Founded by Mary Hemenway o Directed by Amy Morris Homans o Posse was the first teacher o Purpose was to train teachers in Swedish gymnastics o Wellesley College--Department of Hygiene and Physical Education--1909 Boston Conference on Physical Training--1889 o o Purpose was "to bring to the attention of the general public and the leaders in the field the Swedish system." Speakers also for the German system, the Sargent system, and Hitchcock's program AMERICAN PHYSICAL EDUCATORS AND ORGANIZATIONS Edward Hitchcock--Amherst--(1861-1911) o o o o o o Professor of Hygiene and Physical Education Program--with a health emphasis Half-hour class four times per week for all students 20 minutes for light gymnastics and marching as a class 10 minutes for individual apparatus work or sports Anthropometrics--search for the average, ideal college male using age, weight, height, chest girth, arm girth, forearm girth, lung capacity, and pull-ups Dudley Sargent--Harvard--(1879-1919) o Anthropometrics--to find the ideal student, but mostly to establish individualized goals and programs for each student (influenced by Archibald Maclaren-English) o Apparatus--chest weights, chest pulleys, chest developers, leg machines, and rowing machines used in these individualized programs o No apparatus of Swedish or German origin emphasized o Sports promoted such as boxing, rowing, and baseball o Sargent Normal School--1881--(Boston College--1929)--initially taught the girls at Harvard Annex and later teacher training school for physical education o Harvard Summer School--(1887-1932)--advanced teacher training program Delphine Hanna--Oberlin--(1885-1920) o o o 1903--First woman professor of physical education Anthropometrics of college women Instructed Gulick, Wood, Nash, and Williams William Anderson o Chautaugua Summer School of Physical Education (1886-1930s) o Brooklyn (Anderson) Normal School (1886-1953) Association for the Advancement of Physical Education--1885-- William Anderson o Today--AAHPERD--several name changes (see below) o Major issues between 1885-1900 o o Anthropometrics Battle of the Systems YMCA and YWCA o YMCA founded in 1844 in England by George Williams o YMCA founded in 1851 in Boston o o o YWCA founded in 1866 in Boston by Mrs. Henry Durant 1885--YMCA Training School in Springfield--to train YMCA directors Purposes of the YMCA--to develop the all-around man (intellectual, physical, and spiritual) Gulick's triangle o SPIRIT MIND BODY Central School of Hygiene and Physical Education was YWCA training school under Helen McKinstry. (School of Physical Education-Health of Russell Sage College) NAMES OF THE NATIONAL ASSOCIATION 1885 Association for the Advancement of Physical Education 1886 American Association for the Advancement of Physical Education 1903 American Physical Education Association 1937 American Association for Health and Physical Education 1938 American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation 1974 American Association for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 1979 American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance BATTLE OF THE SYSTEMS SYSTEM German gymnastics Swedish gymnastics Hitchcock’s system Sargent’s system Association gymnastics American system PURPOSE Developed individual abilities and healthy, strong youth for war or emergencies using apparatus Promoted health, correct expression, and beauty of performance using exact movement patterns Emphasized hygiene through required exercises with light apparatus Advocated hygienic, educative, recreative, and remedial aims through individualized exercises on apparatus Contributed to the development of the allaround man Combined components and modifications of various programs into an eclectic system PROFESSIONAL PREPARATION INSTITUTIONS YEARS FOUNDERS NAME PROGRAM 18611868 Dio Lewis Normal Institute for Physical Education Light gymnastics 18661951 Turners Normal School of the North American Gymnastic Union German gymnastics 1881- Dudley Sargent Theoretical 1929 Sargent Normal School & practical curriculum 1885today Young Men’s Christian Association YMCA Training School Association gymnastics 18861920s William Anderson Chautauqua Summer School of Physical Education Advanced theoretical & practical curriculum 18861953 William Anderson Brooklyn (Anderson) Normal School Theoretical & practical curriculum 18871932 Dudley Sargent Harvard Summer School of Physical Education Advanced & theoretical & practical curriculum 18891909 Mary Hemenway and Amy Morris Homans Boston Normal School of Gymnastics Swedish Nils Posse Posse Normal School Swedish 1890 gymnastics gymnastics PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS 1896-1903 American Physical Education Review 1903-1930 APEA Review 1930-1938 Journal of Health and Physical Education 1938-1974 Journal of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation 1975-1981 Journal of Physical Education and