МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ И НАУКИ
РЕСПУБЛИКИ КАЗАХСТАН
СЕМИПАЛАТИНСКИЙ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ
ИМЕНИ ШАКАРИМА
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Учебно-методические
материалы по дисциплине
«Теория перевода»
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ДЛЯ СПЕЦИАЛЬНОСТИ 050207 «ПЕРЕВОДЧЕСКОЕ ДЕЛО»
УЧЕБНО-МЕТОДИЧЕСКИЕ МАТЕРИАЛЫ
Семей
2013
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Содержание
1. Лекции
2. Вопросы для самоконтроля
3. Список литературы.
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Лекционный материал
Лекция № 1. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.
I. The Geographical position of the UK.
II. Climate.
III. Inland Waters.
IV. Resources.
I. The Geographical Position of the UK. The territory of the United
Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is historically divided into four
parts: 1) England; 2) Scotland; 3) Wales; 4) Northern Ireland.
Of the four countries which make up the United Kingdom, England is the
largest. It occupies an area of 131, 8 thousand sq. km.
England borders on Scotland in the north. In the east it is washed by the
North Sea. In the south it is separated from the continent by the English Channel.
In the west it borders on Wales and is washed by the Bristol Channel and by the
Irish Sea.
The highest part of England is in the west, from where the land gradually
slopes down to the east.
The Atlantic Ocean washes the rocky and broken west coast of England,
Wales and Scotland and is gradually wearing it away, leaving caves and sandy
beaches. On the east coast the land is low and sandy.
As concerns the relief, England can be divided into: Northern England
mostly taken up by the low Pennine Mountains, the Central Plain, lowland Southeast England, and hilly South-west England.
Scotland is the most northern of the countries that constitute the United
Kingdom. It occupies an area of 78,8 thousand sq. km. Edinburgh, the country's
capital and second largest city, is one of Europe's largest financial centres.
Scotland is washed by the Atlantic Ocean in the north and west and by the
North Sea in the east.
The coastline of Scotland is greatly indented. In many places deep fiords
penetrate very far inland.
Geographically the territory of Scotland can be divided into three regions:
the Northern Highlands, the Central Lowlands and the Southern Uplands.
The Highlands are the highest mountains in the British Isles. Their average
height does not exceed 457 m above sea level, though some peaks are much
higher, rising over a thousand metres. Ben Nevis, the highest peak in the British
Isles, reaches the height of 1343 m.
The Lowlands are the cradle of the Scottish nation. They are densely
populated.
The Southern Uplands seldom rise over 579 m above sea level. It is one of
the most sparsely populated districts in Great Britain.
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Wales is a peninsula washed by the sea on three sides: the Bristol Channel in
the south, the St. George's Channel in the west, and the Irish Sea in the north. Its
territory is 20,8 thousand sq. km.
Geographically Wales may be considered part of highland Britain, the
Cumbrian Mountains occupying most of the land. It is an area of high mountains,
deep valleys, waterfalls and lakes.
Wales is a region of heavy rainfall brought by the prevailing west winds
from the Atlantic Ocean. The valleys are sheltered by the high mountains from
cold east winds. The climate is rather mild.
Wales has never been densely populated. The Welsh have kept their own
language, but English is spoken in town as well. The Capital of Wales is a de
facto designation usually applied to Cardiff since 1955.
Northern Ireland occupies the north-eastern part of Ireland, which is
separated from the island of Great Britain by the North Channel. In the south-west
Northern Ireland borders on the Irish Republic (Eire).
Almost all the area of Northern Ireland is a plain of volcanic origin,
deepening in the centre to form the largest lake of the British Isles, Lough Neagh.
The greatly indented coastline of Northern Ireland is abundant in rocks and
cliffs.
Northern Ireland has a typical oceanic climate with mild damp winters (the
mean temperature in January is +4, +5) and cool rainy summers (the mean
temperature in July is +14, +15).
Forests are rather scarce, moors and meadows prevail.
Northern Ireland is mostly an agrarian district. On small farms they grow
crops, especially oats, vegetables and potatoes. Large areas are taken up by
meadows, where cattle graze. On the river banks and on the coasts the population
is engaged in fishing.
Belfast (from Irish: Béal Feirste, meaning "mouth of the sandbanks") is the
capital of, and largest city in, Northern Ireland.
II. Climate. The British tendency to moderation perhaps reflects the climate,
which is exceptionally moderate: not too hot or cold, not too wet or dry. The
temperature rarely goes below -5°C or over 25°C. But the weather is often dull and
damp with too little sunshine. The frequent moderate winds make it feel colder
than it really is. July and August are sometimes fine, but more often miserable.
There are no great differences of climate between the sections of the United
Kingdom, except that the west has more rain than the east, and the northern
mountains, particularly in Scotland, have much more rain and snow. More
generally, the southern parts of England and Wales are a little warmer, sunnier and
less misty than the rest.
The prevailing winds blow from the south-west. As these winds blow from
the ocean, they are mild in winter and cool in summer, and are heavily charged
with moisture at all times. As they approach the mountainous areas near the west
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coasts, they rise up the mountain slopes. Their temperature drops, which causes
condensation of moisture in the form of rain. Therefore the wettest parts of Britain
are those areas where high mountains lie near the west coast: the western
Highlands of Scotland, the Lake District and North Wales. The eastern part of
Britain is said to be in the rain-shadow, as the winds lose most of their moisture in
their passage over the highlands of the west.
All parts of the British Isles receive rain at any time of the year. Still autumn
and winter are the wettest seasons, except in the Thames district, where most rain
falls in the summer half of the year. Oxford, for example, has 29 per cent of its rain
in summer and only 22 per cent in winter.
As to temperature, Great Britain has warmer winters than any other district in the
same latitude. It is due in large measure to the prevalence of mild southwest winds.
Another factor is the Gulf Stream, which flows from the Gulf of Mexico and brings
much warmth from the equatorial regions to north-western Europe.
III. Inland Waters. Due to the humid climate and abundant rainfall, the
water level in the rivers is always high. The rivers seldom freeze in winter, most of
them remain ice-free. Many of the rivers are joined together by canals. This system
of rivers and canals provides a good means of cheap inland water transport.
British rivers are not navigable for ocean ships, but they form deep estuaries,
and strong tides penetrating into them prevent the formation of deltas. Most of the
large ports of Great Britain are situated in the estuaries.
The most important rivers are the Severn, flowing from the Cumbrian
Mountains in Wales into the Bristol Channel, the Thames, flowing across the
plains of south-eastern England and emptying into the North Sea, the Tyne and the
Trent, flowing from the eastern slopes of the Pennines to the North Sea, the
Mersey, flowing down the western slopes of the Pennines and emptying into the
Irish Sea at Liverpool, and the Clyde in Scotland, which flows west across the
Southern Uplands and on which the port of Glasgow is situated.
Other major rivers are the Avon, Forth, Tay, Tweed, Ouse and Tees. These
and other rivers are all used either for shipping, water supplies, or hydroelectric
power; their flow is, accordingly, highly regulated. Many of the rivers are
canalized and are linked with other river systems in an intricate, and now largely
abandoned, canal system dating from the early Industrial Revolution.
Drinking water is derived from subsurface supplies and from numerous
reservoirs in the Pennines, in the Welsh mountains, and in Scotland.
Owing to the fact that British lakes are rather small and have no outlets, they
afford limited economic possibilities in the system of navigable waterways. But
most of them, especially those situated in the counties of Cumberland,
Westmorland and north Lancashire, are famous for their unique beauty and
picturesque surroundings. Famous is the English Lake District, occupying a
comparatively small area. It is a place of steep ridges and deep valleys, smooth
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slopes and deep lakes, ravines, waterfalls and green meadows. The Lake District is
one of the most popular holiday districts in Great Britain.
IV. Resources. The United Kingdom has long been rich in energy resources
but deficient in food and industrial raw materials. Extensive coal deposits occur
around the eastern and western edges of the Permines, in South Wales, in the
western Midlands (Birmingham area), and in the Scottish Central Lowland. Easily
accessible coal seams are, however, largely exhausted. Fortunately for the energyhungry British economy, large deposits of petroleum and natural gas under the
North Sea came into commercial production in 1975.
Other mineral deposits are of small importance. They include tin, mined in
small amounts in Cornwall; low-grade iron ores in the Jurassic rocks of
Lincolnshire and Northamptonshire in the eastern Midlands, used in steel mills at
Scunthorpe and Corby; kaolinite (china clay), mined in parts of Cornwall; and
sands and gravels, quarried for road-building materials. Of the total land area about
25% is used for crops and more than 65% for grassland and grazing; agricultural
productivity has been greatly improved since World War II, and only one-third of
all food needs are now imported, compared with two-thirds before the war.
Answer the following questions:
1. What four parts is the territory of the United Kingdom historically
divided into?
2. Show all component parts of the United Kingdom on the map.
3. Why does Great Britain have warmer winters than any other districts in
the same latitude?
4. What rivers and lakes in Great Britain can you name?
5. What are the main and other natural deposits of Great Britain?
Лекция № 2. Economy of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. The Leading
Industries and their location.
I. Economic activity.
II. Manufacturing.
III. Mining.
IV. Power.
V. Transportation.
VI. Other industries.
I. Economic activity. Great Britain is a very important country in the world. There
are many British cities, which are centers of some industries or simply large cities.
London, the capital of the UK, is the largest city in Europe and also it is one of the
world's most important ports. There is the Royal Exchange in London, which
operates 1.5 billion $ a day. This exchange is the central exchange in Europe. In
northern England, there are large deposits of coal and iron ore. On the eastern side,
cities such as Bradford and Leeds became the world's leading producers of woolen
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goods. On the western side, Manchester became the world's leading producer of
cotton goods. Sheffield became a center for the production of steel goods.
Edinburgh is associated with science, law and administration. That's why it was
called "The Athens of the North". These are only some cities, which are important
for the UK and for the world, but there are many others, which are cultural or
industrial centers.
II. Manufacturing. Until recent times, Britain's heavy industry was mainly
concentrated in the centre of England and in the London region. Such towns as
Birmingham, Coventry and Sheffield produced heavy machines, railway carriages
and motor-cars. In the 20th century new branches of industry have appeared:
electronics, radio, chemical industry and others.
Today manufacturing accounts for more than one-fifth of total employment and
about a third of GNP. In recent years traditional industries such as food, drink,
tobacco, and textiles have shown relatively small growth rates compared to the
rapid expansion of the government-encouraged metals, engineering, and chemicals
sectors. The chemical, pharmaceutical, and healthcare sectors, which were
insignificant before 1970, now represent nearly 20% of the value of exports.
Electronics has had similar success, now accounting for approximately 25% of
total exports. The successful development of manufacturing industries owes much
to investment by foreign firms. More than a thousand such companies have
established bases in Ireland, and they account for about 55% of manufacturing
output and more than 75% of manufacturing exports.
Workers directly engaged in manufacturing number approximately 5.5 million, or
less than 17% of the total labor force. Of these, about 29% are engaged in the
metallurgical and engineering industries, about 5% in chemical industries, about
10% in food processing, and 6% in textile manufacturing. About 10% work in
vehicle manufacture, and 8% work in the paper, printing, and publishing industries.
Increasing efficiency of production and elimination of uneconomic plants continue
to reduce the numbers working in manufacturing. The main centers of industry are
on the coalfields of northern England and Scotland, in the western Midlands, and
around the major ports, including London.
III. Mining. The United Kingdom was the first country in the world which became
highly industrialized. During the rapid industrialization of the 19th century, one of
the most important factors was that coal deposits were situated near the ground
surface, which made mining easy. Coal mining was one of the most developed
industries in Great Britain.
Nowadays less than 1% of the labor force is engaged in mining. The number of
coal mines in operation dropped from 170 to 15 between 1984 and 1995, mainly
because of loss of export markets, increasing use of petroleum and other fuels, and
exhaustion of easily worked coal seams in the coalfields. The coal industry was
privatized in 1994 and a new Coal Authority was created to license private
operators.
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The biggest coal and iron mines are in the north-east of England, near Newcastle,
in Lancashire and Yorkshire; in Scotland near Glasgow; in Wales near Cardiff and
Bristol.
Petroleum is the principal mineral produced, with production reaching about 120
million metric tons (132.3 million U.S. tons) a year in the mid-1990s, when Britain
began developing new oil reserves near the Shetland Islands. Natural gas is
produced in association with petroleum.
Sands and gravels are of considerable economic significance; iron ores tin, and
kaolinite (china clay) are of lesser importance.
IV. Power. In 1993 the United Kingdom ranked second in Europe, after Germany,
in electricity production, with an output of about 336 billion kWh. More than half
of all coal mined was used to generate electricity; in addition, large oil-powered
generating stations are located near London, Southampton, and other ports.
Hydroelectricity contributed about 5.2 billion kWh of the total; most of it is
produced in the Scottish Highlands and in southwestern Scotland, with smaller
amounts produced in northwestern Wales. Approximately 12% of all electricity is
derived from nuclear power. An estimated 21.5% of the nation's total fuel supply is
derived from natural gas, which is mined together with petroleum from under the
North Sea; more than half of the gas is used for industrial and commercial
purposes.
V. Transportation. More than 3,140 km (1,951 mi) of high-speed motorway
supplement the United Kingdom's older and slower highway system based on
12,229 km (7 599 mi) of trunk roads radiating out from London with "bypasses"
around major cities to lessen congestion. British Rail operates about 16,500 km
(10,253 mi) of track in England, Scotland, and Wales. About 480 km (298 mi) of
wide-gauge track is operated by Northern Ireland Railways (NIR). A rail link with
the Continent was established via the Channel Tunnel in 1994. As mandated by the
Railways Act of 1993, British Rail, which has been government-owned since 1947,
is now in the process of being transferred to the private sector. Except for the
Manchester Ship Canal, canals and canalized rivers carry little freight today, The
busiest ports - some brought to recent prominence by North Sea oil - are London,
Milford Haven, Tees and Hartlepool, Forth, Grimsby and Immingham,
Southampton, Shetland (Sullom Voe), Medway, Orkney (Flotta), Liverpool, and
Manchester.
VI. Other industries. Of great importance for Britain is ship-building industry. It
is concentrated in London, Glasgow, Newcastle, Liverpool and Belfast.
Great Britain produces a lot of wool, and woolen industry is developed in
Yorkshire. British woolen products are exported to many countries.
Sea-ports play a great role in the life of the country. London, Liverpool and
Glasgow are the biggest English ports, from which big liners go to all parts of the
world. Great Britain exports industrial products to other countries and imports food
and some other products.
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Sheep-farming, cattle-farming and dairy-farming are also important branches of
Great Britain's economy. Chicken farms produce a great number of chickens and
eggs for the population.
The south of England is often called the "Garden of England", because there are
many gardens and orchards there. In the orchards people grow apples, pears,
cherries, plums and other fruits, and there are also large plantations of different
berries.
Answer the following questions:
1. What new branches of industry have appeared in GB in the 20th century?
2. Where are the main centers of industry located?
3. Where are the biggest coal and iron mines of GB?
4. What are the regions in GB where hydroelectricity is produced?
5. What are other industries in GB which are important for national economy?
Лекция № 3. The British Monarchy.
I. Monarchy as the oldest secular institution in the United Kingdom.
II. “The Queen reigns but does not rule”?
III. The Royal Prerogatives.
I. Monarchy as the oldest secular institution in the United Kingdom. The
monarchy is the most ancient secular institution in the United Kingdom, with a
continuous history stretching back over a thousand years. Its continuity for over
1,000 years was broken only once by a republic that lasted a mere 11 years (164960).
The hereditary monarchy has evolved over the centuries from absolute personal
authority to the present constitutional form. The monarchy is hereditary, the
succession passing automatically to the oldest male child, or in the absence of
males, to the oldest female offspring of the monarch. By Act (or law) of
Parliament, the monarch must be a Protestant. Succession is automatic on the death
of the monarch, confirmed later by a formal coronation ceremony. The coronation
of Queen Elizabeth II in 1953, for example, took place over a year after she
became queen.
The powers of the monarch are not defined precisely. Although in speeches, the
King or Queen calls the Government 'my Government', the monarch does not have
any power.
II. The Queen reigns but does not rule? The reigning monarch is not only the
head of state but also a symbol of the unity of the nation.
At present the official head of state is Queen Elizabeth II, who succeeded to the
throne in 1952.The full royal title of the Queen is: Her Most Excellent Majesty
Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom of Great Britain
and Northern Ireland and of Her Other Realms and Territories Queen, Head of the
Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith.
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In law, the Queen is an integral part of the legislature, the head of the judiciary, the
commander-in-chief of the armed forces of the Crown and the temporal head of the
established Church of England. However, since 1689, the monarch's sovereign
powers have been formally limited by the idea that national sovereignty resides in
'the Crown in Parliament' - the idea that the Crown is only sovereign by the will of
Parliament.
But the Queen is only a formal ruler: she reigns but does not rule. The United
Kingdom is governed by Her Majesty's government in the name of the Queen. In
actual fact everything that she does is done on the advice of her ministers, who are
responsible for the royal acts.
Thus, most of the functions of the Queen are purely of a symbolic nature.
Theoretically every act of Government is done in the Queen's name - every letter
sent out by a government department is marked 'On Her Majesty's Service' - and
she appoints all the ministers, including the Prime Minister. In reality, everything
is done on the advice of the elected Government, and the monarch takes no part in
the decision-making process.
III. The Royal Prerogatives. However, the monarch does have great influence
and it would be wrong to underestimate the role of the monarchy in Britain. There
are still important acts of government which require the participation of the Queen.
The Queen summons, prorogues (discontinues until the next session without
dissolution) and dissolves Parliament; she usually opens new sessions of
Parliament with a speech from the throne (which is written by the Prime Minister)
in which the major governmental policies are outlined. These acts form part of the
Royal Prerogative. The power to restrict or abolish a prerogative right belongs to
Parliament. Prerogative rights are of legislative, executive and judicial character.
The Monarch must give a Royal Assent to Bills passed by both Houses of
Parliament. As Head of State the Monarch has the power to sign international
agreements, to cede or receive territory, and to declare war or make peace. The
Monarch's approval is required for appointing every important office holder,
including government ministers, judges, officers of the armed forces, diplomats
and bishops. The Monarch confers peerages, knighthoods and other honours. It is
only the Monarch who is able to remit all or part of the penalties imposed upon
persons convicted of crimes through the exercise of the prerogative of mercy on
the advice of the appropriate minister.
Thus the remaining powers of the monarch are basically to summon, suspend until
the next session and dissolve Parliament; to give royal assent to legislation passed
by Parliament; to appoint government ministers, judges, officers of the armed
forces, governors, diplomats and bishops of the Church; to confer honours, such as
peerages and knighthoods; to remit sentences passed on convicted criminals; and
finally to declare war on or make peace with an enemy power. In practice, of
course, with the exception of a few honours she is free to decide herself, the
monarch discharges all these functions on the direction of the government. In most
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matters of state, the refusal of the Queen to exercise her power according to the
direction of her Prime Minister would risk a serious constitutional crisis.
The Monarch retains an important attribute of power – information. The
Queen is regularly informed and consulted on many aspects of public affair. She
sees all Cabinet papers and reads dispatches and correspondence. The Prime
Minister keeps her well informed about political events. Her views on a subject can
effect the way the Prime Minister acts. So, the Monarch has the right to be
consulted, the right to encourage, the right to warn.
The function of the monarch is politically important. For as someone who reigns
but does not rule, the sovereign separates the 'magic' of sovereignty, publicly
visible in many ceremonies, from the power of the executive head of state. This
contrasts with executive presidential systems of government. Away from the public
gaze, the monarch plays a more practical role. The Queen is visited regularly by
her Prime Minister to receive an account of Cabinet decisions and to be consulted
on matters of national life. Since 1952 the Queen has given weekly audience, as it
is called, to 11 Prime Ministers, some of whom have highly valued these meetings.
The social influence of the Monarch is great. The Royal Family is the principal
aristocratic house in the United Kingdom, closely connected with other members
of the hereditary aristocracy, and with vast areas of land in England and Scotland,
as well as valuable city property in London, including Regent's Park, parts of Pall
Mall, Piccadilly, Holborn and Kensington. The Queen's residence in London is
Buckingham Palace; her other homes are Windsor, Sandringham and Balmoral
Castle in Scotland.
Answer the following questions:
1. How long has Elizabeth II been the Queen?
2. Could you name the powers of the monarch in law?
3. What prerogative rights can you name?
4. Can you list office holders who are appointed only with the Monarch's
approval?
5. What property does the Queen own?
6. Some people think that the monarchy should be abolished because it has no
power and it costs the State a lot of money to maintain. How useful do you
think the monarchy is in Britain today?
Лекция №4. The UK Parliament.
I. Parliamentary Monarchy.
II. The Structure of UK Parliament.
III. Work of Parliament.
IV. The principles of the British parliamentary system.
V. The main Functions of Parliament.
I. Parliamentary Monarchy. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern
Ireland is a constitutional monarchy. This means that it has a monarch (a king or a
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queen) as its Head of State. The monarch has very little power and can only reign
with the support of Parliament.
The UK Parliament is one of the oldest representatives assemblies in the
world, having its origin in the mid-13th century. From the 14th century,
parliamentary government in the UK has been based on a two-chamber system.
The House of Lords (the upper House) and the House of Commons (the lower
House) sit separately and are constituted on entirely different principles. The
relationship between the two Houses is governed largely by convention but it is in
part defined by the Parliament Acts. The legislative process involves both Houses
of Parliament and the Monarch.
There is no written constitution in the United Kingdom. The United
Kingdom constitution is not embodied in a single document. It is a set of rules,
many of which are customs or 'conventions' (unwritten rules) that have come to be
accepted through the fact of being observed though they have no defined authority.
Acts of Parliament (also called 'laws' or 'statutes') have defined some aspects of the
constitutional system. This system is flexible and can be altered by Act of
Parliament, or by general agreement to create, change or abolish a convention.
Parliament is the supreme legislative body and the supreme authority in the United
Kingdom.
There are devolved Parliaments/Assemblies in Scotland, Wales and
Northern Ireland created by legislation passed by the UK Parliament.
II. The Structure of UK Parliament. The British Parliament is made up of three
institutions. They are the monarchy and two chambers. The upper chamber is
known as the House of Lords. The lower chamber is called the House of
Commons. Parliament and the monarch have different roles in the government of
the country, and they only meet together on symbolic occasions such as the
coronation of a new monarch or the opening of Parliament. The House of Lords,
which is an unelected chamber, has only limited powers. In reality, the House of
Commons, which is made up of the elected members known as Members of
Parliament (abbreviated to MPs), is the only one of the three which has true power.