Recreation 1981-present Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 1930-1979 Research Quarterly 1980-present Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 1940-present The Physical Educator Phi Epsilon Kappa 1963-present Quest NAPEHE 1892-1896 Physical Education 1901-1928 Journal of Physical Training YMCA 1928-present Journal of Physical Education MODERN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 1893--Thomas Wood--"The great thought in physical education is not the education of the physical nature, but the relation of physical training to complete education, and then the effort to make the physical contribute its full share to the life of the individual, in environment, training, and culture." Luther Gulick--Oberlin o YMCA Training School (1887-1900) o Director of Physical Training for New York City Public Schools (19031908) o Assistant Director was Jesse Bancroft o 1903--Public Schools Athletic League in New York o Class athletics-track and field; basketball; baseball o Athletic badge tests--dash; broad jump; pull-ups o Interschool athletics--Madison Square Garden o Girls' Branch under Elizabeth Burchenal (folk dancing) o 1906--Playground Association of America o o 1913--Campfire Girls Play was the most important educational aspect Thomas Wood--Oberlin o 1891-1901--Stanford--Physical Education and Health undergraduate curricula o 1901-1932--Teachers College--Physical Education and Health undergraduate and graduate curricula (1927-moved into health education) o Emphasized educational goals through "natural activities"--sports, games, dances, aquatics, arts, and recreation. o 1927--The New Physical Education with Rosalind Cassady Clark Hetherington o Stanford under Wood (1893-1896--student and instructor) o Clark University under G. Stanley Hall--"child-study" and developmentalism o o o o o o o o 1900-1910--Missouri--rid athletics of abuses (supported women's activities) 1923-1929--New York University--physical education curriculum 1929-1938--Stanford Play was a child's chief business in life Stressed attainment of educational goals in physical activities 1910--Four phases of the educational process Organic education Psychomotor education o Character education o Intellectual education Jay Nash--Oberlin o New York University (1926-1953) o o o Influenced by Hetherington Recreation--part of total life experiences for all ages Emphasis on carry-over sports Jesse Williams o Teachers College of Columbia University (1919-1941) o Expanded Wood's ideas of physical education as part of education, e.g. social education (John Dewey), unified whole, and living in a democratic society o "Education through the physical" o Physical development is a means to an end (educational objectives) Charles McCloy o YMCA--22 years of service at home and abroad o State University of Iowa (1930-1954) o Organic unity--physical dimension--the major aspect of the whole being o Education of the physical o Educational objectives--secondary to the development of the physical o Measurement--to develop skill and strength--testing--research professor PLAYGROUND MOVEMENT (RECREATION) Colonial amusements--Puritan work ethic First playgrounds in urban settings o 1888--Boston--sand boxes--later within the schools o 1890's--New York's Central Park; Boston; Chicago--upper class--opened playgrounds o 1894--Chicago--Jane Addams' Hull House--one of several settlement houses where play opportunities were provided for children (social control; assimilation) o Commonalities o Preadolescent children o Summer months initially o Outdoor equipment o In urban (populated) areas o Philanthropic support (donated land); later cities financed o Police-supervised; mothers, too o South Park in Chicago--fields, gymnasium, other activity spaces o Sport was used as a means of social control for the assimilation of immigrants' cultures and the socialization of American youth Playgrounds for children into recreation for all o 1906--Playground Association of America o 1906--Boys' Clubs of America o 1910--Boy Scouts of America o 1911--Playground and Recreation Association of America o 1912--Girl Scouts o 1913--Campfire Girls of America o o o 1930--National Recreation Association 1965--National Recreation and Park Association Clark Hetherington--The Normal Course in Play--to train recreation workers Depression--increased leisure time--softball and bowling Industrial Recreation--1940s facilities and equipment provide for leisure time usage by workers--softball, bowling, and basketball 1950s--beginning of outdoor education movement--hiking, camping, and backpacking 1965--Lifetime Sports Foundation--carry-over sports to play throughout life o Archery o Bowling o Badminton o o Golf Tennis 1970s--Fitness boom--jogging; tennis; racquetball; aquatic sports Organized youth sport o 1920s--American Legion baseball o 1930--Pop Warner Football--Joe Tomlin o o o o 1939--Little League Baseball--Carl Stoltz 1950--Biddy