It is here that new bills are introduced and debated. If the majority of the members
are in favour of a bill it goes to the House of Lords to be debated and finally to the
monarch to be signed. Only then does it become law. Although a bill must be
supported by all three bodies, the House of Lords cannot reject the bills that the
House of Commons wants to pass, and the monarch has not refused to sign one
since the modern political system began over 200 years ago.
III. Work of Parliament. Parliament has a maximum duration of five years. At
any time up to the end of this period, a general election can be held for a new
House of Commons.
The life of Parliament is divided into periods called «sessions», each
terminated by a «prorogation»; this means that all business that has not been
completed is abandoned. Parliament can only meet again when it is formally
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summoned by the Queen. A session lasts from the end of October to roughly the
same date of the next year. There are breaks for holidays at Christmas, Easter,
Whitman (the 7th Sunday after Easter) and in the summer. The periods when
Parliament is not sitting are known as «recesses».
The beginning of a new session is marked by the State Opening of
Parliament. A debate on particular aspects of the Queen's Speech follows, usually
lasting 5 or 6 days, after which Parliament begins with the work of the session.
Except on Fridays, each day's business begins with «Question time». This is a
period of 45 minutes during which MPs may address questions to ministers.
IV. The principles of the British parliamentary system. Parliament in the
United Kingdom is based on the principle that the people of the country hold
ultimate power. They can exercise this power at least every five years, by voting
for the person that they want to represent them in Parliament, and by voting in a
Government.
The British democratic system depends on political parties, and there has
been a party system of some kind since the 17th century. The political parties
choose candidates in elections. There are sometimes independent candidates, but
they are rarely elected.
The party which wins the majority of seats in the House of Commons forms
the Government and its leader usually becomes Prime Minister. The most senior
members of the Government are called the Cabinet.
The largest minority party becomes the Opposition. In doing so it accepts the
right of the majority party to run the country, while the majority party accepts the
right of the minority party to criticize it. Without this agreement between the
political parties, the British parliamentary system would break down. The
Opposition develops its own policies. It is the aim of every opposition party to gain
power at the next election and it therefore, has to make sure that it is properly
prepared to govern the country. The most senior members of the Opposition are
called the Shadow Cabinet which is headed by the Leader of the Opposition.
It is the job of Parliament to make sure that the Government is working
properly and in the public interest. Every Member of Parliament, no matter what
political party he or she belongs to, has to examine the work of the Government.
The Opposition plays the leading part in this.
V. The main Functions of Parliament. Parliament's main functions are lawmaking, authorizing taxation and public expenditure and examining government
policy, especially proposals for expenditure. It discusses what the Government has
done, is doing and intends to do, points to the Government's errors and attempts to
change and modify its policies.
Thus the main functions of Parliament are to:
- make all UK law provide, by voting for taxation, the means of carrying on
the work of government;
- protect the public and safeguard the rights of individuals;
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- scrutinize government policy and administration, including proposals for
expenditure;
- examine European proposals before they become law;
- hear appeals in the House of Lords, the Highest Court of Appeal in Britain;
- debate the major issues of the day.
Answer the following questions:
1. What are the two chambers of British Parliament?
2. When do Parliament and the monarch meet?
3. When did the monarch refuse to sign a bill last time?
4. How can the people of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and northern
Ireland exercise their power?
5. What are the main functions of Parliament?
Лекция № 5 The Houses of Parliament.
I. The House of Commons.
II. The House of Lords.
I. The House of Commons. The House of Commons meets in a building called
the Houses of Parliament in Westminster, London, in a specially designed
chamber. The chamber is rectangular in shape. The Speaker's Chair stands at the
north end, and in front of it is the Table of the House, at which the Clerk of the
House sits. The benches for members (upholstered in green) run the length of the
chamber on both sides, facing each other across a broad gangway known as the
«floor of the House». The benches to the right of the Speaker are used by the
Government and its supporters; those to his left are occupied by the Opposition and
members of any other parties. The front bench on the Government side, known as
the Treasury Bench, seats the Prime Minister and other ministers. They are known
as «front benchers». Those who do not hold posts in the Government sit on the
back benches and are known as «back benchers». The front bench facing the
Government side seats the leaders of the Opposition. The whole arrangement of the
House suggests the two-parry system.
The chamber has a gallery, part of which is kept for the use of «strangers» (i.e. the
public). Opposite the public gallery is the Hansard and press gallery. Hansard is the
stenographic record (Official Report) of the proceedings of the House. It records
all words spoken in debate as well as voting members.
Seating accommodation falls far short of providing a seat for all members. The
chamber was built to hold only 437 of a total 651 MPs. MPs do not have specially
reserved seats and the Commons was purposely made too small in order to keep its
club-like atmosphere. This creates better conditions for discussions than would be
possible in a larger chamber.
The House of Commons meets every Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday and Thursday
at 2.30 p.m. and normally sits until 10.30 p.m., although it may continue until well
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after midnight. On Fridays it meets at 11 a.m. and finishes at 4.30 p.m. The
mornings are taken up with constituency work. Many members return to their
constituencies during the weekends.
The House of Commons is traditionally regarded as the lower house, but it is
the main parliamentary arena for political battle. The Government can only remain
in office as long as it has the support of a majority in the House of Commons. As
with the House of Lords, the House of Commons debates new primary legislation
as part of the process of making an Act of Parliament, but the Commons has the
primacy over the non-elected House of Lords.
The House of Commons is the main place where legislation and other
decisions of the Government are criticized and assessed. It is often referred to as
“the Legislative” - the body which makes laws. A proposal for a new law is known
as a “bill”. Bills may be introduced in either House, though the most important
bills are submitted to the House of Commons first. Bills dealing with money are an
exception and are always introduced in the Commons by a member of the
Government, usually the Chancellor of the Exchequer. ‘Money bills’, concerned
solely with taxation and public expenditure, are always introduced in the
Commons and must be passed by the Lords promptly and without amendment.
When the two Houses disagree on a non-money bill, the Parliament acts can be
invoked to ensure that the will of the elected chamber prevails.
The work of the Commons includes controlling finance. Before the
Government can raise or spend money, it must have permission from the House of
Commons. Another important function of the Commons is controlling the
Government in power and scrutinizing its policies by asking questions, by holding
debates and by committee work. Apart from these functions, the Commons also
discusses the Government's administrative policies – foreign affairs, educational
problems, etc.
II. The House of Lords. The House of Lords is the second chamber of the UK
Houses of Parliament. The House of Lords chamber is similar to that of the
Commons, except that prevailing colour is red while that of the Commons is green.
At the end of the rectangular chamber is the Throne from which the Queen reads
her speech at the opening of Parliament. In front of the Throne is the seat of the
Lord Chancellor, the speaker of the House of Lords, who supervises the debates.
He sits on the woolsack, a seat which contains wool from all the Commonwealth
countries. The peer's benches, upholstered in red leather, are arranged on both
sides of the House; the Government benches are on the right of the Throne, and the
Opposition benches are on the left. The galleries on either side of the chamber are
reserved for diplomats and "Distinguished Strangers", and the gallery on the
northern end is for reporters and other members of the public.
Members of the House of Lords (known as ‘peers’) consist of 4 categories of
peer. The majority are hereditary peers, currently about 750. A smaller number,
about 400, are ‘life’ peers – an idea introduced in 1958 to elevate to the peerage
certain people who have rendered political or public service to the nation. All life
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peers are created on the recommendation of the Prime Minister of the day, with
nominations also sought from opposition parties. Nine of the most senior judges,
the Lords of Appeal in Ordinary (commonly known as ‘Law Lords’), are also
entitled to sit in the Lords. Finally, alongside these secular peers, the Lords
Temporal, are the 26 most senior bishops and archbishops of the Church of
England, the Lords Spiritual. The Law Lords and the Lords Spiritual are the
ancient non-hereditary component of the Lords.
There are over 1,000 members of the House of Lords. They are an unelected
group of people who have either inherited their seats or have been given them by
the Government. Their seats are between the Throne and the Government benches,
facing the Opposition benches. They are Lords Spiritual and Lords Temporal.
Lords Spiritual are the archbishops and bishops of the Church of England. There
are 2 archbishops (the Archbishops of Canterbury and York) and 24 senior
bishops. Their seats are between the Throne and the Government benches, facing
the Opposition benches. The Lords Temporal are Hereditary peers, Law Lords and
Life peers and peeresses. Hereditary peers constitute the largest class - about 800
members. There are 5 ranks in the peerage: Dukes, Marquesses, Earls, Viscounts
and Barons. All peers, whatever their rank, have the same rights in the House of
Lords. Law Lords are distinguished judges created peers for life (life peers) to
assist the House of Lords in the performance of its judicial duties as the highest
court of the land. Life peers and peeresses receive their peerage as a reward for
service, and their children do not inherit the title.
The House is presided over by the Lord Chancellor, the senior law officer of the
state. The Lord Chancellor is responsible for the administration of justice and is
also an automatic member of the Cabinet.
The House of Lords shares in the making of laws, the examination of the
Government's work and in debating important matters of the day. The main work
of the House of Lords consists in considering the bills in committee and in making
amendments. But the chamber is not as powerful as the House of Commons. It can
suggest changes in laws, but it is restricted to laws that have nothing to do with the
finance of the country (for example, it cannot suggest any changes to the Budget,
the annual statement of the Government's financial plans). The House of Lords
cannot reject laws that the House of Commons wants to pass, though it can amend
them. Even then, the Commons can reject these amendments. The main function of
the House of Lords is legislation, i.e. reviewing and giving further consideration to
Bills sponsored by the Government. Another function of the House of Lords is
examining the work of the Government by debate. The work of this House also
includes examining European proposals. In addition to its parliamentary duties, the
House has important legal functions, e.g. hearing legal appeals. It is the final court
of appeal for civil cases in the whole of the United Kingdom, and for criminal
cases in England, Wales and Northern Ireland.
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A large number of peers support the Conservative Party than the other
parties. Those peers who support Labour or the Liberal Democrats are together
almost the same in number as the Conservatives.
Peers, of whatever party loyalty, are far freer to vote according to their own
convictions, rather than party policy, than are members of the Commons.
Answer the following questions:
1. Why was the Chamber of the House of Commons made too small?
2. How many times a week does the House of Commons meet?
3. Which House may a bill be introduced in?
4. What sorts of Lords are in the House of Lords?
5. Who constitutes the largest class in the House of Lords?
6. What are the judicial duties of the House of Lords?
Лекция № 6. The British Constitution.
I. Basic Documents of the British Uncodified Constitution.
II. The leading principles to the British Constitution.
I. Basic Documents of the British Uncodified Constitution. The British
Constitution is unwritten in one single document. Unlike many other nations, the
UK has no single core constitutional document. The British Constitution is referred
to as an uncodified constitution in the sense that there is no single document that
can be classed as Britain's constitution.
The British constitution comprises multiple documents. The written part
consists of the Magna Carta, written in 1215; the Petition of Right, passed by
Parliament in 1628; Habeas Corpus Act of 1679, and the Bill of Rights of 1689. It
also includes the entire body of laws enacted by Parliament, precedents established
by decisions made in British court of law, and various traditions and customs. The
democratically elected House of Commons can alter these laws with a majority
vote. The constitution continually evolves as new laws are passes and judicial
decisions are handed down. All laws passed by Parliament are regarded as
constitutional, and changes or amendments to the constitution occur whenever new
legislation overrides existing law. Although the Crown gives its royal assent to
legislation, this is a mere formality.
Magna Carta is a famous document in English history agreed upon in 1215
by King John and the barons, which set certain limits on royal power and which
was later regarded as a law stating basic civil rights.
The Petition of Right is a major English constitutional document that sets
out specific liberties of the subject that the king is prohibited from infringing.
Passed on 7 June 1628, the Petition contains restrictions on non-Parliamentary
taxation, forced billeting of soldiers, imprisonment without cause, and restricts the
use of martial law.
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Habeas Corpus Act is a law passed in 1679. This ancient prerogative writ is
a procedural device to force the courts to examine the lawfulness of a prisoner's
detention. It guarantees to a person arrested the right to appear in court of justice so
that the jury should decide whether he or she is guilty or not guilty.
Today Britain is defined as a constitutional monarchy without a written
constitution. The Bill of Rights of 1689 was the first legal step towards the
constitutional monarchy. A constitutional monarch is one who can rule only with
the support of Parliament. This Bill prevented the monarch from making laws or
raising an army without Parliament’s approval. Since 1689 the power of
Parliament has grown steadily, while the power of the monarch has weakened.
II. The leading principles to the British Constitution.
a) There are two basic principles to the British Constitution: The Rule of
Law and The Supremacy of Parliament.
The Rule of Law involves:
- The rights of individuals are determined by legal rules and not the arbitrary
behaviour of authorities.
- There can be no punishment unless a court decides there has been a breach of
law.
- Everyone, regardless of your position in society, is subject to the law.
The Supremacy of Parliament is a dominant theme in British Politics.
Parliament can pass, repeal and alter any of Britain’s laws. This is one of the major
powers that a government has.
b) Three Branches of Government.
Power in GB is divided among 3 branches: the legislative branch, the
executive branch and the judicial branch.
The legislative branch is represented by Parliament, which consists of two
chambers, or Houses: the House of Lords and the House of Commons.
The executive branch is headed by the Prime Minister, who is appointed by
the King or Queen. According to the tradition the Prime Minister is the leader of
the party that has won the elections and has the majority in the House of
Commons. The Prime Minister appoints the ministers to compose the government.
After that the newly appointed ministers are presented to the monarch for the
formal approval. The most important ministers of government (about 20) form the
Cabinet. Members of the Cabinet make joint decisions or advise the Prime
Minister.
The main function of the executive branch of the government is to
administer the laws (to see to it that the laws are carried out, actually to rule the
country).
The judicial branch interprets the laws.
The highest judicial body is the Supreme Court of Judicature, which consists
of two divisions: the High Court of Justice and the Court of Appeal. It is often said
that English law is superior to the law of most other countries. Indeed, the English
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judicial system contains many rules which protect the individual against arbitrary
action by the police and the government.
Answer the following questions.
1. Why is the British Constitution referred to as ‘an uncodified constitution’?
2. What are the historical documents which the British Constitution comprises?
3. What document was the first legal step towards the constitutional monarchy?
4. What are the leading principles to the British Constitution?
5. What are the three branches of government?
Лекция № 7. The British Government.
I. General information.
II. The Prime Minister
III. The Cabinet.
IV. Ministers.
V. Ways of Restriction of Government’s power.
I. General information.
The modern government is arranged in about 15 departments, each with its
ministerial head, normally entitled, for example, ‘Secretary of State for Social
Services’. The number of departments change from time to time, as they are split
or joined together. Normally, all the heads of departments are members of the
House of Commons, though sometimes one is in the House of Lords.
Her Majesty’s Government is the body of ministers responsible for the
administration of national affairs. The ministers are appointed by the Crown on the
recommendation of the Prime Minister, who is appointed directly by the Crown
and is the leader of the party which secured a majority of seats in the House of
Commons as a result of a general election.
II. The Prime Minister
The office of the Prime Minister dates from the 18th century and is the
subject of a number of constitutional conventions. The Prime Minister is the head
of the Government. By convention he always sits in the House of Commons. The
Prime Minister is also, by tradition, First Lord of the Treasury and Minister for
Civil Service. He consults and advises the monarch on Government business,
supervises the work of the ministries and departments and is the principal
spokesman for the Government in the House of Commons. He also makes
recommendations to the Monarch on many important public appointments,
including the Lord Chief Justice, Lords of Appeal in Ordinary, and Lords Justices
of Appeal. The Prime Minister’s unique position of authority derives from majority
support in Parliament and from the power to choose ministers and to obtain their
resignation or dismissal individually.
III. The Cabinet.
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The nucleus of Government is the Cabinet. It was originally a small body of
royal advisers, a committee of the Privy Council. Until the 18 th century the Privy
Council was the chief source of executive power in the state. As the system of
cabinet government developed, however, the Privy Council declined in
importance. The Privy Council is the body on whose advice and through which the
Monarch exercises most statutory and many prerogative powers. There are about
330 members of the Privy Council. All cabinet ministers are Privy Councellors;
other members are appointed by the Monarch on the recommendation of the Prime
Minister.
The Cabinet is the executive organ of government. It is a body of senior
ministers selected by the Prime Minister, most of them are heads of departments.
Each new Prime Minister may make changes in the size of his Cabinet. The
Cabinet consists of the 16 to 24 senior ministers whom the Prime Minister has
appointed as members of it.
It is the most important body in the British system of government since it is
the Cabinet that formulates the policy of the Government. The Cabinet makes the
main decisions about government policy. (There are many Cabinet committees,
some permanent and meeting regularly, others set up to deal with special problems.
Each of these committees includes ministers from relevant departments. The Prime
Minister decides who is to be in each committee, what each one has to do, and
what matters are included in the full Cabinet’s agenda).
The Cabinet and its committees work in great secrecy – its agenda and
proceedings are secret; no vote is taken, and collective responsibility is assumed
for all decisions taken.
British Government is often referred to as ‘Cabinet Government’. The
Cabinet meets about once a week in Number 10 Downing Street, the official
residence of the Prime Minister.
IV. Ministers.
The central government ministries and departments give effect to
government policies and have powers and duties conferred on them by legislation,
and sometimes, under the Royal Prerogative. Each is headed by a minister who is
in most cases a member of either the House of Lords or the House of Commons.
There are over 100 ministers of the crown at the present time; they include
- departmental ministers
- non-departmental ministers,
- ministers of state,
- and junior ministers.
Departmental ministers (e.g., the Secretary of State for Foreign and
Commonwealth affairs, Chancellor of the Exchequer, Secretary of State for Social
Services) are those in charge of governmental departments, they are usually
members of the Cabinet.
Non-departmental ministers (e.g., Lord President of the Privy Council, Lord
Privy Seal, Ministers without Portfolio) are the holders of various traditional
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offices; they may have few or no departmental duties and are therefore available to
perform any special duties the Prime Minister gives them.
Ministers of State are additional ministers in departments who usually work
with the departmental ministers and are responsible for specific functions.
Junior ministers (usually known as Parliamentary Secretary or Parliamentary
Under-Secretary) work in all ministries and departments and share in
parliamentary and departmental duties.
The Lord Chancellor and the Law Officers of the Crown deserve special
mentioning. The Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain presides over the House of
Lords both in legislative capacity and as a final court of appeal; he is a member of
the Cabinet and also has departmental responsibilities in connection with the
appointment of certain judges. The 4 Law Officers of the Crown represent the
Crown in civil litigation, prosecute in certain exceptionally important criminal
cases and advise government on points of law.
The main government departments include:
- Treasury (responsible for public and expenditure),
- Ministry of Defense (defense policy and armed forces),
- the Lord Chancellor’s Office (administration of the courts and the law),
- Foreign Office (conduct of British overseas relations),
- Home Office (administration of law and order including criminal justice,
police service and prisons).
The UK has no Ministry of Justice. Responsibility for the administration of the
judicial system in England and Wales is divided between the courts themselves, the
Lord Chancellor and the Home Secretary.
V. Ways of Restriction of Government’s power.
Britain does not have a written constitution, or set of rules, that the Government
must obey. Theoretically, the Government has almost unlimited power. However,
it can be made to account for its actions. The Prime Minister is also accountable,
and twice a week is subjected to detailed questioning in the House of Commons.
There are other ways in which the Government’s power is restricted by what is
called checks and balances via:
a) The second chamber. One of the functions of the house of Lords is to look at
what the house of Commons has done and suggest a different way of approaching
problems.
b) Public opinion. This is a very powerful force. The Government finds out what
the public is thinking through the MPs (who listen to their constituents), from byelections, from public opinion polls and from the media. People also go to
Westminster to lobby their MPs: to attempt to influence them with their opinion.
The word “lobby” comes from the name of the parts of the Houses of Parliament –
the lobbies – where people have to wait to speak to their MP. In a democracy,
however, the real test of popularity what happens to party candidate during an
election.
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c) The monarch. Although the Keen or Queen hardly has a power, the monarch
does have great influence. Queen Elizabeth is known to be concerned about certain
kinds of issue, for example, maintaining the Commonwealth. Her views on a
subject can affect the way the Prime Minister acts.
d) Top civil servants. These people who administer the country on behalf of the
Government have no power but great influence because of their experience.
Indirect influences are very important in affecting the way the Government
behaves, and are in some ways as important as the more direct influences of power.
The British Government is commonly referred to as ‘Whitehall’, which is
connected with the site of the old departments.
Answer the following questions.
1. Who appoints the Prime Minister?
2. Why is the Prime Minister First Lord of the Treasure and Minister for
Civil service?
3. How has the Cabinet Changed since the 18th century?
4. Why do you think British government referred to as “Cabinet
Government”?
5. Whom is each ministry or department headed by?
6. Can you name ministers of the United Kingdom and their duties?
7. How is the Government prevented from becoming too powerful in the
UK?
Лекция № 8. Elections and the Election Procedure.
I. The Rules.
II. The Election Procedure.
III. How Elections Work.
I. The Rules. The foundations of the electoral system were laid in the Middle
Ages. Since then numerous Acts of Parliament have modified the system, but
never in a systematic way. Fundamentally the system still has its ancient form,
with each community electing (now) one representative to serve as its Member of
Parliament (MP) until the next general election.
The country is divided into 651 constituencies and each constituency elects
one member of the House of Commons. The franchise (right to vote) became
universal for men by stages in the 19th century; hence the rise of the Labour Party.
Women’s suffrage came in 2 stages (1918 and 1928), and in 1970 the minimum
voting age was reduced to 18. So everyone over 18 has the right to vote, except
criminals and certified lunatics. Members of the House of Lords are not allowed to
vote either. Voting is not compulsory, but in the autumn of each year every
householder is obliged by law to enter on the register of electors the name of every
resident who is over 17 and a UK citizen.
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There are two types of parliamentary election: a general election and a byelection. A general election may be called by the Government at any time but must
be within 5 years of the previous one. If an MP dies, retires or resigns his or her
seat between general elections, a by-election is held to replace him (her).
The maximum legal life for a Parliament is 5 years. A general election is
held either when the limit for the duration of Parliament has been reached, or when
the Queen, on the advice of the Prime Minister, dissolves Parliament. The Prime
Minister is bound to do this if his (her) Ministry is defeated on an important issue
by the vote of the House of Commons.