Basketball--Joe Archer 1950--AAU age-group swimming and 1967--AAU Junior Olympics MEN'S ATHLETICS Early American Sport--English influence o Socially elite--horse racing, dancing, gambling, cards, and yachting o o o o o o o Baseball (1744 in England, not 1839 in America by Abner Doubleday) Cycling--late 1800s Tennis--1874 from England Golf--Scotland Cricket and croquet clubs--late 1800s 1891--Basketball--James Naismith at YMCA Training School 1896--Volleyball--William Morgan at YMCA Amateur Sports--1850-1900s o Athletic clubs (especially the New York Athletic Club)--provided sports opportunities for members (especially track and field) o 1879--Amateur Athletic Union (1888)--"check the evils of professionalism and promote amateur sport" o 1912--538 athletic clubs and the AAU had 19,000 members o Competition offered (and said to control) 40 sports; later 16 sports-especially basketball, track and field, and boxing Early collegiate athletics o o o o o Students promoted, financed, and controlled athletics--faculty and administrators did not want to be involved (no standard rules or eligibility regulations) Rowing--1852--Harvard over Yale Baseball--1859--Amherst over Williams Football--1869 (actually rugby)--Rutgers over Princeton Social function Winning=fans=money=winning=fans=money Recruiting Professional coaches Newspaper coverage Graduate managers Walter Camp (1879-1925) Control established in colleges Injuries; property damage; class absences; rule confusion; gambling; drunkenness; professionalism; commercialism; and loss of values Benefits--improved health, taught values such as fair play and teamwork, diminished use of tobacco and alcohol, reduced rowdyism, improved discipline, and enhanced school spirit Late 1800s--students unified various rules of sports o Harvard faculty attempted to control class absences and to regulate athletic abuses--failed initially but in 1882 established the Harvard model with three faculty committee to oversee athletics; in 1885 they added two students and one alumnus; in 1888 this committee had three faculty, three students, and three alumni o 1895--Midwestern colleges (Intercollegiate Conference of Faculty Representatives) Required to be students Six months residence for transfers Must remain eligible academically 1905--meeting to investigate the future of football due to deaths and injuries, as well as dishonesty, gambling, and eligibility; representatives from 13 colleges attended initial meeting in December called by President MacCracken of New York University; in January, 1906, a second meeting led to the establishment of the NCAA; reform football to prevent injuries and deaths; legalized forward pass 1906--National Collegiate Athletic Association (28 colleges) Faculty control-institutional or home rule Conferences--save money; fewer classes missed; equal philosophy and size; rivalry o o o o o o o o o o o o o No seasonal coaches--with departments of physical education to gain faculty status Rules of sports standardized and provide national tournaments (track and field--1921) Recruitment and scholarship policies--Sanity Code (194851) 1929--Savage study of college athletics found problems in commercialism and loss of educational values--American College Athletics 1981-1982--NCAA began women’s championships AAU and NCAA conflicts Olympic team selection (1920s to the present) o National Amateur Athletic Federation-1922 o o o Sanctioning of events Certification of records 1978--Amateur Sports Act o Intramurals--1913--NCAA favored o National Junior College Athletic Association--1938 o National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics--1940 (from only basketball in 1952) o o High schools Following the examples of the colleges in structure o 1922--National Federation of State High School Athletic Associations WOMEN'S SPORTS Late 1800s o Croquet, cycling, and hiking with clothing restrictions o Tennis--1874 o Gymnastics in bloomers (Sargent) o Basketball o 1892--Smith College (Senda Berenson) o 1896--Stanford vs. California--first intercollegiate game o 1899--Standardized rules No snatching the ball Could hold ball only three seconds o o o o Could bounce ball only three times Divided court into three areas to limit exertion 1936--two-division game 1949--rover game in AAU; 1962 in colleges 1970--full court game in colleges Colleges played track and field, field hockey, archery, rowing, and golf Preferred events by physical education teachers Field Day--within a school of interclass play Play Day--mixed teams competed with a social emphasis Sports Day--within own team competition with a social emphasis Telegraphic Meet--send scores to a central location Philosophical justifications for the opposition of women in competitive sports Competition might be physically and emotionally harmful Undesirable examples from men's programs Philosophy of mass participation Societal belief of women as homemakers, not athletes o