II. The Election Procedure.
When it is decided to hold a general election, the Old Parliament is dissolved
and 20 clear days must elapse before the new Parliament meets. A notice, or writ,
has to be sent to each constituency, where the Returning Officer makes provisions
for the holding of the election. Approximately 3 weeks before the day of the
election, people in each area receive brochures from each political party, giving
details of their policies. People also receive an official polling card to stop people
voting more than once. On the election day, the voters go to the polling stations
and tell the clerks their names and addresses. This is checked against the electoral
register, and the voter is given a ballot paper containing a list of all the candidates
in that area. The voter marks the paper in private. The paper then goes into a sealed
ballot box. When the polling station is closed, all the boxes are taken to one central
point, usually a townhall, and opened. This happens in all 651 constituencies. After
all the votes have been counted in each constituency, the Returning Officer
announces the results.
According to this system, the candidate who gets most votes in a particular
constituency wins the seat in Parliament. It does not matter whether the winning
candidate gets 20% or 70% of the total votes, provided he (she) gets at least one
more vote than each of the other candidates. The party that wins the greatest
number of seats in Parliament takes the power.
III. How Elections Work. Voting takes place in all 651 constituency on one day.
The Prime Minister can choose the date of an election, with only 3 or 4 weeks’
notice, at any time that seems favorable, up to 5 years and no more.
Until 1918 the Conservatives (Tories) and Liberals (formerly Whigs) took
turns at holding power, then Conservatives and Labour. The Labour party, formed
in 1900 in alliance with the Liberals, replaced them as the second major party after
1918.
The most important effect of the electoral system, with each seat won by the
candidate with most votes, has been to sustain the dominance of two main rival
parties, and only two. One forms the Government, the other the Opposition, hoping
to change places after the next general election.
At an election the people choose ‘a Parliament’ for five years and no more;
(but only one Parliament, so defined, has lasted its full 5 years since 1945).
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The two-party system which the essential feature of modern British
government is a product of the electoral system, rather than a reflection of the
wishes of the people. Both Conservatives and Labour claim that the existing
electoral system, which sustains the two-party dominance, is better than any other,
and their objective arguments for it are the following:
First, all the people of each constituency have one MP to represent them and
their interests.
Second, the system gives the people a clear choice between two alternative
seats of leaders and policies.
Third, it gives stable government for up to 5 years at a time.
Fourth, because any person with realistic political ambitions must join one
of the two main parties, each party includes a wide range of attitudes.
Therefore, fifth, each party’s programme, being a compromise, is likely to
avoid extremes – and a Government knows that within 5 years of taking power it
must again face the judgment of the voters.
There are few parliamentary democracies with this method of choosing a winner.
Critics say it is unfair, because the proportion of seats which a party holds does not
reflect the proportion of voters which that party received in the nation as a whole.
To counteract this, the Liberal Democrats want to introduce a new system called
Proportional Representation. In this system, the number of MPs representing each
party is in proportion to the number of votes that the party received in the whole
country. The existing system benefits the leading parties and discriminates against
the smaller parties. Some argue that this keeps radical parties at bay.
Answer the questions.
1. Who has the right to vote in the United Kingdom?
2. Is voting compulsory in the United Kingdom?
3. Who is not allowed to vote?
4. How do you understand the difference between a general election and a byelection?
5. When is a general election held?
6. What are the duties of the Returning Officer?
Лекция № 9. Local Government.
I. Functions of Local government.
II. The major types of local authority and history of their development.
III. The major services of local councils.
IV. System of local governments in separate areas.
V. Councilors and their functions.
I. Functions of Local government. There is no constitutional divisions between
the central government and local government in Britain as there is in the United
States between the federal government and state and local government bodies.
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Local government is a system of providing, operating and maintaining the
majority of public services people use in their everyday life. The UK is divided
into areas, each run by a local council. There are the administrative centers of local
government; together they employ about 2 million people. The services they
provide include most things that make communal life possible, such as education,
social services, libraries, town planning, parks, traffic, refuse, consumer protection,
police, fire, airports, housing, environmental health, cemeteries, theaters and
cinemas. Local councils (or authorities) have 2 types of functions: compulsory and
permissive. The majority of functions are compulsory, e.g. providing schools and
teachers. Providing a town museum, however, is something many local authorities
can do if they want to, but they are not forced to do it by law.
II. The major types of local authority and history of their development. The
three major types of local authority date back to the 15 th century. They are: the
parish (the area served by a local church), the shire (or the county) and boroughs
(areas of high population which had special rights given originally by the
Monarch). Each of these areas had different functions; they all provided some
public services but there were wide variations between them.
It was not until the 19th century that a standard structure began to develop.
All the local authorities began to provide such things as water, schools, housing
and hospitals. But the system became inadequate. At the beginning of the 19th
century, the growth of industry brought huge numbers of people from the country
to the towns and cities. The local authorities could not cope with the new problems
of poverty, disease, crime and inadequate drains and water supplies. In 1845 only 6
of the 50 large towns in England and Wales had a pure water supply and none had
a good drainage system. Cholera was a real danger.
Various laws were passed in Parliament to try and improve the standard of
services and, at the same time, to make the system fair, e.g., the Public Health Act
of 1848 and the Education Act of 1870, which set up special boards to run health
and education services. In 1888 the Local Government Act created county councils
with members elected by the public. The London County Council was set up for
the capital and elected urban district councils and rural district councils were
created.
Over the next 40 years local authorities were given greater powers, including
responsibility for the police and housing.
III. The major services of local councils. In the 20th century advances in transport
and communications made many of the original local government boundaries
meaningless. Local authorities of the same type now had widely differing numbers
of people living within them. It resulted in the changes of the local government
structure. The most radical reorganization, however, did not come until the 1970s.
Several counties were created and the number of counties in England and Wales
was reduced.
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At present, despite attempts to standardize the system, the structure of local
government still varies from one part of the country to another, reflecting the
numerous historical development the system has gone through. In Wales and
England, except London and 6 large cities, local government operates at 2 levels,
called county councils and district councils. (Northern Ireland and Scotland have
their own systems, although the differences are superficial).
County councils provide major services, such as schools, social services,
planning at county level, controlling highways and traffic, organizing rubbish
disposal, the police and the fire brigade – all functions that cover large areas or
need substantial amounts of money. District councils provide services that cover a
smaller area, where local knowledge and control are important. They include
housing, rubbish collection, sport facilities, local planning and public health. The
functions of a borough council are exactly the same as those of a district council.
Parish councils have limited functions. What they do is a matter of local
arrangement and convention between the parish and the district. Parish councils are
only involved in small scale local activities, as they have very small budgets.
IV. System of local governments in separate areas. The system in the larger
cities is different. London consists of 32 units called boroughs, and a special area
called the City of London which covers the area of London within its ancient
boundaries and is independent unit. Most of the London boroughs have a
population of between 150 000 and 300 000 people and their councils run all the
services in the area. A few services, such as transport and the police, are excluded,
as they concern the whole of the capital city. 6 large cities of England –
Birmingham, Leeds, Liverpool, Manchester, New Castle and Sheffield – have
similar systems.
When the structure of local government in England and Wales changed in
1972, areas which had historically been called boroughs wanted to preserve their
privileges, which had been given to them centuries ago by Royalty, e.g., to have
mayors who perform ceremonial duties. But the functions of a borough council are
exactly the same as those of a district council.
Local government in Northern Ireland is a special case. Most major services,
such as education and health, have been transferred to either central government
agencies or 9 area boards. There are also 26 district councils which collect rubbish
and provide recreation facilities, such as sports halls. They also set the rate of local
taxes and collect them.
V. Councilors and their functions. Local authorities are independent
administrative bodies created by and carrying out duties given by Parliament in
Westminster. Parliament can exercise its own power over local government. It can
even abolish a particular authority if it wants to. The Minister with prime
responsibility for local government is the Secretary of State for the Environment.
However, there is no detailed supervision at the local level.
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Councils consist of elected members called councilors, who work
voluntarily, and are elected for four-year terms. County councils consist of a
chairman and vice chairman plus a number of county councillors, who are elected
by the people. The system is the same in London where the mayor and councillors
are elected. Council officers are paid local government officials who are appointed
by the authority to run the authority on a day-to-day basis.
Any British subject who is at least 18 years old and who is eligible to vote
nationally can vote at a local election, to choose the people who will be councillors
for the area.
Councilors are ordinary citizens who devote part of their time to the services
of local authorities. They do not draw salaries but can be paid allowances for loss
of working time and to cover travelling and subsistence. A candidate for election to
sit on a council must be over 21 and must fulfill various criteria, such as being an
elector in the area. Because they are not paid, councillors are frequently people
with the time and money to devote themselves to council work. A criticism of the
system is that they may not be representative of the whole community.
A councilor’s primary function is the control of council affairs, making key
decisions and monitoring progress. They also have to watch the work of council
officers to ensure that agreed policy is carried out, that local tax payers have value
for money, and that there is no waste or dishonesty.
Different local authorities have different needs and some areas may be more
expensive to run than others. In the inner cities, e.g., education and policing costs
may be high, but in the country it may be more expensive to collect rubbish,
because the houses are less accessible.
The government assesses how much it costs to provide a standard level of
service in each area. Then it sees how much the local authority can raise from the
people who live in the area, through local taxes.
Another source of income is from a tax on businesses, called business
rates. This is collected by all the local authorities and paid into a central fund. The
money is then paid out again to all local authorities. Rich boroughs may get back
less than they paid in.
Answer the questions.
1. What is local government?
2. Could you name compulsory and permissive functions of local government?
3. Has the structure of local government changed over the last centuries? Why?
4. Why does the structure of local government differ from one part of the United
Kingdom to another?
5. How does local government operate in Wales and England?
6. How is local government funded? List the main sources for local government
funding.
7. How can Parliament exercise its own power over local government?
Лекция № 10. British Judicial System.
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I. Main principles of British law.
II. Legal Professionals.
III. Types of Courts and Legal Proceedings.
-
I. Main principles of British law. The 1st thing to notice is that there is no civil
code and no criminal code. The law as a whole consists partly of statutes, or Acts
of Parliament, and partly of common law which may be said to be made up of past
decisions of judges.
Britain has a long judicial history. Its legal system has been emulated throughout
the world and many of its key principles and rights are part of U.S. law. The
principles derived from British law include
the right to trial by jury;
the right (to) due to process of law;
freedom from unlawful imprisonment, called the writ of habeas corpus;
the trial system of prosecution and defense;
and the presumption that a person is innocent until proven guilty.
The judicial system has its roots in the Anglo-Saxon period, when the
monarch established local courts to provide justice for all subjects. Monarchs
delegated the power to hear cases to royal justices, who presided over courts in the
monarch’s name. The British legal system relies on common law, which is based
on custom and on decisions in previous legal cases, called precedents. Common
law originated in the 12th century, growing out of the rules and tradition that
ordinary people had worked out over time. Through the centuries common law
evolved as it incorporated legal decisions made in specific cases, and it remains the
basis of British law except when superseded by legislation. Unlike the United
States, Britain does not have a Supreme Court that reviews legislation to determine
its constitutionality; that responsibility falls to Parliament.
II. Legal Professionals. Those who practice law in Britain are divided into
solicitors and barristers. Solicitors perform the everyday work of the law,
particularly legal matters that can be handled solely with paperwork. Barristers
plead cases in court. In Scotland barristers are called advocates. Solicitors engage
barristers when they believe a client needs to go to court. Eminent barristers and,
since 1996, some solicitors, may become Queen’s Counselors, or QCs. When they
do, it is said they ‘take silk’, because they switch from wearing cotton gowns to
silk gowns in court. Barristers with long and distinguished careers may be chosen
to become Crown judges by the Lord Chancellor, the head of the Judicial system in
England and Wales. England and Wales have a single system of law and courts.
Scotland and Northern Ireland have their own legal systems.
III. Types of Courts and Legal Proceedings. Britain has several layers of courts
and two kinds of legal proceedings, criminal and civil. Criminal law is concerned
with acts punishable by the state, such as murder. Civil law involves disputes
between private parties, either individuals, organizations, or companies. The final
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court of appeal for both civil and criminal cases is the House of Lords, where
appeals are heard by the Law Lords.
Criminal cases are handled in one or two ways. Petty offenses, such as
simple theft or vandalism, are brought before a local magistrate, or Justice of the
Peace (JP). These unpaid magistrates are appointed by the Lord Chancellor. They
are members of the community who are assisted by legal experts. The vast
majority of criminal cases in Britain are minor enough to be handled by JPs. More
serious criminal offences, such as murder, rape, and robbery, are sent to a Crown
Court, where they are tried before a High Court or a circuit judge and a jury of
local citizens. The Crown Court also hear appeals from the magistrate’s court.
Convictions and sentences from the Crown Court may be taken to the Court of
Appeals for the Criminal Division. The final court of appeals is the House of
Lords.
Civil cases are heard in county courts before a single judge. County courts
hear cases dealing with families, property, contracts, and torts (violations of a legal
duty imposed by the state that cause injury to an individual). Above the county
courts is the High Court, which hears more complicated civil cases. High Court
cases are sent to one of three divisions:
- the Family Division, which handles complex divorce cases, adoptions, and
materials relating to children;
- the Chancery Division, which handles business matters and estate cases;
- or the Queen’s Bench Division, which handles property matters and torts, as well
as maritime and commercial cases. Appeals are heard by the Court of Appeals for
the Civil Division, and ultimately by the House of Lords.
A more informal and less expensive alternative to civil and criminal courts is
a tribunal, which handles minor cases outside of the official court system.
Tribunals are made up of lay people and are regulated by the law. They settle
disputes between private citizens, grievances between employers and employees,
and complaints between citizens and public authorities.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Answer the questions.
Do England and Wales have civil and criminal codes?
Who are solicitors and who are barristers?
What are the two kinds of legal proceedings?
What is criminal law concerned with?
What does civil law deal with?
What is the final court of appeal for criminal and civil cases?
Лекция № 11. System of Political Parties.
I. The Conservative party.
II. The Labour party.
III. The Liberal party.
IV. Other parties.
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I. The Conservative party. The main parties in the UK are the Conservative party
(right wing), the Labour party (left wing) and the Liberal Democrats (center). The
Conservative and Liberal parties are the oldest, and until the last years of the 19 th
century they were the only parties elected to the House of Commons. Once
working-class men were given the vote, however, Socialist MPs were elected, but
it was not until 1945 that the UK had its first Labour Government. At this election
the number of Liberal MPs was greatly reduced and since then Governments have
been formed by either the Labour or the Conservative party. Usually they have had
clear majorities – that is, one party has had more MPs than all the others combined.
The Conservative party goes back to the Tories, or Royalists, who originated
in the reign of King Charles II (1660-1685). The Tories were the party that
supported Church and King. The other main party at the time was the Whigs, who
were a group eager for political reform. The Tory party gave way to its successor,
the Conservative party, in around 1830. The Conservative party believes in free
enterprise and the importance of the capitalist economy, with private ownership
preferred to state control. It can broadly be described as the party of the middle and
upper classes although it does receive some working class support. Most of its
voters live in rural areas, small towns and the suburbs of large cities. Much of its
financial support comes from large industrial companies.
II. The Labour party. The Labour party, on the other hand, has always had strong
links with the trade unions. In 1899, the Trade Union Congress summoned a
special conference of trade unions and socialist bodies to make plans to represent
Labour in Parliament. The proposal for such a meeting had come from Thomas
Steels, a member of the Independent Labour party which had been formed in 1893.
The conference met in February 1900 in London and has always been looked at as
the foundation of the Labour party. However, the name ‘Labour party’ was not
adopted until 1906. The Labour party believes that private ownership and
enterprise should be allowed to flourish, but not at the expense of their traditional
support of the public services. While many Labour voters are middle-class of
intellectuals, the traditional Labour party support is still strongest in industrial
areas. It receives financial support from the trade unions.
III. The Liberal party. There has been a Liberal party in Great Britain since 1868
when the name was adopted by the Whig party. The Whig party was created after
the revolution of 1688 and aimed to subordinate power of the Crown to that of
Parliament and the upper classes. In 1981 a second center party was created by 24
Labour MPs. It was called the Social Democratic party, and soon formed an
alliance with the Liberal party. They formed a single party which became the
Liberal Democrats after the 1987 election. The Liberal Democrats and other small
minority parties in the House of Commons would like to change the electoral
system; they want MPs to be elected by proportional representation. Under this
system, the number of MPs from each party would correspond to the total number
of votes each party receives in the election. The Liberal Democrats believe that the
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state should have some control over the economy, but that there should also be
individual ownership.
IV. Other political parties. There are other political parties within the UK. The
Green party offers economic and industrial policies that relate directly to the
environment. The Scottish Nationalist party wants independence for Scotland
within the European Community. Plaid Cymru, the Welsh Nationalist party, is
determined to preserve the Welsh language and culture as the foundation of a
distinctive Welsh identity within the UK. Its radical wing has resorted to arson
attempts as a means of protest. The Protestant community in Northern Ireland is
represented at Westminster by MPs who are in favour of the maintenance of
Northern Ireland as part of the UK. They belong to the Ulster Democratic Unionist
party. The Catholic minority are represented by the Social Democratic Labour
party. Provisional Sinn Fein is the political wing of the Irish Republican Army (the
IRA), that campaigns openly, sometimes by force, for the withdrawal of British
troops from Northern Ireland.
A party’s political philosophy dictates what its politicians intend to do if
they are elected to government. The document that describes these policies is
called a manifesto, and gives a general statement of that party’s objectives. If the
party comes to power, the manifesto becomes a set of rules and instructions for
how that party should behave.
There are many influences that affect the way a party thinks. The
Conservative party tends to listen to people in business and in the financial
markets, whereas the Labour party will listen more to what the Trade Unions are
saying. A newer kind of influence is a think-tank. This is a group of people who
work out policy for a particular party. The Institute of Economic Affairs and the
Center for Policy Studies are two influential Conservative think-tanks. The Fabian
society is a great influence in the Labour party. A new left-wing think-tank is
called the Institute for Public Policy Research. The greatest influence on policy,
though, is public opinion. All political parties want to be popular in order to be
elected to government. As they all try to please the public, it can sometimes be
difficult to see the difference between the parties.
Answer the following questions:
1. What is the nickname of the Conservative Party?
2.What is the nickname of the Liberal Party?
3.What is the background of the Labour party?
4.What may influence its policies?
5. What other parties are represented in British political life?
Лекция № 12. Religion in Great Britain.
I. Religion.
II. The Established Churches.
III. Other Churches.
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IV. Other Religious Groups.
I. Religion. There is complete religious freedom, and anyone may belong to any
religious faith that he chooses or to none at all. As in many European countries
today, the majority of the population in Britain does not regularly attend religious
services, yet nearly all faiths have devoted congregations of active members. An
increasing percentage of the population profess no religious faith and some
organizations represent secular outlooks. Estimating membership is difficult
because congregations count their members differently, and government figures
rely upon the numbers provided by the different groups.
In the past religion was often deeply entwined with politics. The only place
this is still true in the United Kingdom is in Northern Ireland, where two
communities use religious designations to express different, and hostile, political
agendas. Protestants, largely descendants of Scottish and English settlers, are
interested in maintaining their union with Britain, while Roman Catholics, a
minority of around 40 percent, campaign strongly for union with Ireland.
II. The Established Churches. The United Kingdom has two established
churches: the Church of England and the Church of Scotland. An established
church is the legally recognized official church of the state. The Church of England
also called the Anglican Church, is a Protestant Episcopal church. It is the parent
body of churches belonging to the Anglican Communion, which includes the
Episcopal Church of the United States. The Church in Wales and the Church of
Ireland, once members of the Church of England, belong to the Anglican
Communion but are not the official churches of their states.
The Church of England claims to be an apostolic church, meaning it traces a
direct line of bishops back to the 12 apostles of Jesus. Anglicans also speak of
themselves as a catholic, or universal, church, with a lowercase c, meaning that
their beliefs are intended for humankind as a whole. Since its inception in the 16 th
century, the Church of England has debated how close its practices should be to
those of Roman Catholic Church. The history of the Church of England is marked
by the division between High Church, with practices that favor Roman
Catholicism, and Low Church, with practices that are more Protestant. In the last
quarter of the 20th century, the Anglican Church was involved in a serious
controversy over the ordination of women, which it finally allowed in 1992, and in
1994 the first women ordained as priests in the Anglican Church. This action
caused many Anglican clerics and lay people to convert to Roman Catholicism.
The British monarch, who must be a member of the Anglican Church, holds
the title of Supreme Governor of the Church of England and Defender of the faith.
The monarch appoints archbishops and bishops upon the advice of the Prime
Minister, who consults a commission that includes both lay people and clergy. The
two archbishops of Canterbury and York, and 24 senior bishops have seats in the
House of Lords, but rarely go there. When the Lords debate a moral or social issue
at least one bishop normally speaks, expressing a Christian rather than a party
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point of view. The bishops have been on the “liberal” side on issues such as birth
control and abortion, and have vigorously opposed all racial discrimination.
The archbishop of Canterbury holds the title of Primate of All England;
another archbishop presides at York. Changes in church ritual can only be made
with the consent of Parliament.
About 45 percent of the British population is Anglican. A third of the
marriages in Britain are performed in the Anglican Church. Many members are
merely baptized, married, and buried in the church, but do not otherwise attend
services. More than a million people attend the Church of England on an average
Sunday.
The established church in Scotland is the Church of Scotland, which is
Presbyterian. The Presbyterian Church is governed by courts composed of
ministers and elders. The Church of Scotland is not subject to state control. It is the
principal religious group in Scotland and has about 715, 000 members. A number
of independent Scottish Presbyterian churches exist; these are largely descended
from groups that broke away from the Church of Scotland.
III. Other Churches. The Roman Catholic Church has an extensive formal
structure in Britain made up of provinces, dioceses, and local parishes. The
catholic Church has many orders – groups of ordained men and women, who
follow special religious rules – and maintains an extensive school system out of
public funds. One out of ten British citizens claims to be Roman Catholic.
A number of Protestant denominations are called Free Churches; in the past
they were called Nonconformist or Dissenting churches. The Methodist Church is
the largest of these and has about 1.2 million members. The Baptist Union of Great
Britain has more than 152, 000 members, and there are also Baptist Unions in
Scotland, Wales and Ireland. Free Presbyterian churches exist in England, Wales
and Scotland. The United Reformed Church, the third largest free church in the
United Kingdom, was formed in 1972 when the Presbyterian Church of England
merged with the Congregational Church in England and Wales. The Baptists and
the Salvation Army are also grouped under Free Churches.