Participation rather than competition o 1909--about half colleges had intercollegiate competition, especially in the West and Midwest--allowed only if the following conditions were met: Women officials and coaches Audience by invitation only College-financed only No "win-at-all-costs" attitude--for fun and social interaction Outside schools--AAU sponsored leagues and tournaments High schools followed the colleges--but problems arose: Male coaches and boys' rules Spectators allowed Newspaper coverage Intense competition--all the above meant pressure to win 1917--APEA Committee on Women's Athletics--set standards and rules of sports o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 1917--Athletic Conference of American College Women o o o o o o o Opposed intercollegiate competition Emphasis on participation by all Aligned with physical education departments and teachers 1923--Women's Division of the National Amateur Athletic Federation Opposed international competition Favored play days for girls and women A sport for every girl, and every girl in a sport"--National Section on Women’s Athletics o 1941--National Tournament in golf--opposed by NSWA o o Increased Competition Olympia development thrust after defeat by Russians in 1956 and 1960 Olympic Games U. S. Olympic Development Committee in 1961--"to broaden the base of participation for girls and women in Olympic sports and to provide better experiences for the skilled athlete." o 1963-1969--National Institutes on Girls' Sports--to train teachers and coaches o 1963--University of Oklahoma--track and field; gymnastics o 1965--Michigan State--advanced gymnastics, advanced track and field; canoeing; kayaking; diving; fencing o o o 1966--Salt Lake City--skiing; figure skating 1966--Indiana University--advanced volleyball; basketball; coaching o 1969--Illinois University--advanced basketball; advanced track and field; officiating basketball and gymnastics 1966-1967--Commission on Intercollegiate Athletics for Women--set up by the Division of Girls and Women's Sports Encourage and govern intercollegiate competition for women at all levels Sanction intercollegiate events o o Hold national tournaments --first national tournaments in track and field and in gymnastics 1969--Association for Intercollegiate Athletics for Women Members were colleges Educational goals and purposes Set standards and policies for women's athletics NAGWS game rules Separated from NAGWS in 1979 Ended June, 1982 39 championships in 17 sports PHYSICAL FITNESS 1953--Results of Kraus-Weber Minimal Muscular Fitness Test: 58% of U.S. youth failed one or more items while 9% of the European youth failed (flexibility) o o o o o o On stomach - Raise legs On stomach - Raise upper body On back - Raise legs 10 seconds each Straight leg sit-up Bent-knee sit -up Touch toes 1956--President Eisenhower through an Executive Order established the President's Council on Youth Fitness as an outgrowth of the President's Conference on Physical Fitness 1956--AAHPER Fitness Conference 1957--AAHPER's National Research Council developed the AAHPER Youth Fitness Test o Pull-ups (boys) o Flexed-arm hang (girls) o Sit-ups o Shuttle run o Standing broad jump o 50-yard dash o 600-yard run-walk o Softball throw o June 1-7, 1958--National Fitness Week o 1958--Operation Fitness sponsored by AAHPER to stimulate fitness nationally 1958--Results of the AAHPER Fitness Youth Test showed poor performance by youth (8500 boys and girls tested in grades 5-12) 1961--President's Council on Youth Fitness published the "Blue Book" with suggestions for a school-centered program o Identify the physically underdeveloped student and work to improve o Provide at least 15 minutes of vigorous activity daily for all o Use valid fitness tests to determine abilities and evaluate progress 1963--President Kennedy changed name to the President's Council on Physical Fitness 1965--Retesting of youth with AAHPER Youth Fitness Test showed improvement in students' fitness levels 1968--Aerobics published by Kenneth Cooper o males = 30 points per week o females = 24 points per week 1974--Retesting of youth with AAHPER Youth Fitness Test showed no overall improvement in fitness levels since 1965 1981--AAHPERD Lifetime Heath-Related Physical Fitness Test o Body composition using skinfold measures o Function of heart and circulatory system using a 1.5 mile or 12-minute run o Strength using bent-knee sit-ups in 60 seconds (number done) o Flexibility using straight leg with arm extension 1994--Physical Best (AAHPERD’s educational materials) combined with the Prudential FITNESSGRAM developed by the Cooper Institute for Aerobics Research o Aerobic capacity in a one-mile walk/run or pacer for young children o Body composition o Muscular strength and endurance using curl-ups, push-ups, or alternatively pull-ups, modified pull-ups, or flexed-arm hand and trunk lift o Flexibility using the back-saver sit-and-reach