Other Christian religious groups include Unitarians, Pentecostals, Quakers,
Christian Brethren, Eastern Orthodox, Lutherans, Jehovah’s Witnesses, Seventhday Adventists, Christian Scientists, and Mormons.
IV. Other Religious Groups. The United Kingdom guarantees its citizens
religious freedom without interference from the state or the community, and most
of the world’s religions have followers in Britain.
The Jewish community is declining. Some synagogues are rigidly orthodox,
some liberal. In 1988 the Chief Rabbi was given a peerage on the Prime Minister’s
recommendation.
Among the religions brought to Britain by people who have come from Asia,
Buddhism has had an attraction for some of the native British.
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There are now nearly a million Muslims in Britain, and the number is
increasing. The biggest and grandest new religious building of the 1970s is the
London Mosque, by the edge of Regent’s Park. Numerous Muslim schools have
been brought into the state educational system, on a basis similar to that of
Catholic schools.
There are also about 320,000 Hindus, 400,000 to 500,000 Sikhs, and
thousands of Jains and Buddhists. Newer religious movements and sects have also
flourished in Britain, including the Church of Scientology and the Unification
Church.
Television and radio give time for broadcasts of religious services. Some of
these are ecumenical, great occasions like the marriage of the Prince of Wales, and
the visit of Pope are watched with enthusiasm on television by many people.
Answer the questions.
1. What does the notion “complete religious freedom” imply?
2. What are the two communities in GB who use religious designations in political
life?
3.What church is called an established church?
4. What was the reason for a serious controversy in the Anglican Church in the last
quarter of the 20th century?
5. Who of the religious persons in GB have seats in the House of Lords?
6. What church belong to a Presbyterian church?
7. What church is also called an Anglican church?
8. What are other Christian churches and denominations in GB?
9.What other world religions are represented in GB?
Лекция № 13. The Media: The Press, Radio and Television.
I. The press.
1.1 The national newspapers.
1.2. Regional papers and news agency Reuters.
II. Radio and Television.
III. Government and the media.
I. The press.
1.1 The national newspapers. Britain's first newspapers appeared over 300 years
ago. Now, as then, newspapers receive no government subsidy, unlike in some
other European countries today. Advertising has always been a vital source of
income. As long ago as 1660, King Charles II advertised in a newspaper for his
lost dog. Today, income from advertising is as crucial as income from sales. In
1995, for example, £5,465 million was spent on press advertising, making the press
by far the largest advertising medium in Britain.
There are approximately 130 daily and Sunday papers, 1,400 weekly papers and
over 6,500 periodical publications.
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The national newspapers, both on weekdays and on Sundays, fall into two broad
categories: the 'popular' and 'quality' press.
Ownership of the press is in the hands of a few large publishing groups. The most
significant of these are News International, owned by the Australian-born press
tycoon Rupert Murdoch, and the Mirror Group.
In 1981 News International purchased The Times. It also acquired The Sunday
Times, and two popular papers, the Sun, a daily, and the News of the World, a
Sunday paper, both of which it successfully turned into the two largest circulation
newspapers. Thus News International owns the papers read by over one-third of
the newspaper-reading public. In 1989 it entered the television market by
launching a satellite television network, now known as BSkyB Television.
Private ownership affects the political viewpoint of most newspapers. Most
proprietors, or owners, are more sympathetic to a right of centre political
viewpoint. Until the 1990s it could be claimed that 70 per cent of the newspapers
sold supported a Conservative viewpoint. Among the populars, only the Daily and
Sunday Mirror, and the People, express a left of centre view, while among the
qualities The Guardian, and its sister Sunday paper, the Observer, reflect a
moderate left-of-centre view. The Independent and The Financial Times tend to be
left of centre on social issues while right of centre on economic ones, but would
prefer to be viewed as non-aligned.
All the popular papers, with the exception of the Sunday Express, are 'tabloid' in
format. The tabloids are essentially mass entertainment. They are smaller than the
other papers, and are distinguished by large illustrations, bold captions and a
sensational prose style. The tabloids' news content is minimal and their emphasis is
on gossip, emotion and scandal. By contrast quality newspapers, known as
'broadsheets' on account of their larger, rather cumbersome format, emphasize
news coverage, political and economic analysis and social and cultural issues.
1.2. Regional papers and news agency Reuters. Britain has a substantial number
of regional newspapers also. Of these the two Scottish ones, The Scotsman
(Edinburgh) and the Herald (Glasgow) are the most important, since they are also
national papers. They each sell about 750,000 copies daily. But others with a large
circulation include the Birmingham Evening Mail (200,000), the Wolverhampton
Express and Star (208,000), the Birmingham Sunday Mercury (145,000), and the
Leeds Yorkshire Post (75,000).
Britain's ethnic minority communities also produce their own papers, both in
English and in the vernacular languages. The oldest of these is the Jewish
Chronicle, founded in 1841. But there are Asian, Caribbean and even Arabic
newspapers published in Britain.
Finally, there are over 800 free newspapers, popularly known as 'freebies', almost
all of them weekly and financed entirely by advertising. They achieve a weekly
circulation of over 40 million. They function as local noticeboards, where local
events are advertised, and anyone can advertise in the 'for sale' or 'wanted'
columns.
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With almost 1,500 staff in 91 countries, no newspaper anywhere can compete with
Britain's formidable news agency, Reuters. Across the world its name has become
an assurance of objectivity, accuracy and reliability. Although run from London,
Reuters deliberately avoids any image of being a British institution with English
news values. As the day progresses, its world news file is edited from three
different cities, switching time zones from Hong Kong to London to New York. Its
reports are filed in French, German, Japanese, Arabic and Spanish, as well as
English. Reuters also owns Reuters Television (RTV), the largest international
television news agency in the world, providing news video to broadcasters in 89
countries.
II. Radio and Television. In 1936 the government established the British
Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) to provide a public service in radio. It also began
broadcasting that year on the recently invented television. At first solely through its
agency, television and radio changed the entertainment habits and the culture of the
nation. In 1955, however, the establishment of independent and commercial
television and radio removed the BBC's broadcasting monopoly.
In spite of its much reduced evening audience, BBC radio still provides an
important service. Its five radio stations (BBC Radio 1-5) provide: (1) non-stop
pop music; (2) light entertainment; (3) minority interests, e.g. classical music, arts
programmes and academic material (some for Open University courses); (4) news
and comment and discussion programmes; (5) sport. The BBC additionally runs 38
local radio stations, providing material of local interest.
Commercial radio offers three nationwide services: Classic FM, which broadcasts
mainly classical music; Virgin 1215, broadcasting popular music; and Talk Radio
UK, a speech-based service.
In addition there are 180 independent local radio stations which provide news,
information, music and other entertainment, coverage of local events, sports
commentary, chat shows and 'phone-in' programmes.
Television is the single most popular form of entertainment in Britain. In the mid1990s viewers spent on average over three and a half hours daily in front of the
television set. Until 1997 they had four terrestrial channels to choose from: BBC1
and BBC2, ITV (Independent Television) and Channel 4. Channel 4, which was
established in 1982, specialises in minority interest programmes, but has proved
highly successful. A third commercial channel, Channel 5, began broadcasting in
1997 and terrestrial broadcasting is likely to expand further. In 1996 legislation
provided for transition of all broadcasting and telecommunications services from
analogue frequency to digital transmission, probably early in the twenty-first
century. Satellite broadcasting has been available since 1989. The major provider
of satellite programmes is BSkyB. Cable television was introduced in 1993 and
currently has 1.3 million subscribers.
The strength of British television lies in its high quality. In the fields of
documentary, comedy and satire, or drama, British television is a world leader. The
reason lies in the quality of its innovation and its willingness to experiment.
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In 1990 the government passed the Broadcasting Act, which promised to change
the basis of television from 1992 onwards.
Ever since the beginning of the 1980s there has been growing anxiety concerning
pornographic and violent programmes. The Broadcasting Act provides for
increased censorship. Any policeman of superintendent rank or above may demand
access to any untransmitted material under the obscenity or public order laws. In
addition, the Broadcasting Standards Council, created in 1989, is empowered to
veto transmission of any programme it considers indecent.
III. Government and the media. The relationship between government and the
media is bound to be an uneasy one in any democracy. Governments are concerned
with maintaining their own authority. The media must watch the exercise of that
authority, and criticise when they feel it is wrongly used.
For over 50 years the British government has had an arrangement for the protection
of national security in the media. Its Defence, Press and Broadcasting Committee
has agreed that in some circumstances the publication of certain information might
endanger national security. In such cases a 'D (Defence) Notice' is issued. A D
Notice does not quite have the force of law, but no newspaper editor would ignore
a D Notice without incurring major penalties.
During the 1980s the government frequently tried to prevent discussion of sensitive
issues. In 1989 the new Official Secrets Act greatly strengthened the government's
ability to prevent disclosure of sensitive information. Any revelation of material
obtained in any unauthorised way from a government source would make a
journalist liable to prosecution. Not surprisingly, this provoked strong criticism
from journalists.
Answer the questions.
Make comparisons between the British media and the media in Kazakhstan.
1. Which newspapers are compared to the main British tabloids and
broadsheets?
2. To what extent are the newspapers, radio and television funded by
advertising?
3. Are there any limits to press freedom?
Лекция № 14. Education in Great Britain.
I. Primary and Secondary education.
1.1. System of Primary and Secondary education.
1.2. Examinations.
1.3. Academic Calendar.
II. Further and Higher education.
2.1 Further education.
2.2 Higher education.
2.3 University Degrees and specialist higher education institutions.
I. Primary and Secondary education.
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1.1 System of Primary and secondary education. Schooling is compulsory for
12 years, for all children aged five to 16. There are two voluntary years of
schooling thereafter. Children may attend either state-funded or fee-paying
independent schools. In England, Wales and Northern Ireland the primary cycle
lasts from five to 11. Generally speaking, children enter infant school, moving on
to junior school (often in the same building) at the age of seven, and then on to
secondary school at the age of 11. Roughly 90 per cent of children receive their
secondary education at 'comprehensive' schools. For those who wish to stay on,
secondary school can include the two final years of secondary education,
sometimes known in Britain (for historical reasons) as 'the sixth form'. In many
parts of the country, these two years are spent at a tertiary or sixth-form college,
which provides academic and vocational courses.
1.2. Examinations. Two public academic examinations are set, one on completion
of the compulsory cycle of education at the age of 16, and one on completion of
the two voluntary years. At 16 pupils take the General Certificate of Secondary
Education (GCSE), introduced in 1989 to replace two previous examinations, one
academic and the other indicating completion of secondary education. During the
two voluntary years of schooling, pupils specialise in two or three subjects and
take the General Certificate of Education (always known simply as 'GCE')
Advanced Level, or 'A level' examination, usually with a view to entry to a
university or other college of higher education. New examinations, Advanced
Supplementary (AS) levels, were introduced in 1989, to provide a wider range of
subjects to study, a recognition that English education has traditionally been overly
narrow.
A new qualification was introduced in 1992 for pupils who are skills, rather than
academically, orientated, the General National Vocational Qualification, known as
GNVQ. This examination is taken at three distinct levels: the Foundation which
has equivalent standing to low-grade passes in four subjects of GCSE; the
Intermediate GNVQ which is equivalent to high-grade passes in four subjects of
GCSE; and the Advanced GNVQ, equivalent to two passes at A level and
acceptable for university entrance.
1.3. Academic Calendar. The academic year begins in late summer, usually in
September, and is divided into three terms, with holidays for Christmas, Easter and
for the month of August, although the exact dates vary slightly from area to area.
In addition each term there is normally a mid-term one-week holiday, known as
'half-term'.
Scotland, with a separate education tradition, has a slightly different system.
Children stay in the primary cycle until the age of 12. They take the Scottish
Certificate of Education (SCE) usually at the age of 16 and, instead of A levels,
they take the Scottish Higher Certificate which is more like continental European
examinations since it covers a wider area of study than the highly specialised A
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level courses. Many take their 'Highers' aged 17 rather than 18, with some opting
to take a further examination later, the Certificate of Sixth Year Studies (CSYS).
II. Further and Higher education.
2.1 Further education. Further education has traditionally been characterised by
part-time vocational courses for those who leave school at the age of 16 but need to
acquire a skill, be that in the manual, technical or clerical field. In all, about three
million students enrol each year in part-time courses at further education (FE)
colleges, some released by their employers and a greater number unemployed. In
addition there have always been a much smaller proportion in full-time training.
Vocational training, most of which is conducted at the country's 550 further
education colleges is bound to be an important component.
2.2 Higher education. Higher education has also undergone a massive expansion.
In 1985 only 573,000, 16 per cent of young people, were enrolled in full-time
higher education. Ten years later the number was 1,150,000, no less than 30 per
cent of their age group.
This massive expansion was achieved by greatly enlarging access to undergraduate
courses, but also by authorising the old polytechnics to grant their own degree
awards, and also to rename themselves as universities. Thus there are today 90
universities, compared with 47 in 1990, and only seventeen in 1945. They fall into
five broad categories: the medieval English foundations, the medieval Scottish
ones, the nineteenth-century 'redbrick' ones, the twentieth-century 'plate-glass'
ones, and finally the previous polytechnics. They are all private institutions,
receiving direct grants from central government.
Oxford and Cambridge, founded in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries
respectively, are easily the most famous of Britain's universities. Today 'Oxbridge',
as the two together are known, educate less than one-twentieth of Britain's total
university student population. But they continue to attract many of the best brains
and to mesmerise an even greater number, partly on account of their prestige, but
also on account of the seductive beauty of many of their buildings and
surroundings.
Both universities grew gradually, as federations of independent colleges, most of
which were founded in the fourteenth, fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. In both
universities, however, new colleges are periodically established, for example
Green College, Oxford (1979) and Robinson College, Cambridge (1977).
Scotland boasts four ancient universities: Glasgow, Edinburgh, St Andrews and
Aberdeen, all founded in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. In the Scottish
lowlands greater value was placed on education during the sixteenth and later
centuries than in much of England. These universities were created with strong
links with the ancient universities of continental Europe, and followed their longer
and broader course of studies. Even today, Scottish universities provide four-year
undergraduate courses, compared with the usual three-year courses in England and
Wales.
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2.3 University Degrees and specialist higher education institutions. University
examinations are for Bachelor of Arts, or of Science (BA or BSc) on completion of
the undergraduate course, and Master of Arts or of Science (MA or MSc) on
completion of postgraduate work, usually a one- or two-year course involving
some original research. Some students continue to complete a three-year period of
original research for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD). The bachelor
degree is normally classed, with about 5 per cent normally gaining a First, about 30
per cent gaining an Upper Second, or 2.1, perhaps 40 per cent gaining a Lower
Second, or 2.2, and the balance getting either a Third, a Pass or failing.
Approximately 15 per cent fail to complete their degree course.
In addition there are a large number of specialist higher education institutions in
the realm of the performing and visual arts. For example, there are four leading
conservatories: the Royal Academy of Music, the Royal College of Music, Trinity
College of Music and the Royal Northern College of Music. There are a large
number of art colleges, of which the most famous is the Royal College of Art,
where both Henry Moore and David Hockney once studied. Other colleges cater
for dance, filmmaking and other specialist areas of artistic study.
In spite of the high fees, Britain's universities, FE colleges and English language
schools host a large number of foreign students, in 1996 there were no fewer than
158,000.
Today many university science and technology departments, for example at
Oxford, Cambridge, Manchester, Imperial College London, and Strathclyde, are
among the best in Europe. The concern is whether they will continue to be so in the
future. Academics' pay has fallen so far behind other professions and behind
academic salaries elsewhere, that many of the best brains have gone abroad.
Adequate pay and sufficient research funding to keep the best in Britain remains a
major challenge.
Answer the questions.
1. Name the three levels of school at which most children receive their education
from the age of five to 16.
2. How do they equate with the school system in your country?
3. Name the two basic public academic examinations to assess English and Welsh
pupils first at the age of 16 and then after another two voluntary years of schooling.
Name the similar two for Scotland.
4. How do they equate with the examination system in your country?
5. Is higher education free for all in Britain?
6. How do these systems compare with those in Kazakhstan?
Лекция 15. The British Social Class System.
I. The British Class System today.
II. The Upper Class.
III. The Middle Class.
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3.1 Upper middle class.
3.2 Middle middle class.
3.3 Lower middle class.
IV. Working Class
4.1 Skilled working class.
4.2 Unskilled and semi-skilled working class.
V. Underclass.
5.1 Immigrants from Europe.
5.2 Immigrants from outside Europe.



I. The British Class System today. Britain was once a class-ridden society.
Today, multiculturalism and a changing economy are gradually eroding the British
class system, but some features of the system still remain.
The British society has often been considered to be divided into three main groups
of classes:
the Upper Class
Often people with inherited wealth. Includes some of the oldest families, with
many of them being titled aristocrats.
the Middle Class
The majority of the population of Britain. They include industrialists,
professionals, business people and shop owners.
Lower or Working Class
People who are agricultural, mine and factory workers.
Although some people in the UK still refer to themselves as "working-class",
"lower-middle" or "upper-middle" (and of course there are those who think of
themselves as the "elite" class), to the majority of the British the meanings don't
seem to matter much these days.
II. The Upper Class. The British "upper class" is statistically very small and
consists of the peerage, gentry, and hereditary landowners. These people were
traditionally the wealthiest in the land having inherited money and position. The
majority of aristocratic families originated in the merchant class, and were
ennobled between the 14th and 19th century. Those in possession of a hereditary
peerage – for example a Dukedom, a Marquessate, an Earldom, a Viscounty or a
Barony – are often members of the upper class.
III. The Middle Class.
3.1 Upper middle class. The upper middle class in Britain broadly consists of
people who were born into families which have traditionally possessed high
incomes, although this group is defined more by family background than by job or
income. This stratum, in England, traditionally uses the Received Pronunciation
dialect natively and was traditionally frequently associated with professionals with
tertiary education.
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The upper middle class are traditionally educated at more prestigious private
schools, called "public schools" in the United Kingdom. Public schools were
predominantly founded to serve the educational needs of the upper middle class,
whose children have always constituted the majority of their customers.
Many upper middle class families may have previous ancestry that often directly
relates to the upper classes.
3.2 Middle middle class. Middle middle class in Britain often consists of people
with tertiary education. They speak in accents which could range from received
pronunciation, to provincial as well as Estuary English. They may have been
educated in either state or private schools.
Typical jobs include accountants, architects, academics, doctors, lawyers, teachers,
social workers, managers, businessmen, engineers, or civil servants.
They are highly politically and socially engaged and might be regular churchgoers,
sit on local committees and governing boards or stand for political office.
Education is greatly valued by the middle classes: they will make every effort to
ensure their children get a university education; although they are sometimes
unable to afford private schooling.
They also value culture and make up a significant proportion of the book-buying
and theatre-going public. They prefer TV documentaries and dramas over reality
shows, BBC radio 4 over pop stations and broadsheet newspapers over tabloids.
3.3 Lower middle class. The British lower middle class primarily consists of
white collar workers and their families living in less affluent suburbs. They are
typically employed in white-collar but relatively unskilled service industry jobs
such as retail sales, rail ticket agents, railway guards, airline stewardesses and
ticket agents, travel agents, hotel clerks, shipping clerks, factory and other
industrial building owners and low level civil service jobs in local and regional
government. Prior to the expansion in higher education from the 1960s onwards,
members of this class generally did not have a university education.
Member of the lower middle class typically speak in local accents, although
relatively mild.
IV. Working class
4.1 Skilled working class. This class of people would be in skilled blue collar
jobs, traditionally in the construction and manufacturing industry, but in recent
decades showing entrepreneurial development as the stereotypical white van man,
or self employed contractors. These people would speak in local accents and have
craft apprenticeships rather than university education. Typical Mosaic types for
this group include White Van Culture or Affluent Blue Collar.
4.2 Unskilled and semi-skilled working class. Traditionally, these people would
work in blue collar jobs. They would typically have left school as soon as legally
permissible and not have been able to take part in higher education. Many would
go on to work semi-skilled and unskilled jobs on the assembly lines and machine
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shops of Britain's major car factories, steel mills, foundries and textile mills in the
highly industrialised cities in the West Midlands and North of England.
However, since the mid-1970s de-industrialisation has shattered many of these
communities, resulting in a complete deterioration in quality of life and a reversal
in rising living standards for the industrial working class. Many either dropped in
status to the working poor or fell into permanent reliance on welfare dependence.
Some dropped out altogether and joined the black market economy, while a limited
few did manage to climb up to the lower middle class.
V. Underclass. The "underclass" was first identified in the 1990s, a group
consisting of the long-term unemployed, elderly pensioners, economic immigrants
and those dependent on state benefits, typically living in public housing or.
5.1 Immigrants from Europe. The British have a long tradition of receiving
immigrants from across the seas, including refugees from persecution or poverty.
Three hundred years ago a few thousand Protestant refugees from religious
persecution came from France and some other parts of Europe, but their
descendants are by now no longer a distinct group. In the eighteenth century
labourers from Ireland built the canals, until a later generation built the railways.
When Irish people come to live in Great Britain they are not considered to be
foreign, and it is calculated that nearly a million people now in Britain can be
recognised as Irish in their origins. Some keep their Irish links alive; there are two
newspaper shops in one West London street, both selling many copies of twenty
local papers from different parts of Ireland.
The oldest definable ethnic group is Jewish. In numbers it is small. Depending on
definitions there are 300,000-400,000 Jews in Britain, or well under 1 per cent of
the whole population. Most British Jews are descended from people who came
from Eastern Europe in the nineteenth century. Before then a small number of
Sephardic Jews were well established in international trade and banking, and in the
1930s there were refugees from Nazi persecution, most of them highly educated.
Many Jews from all these groups have attained great eminence through their
contributions to the arts and academic life. Those who were concerned with
politics were mainly active on the left. From 1950 to 1979 there were always at
least twenty-five Jewish Labour members of the House of Commons, though few
of them were much concerned with Jewish interests. But by the 1970s more Jews
were moving to the right in politics: in 1989 there were only seven Jewish Labour
MPs as opposed to sixteen Conservative MPs, including several ministers.
The Jewish population is now declining slowly, as a result of mixed marriages.
Some Jews keep a strong attachment to their religion and to their community.
Many live in a middle-class area of North London. But for most practical purposes
they are no less assimilated with the general community than the people of every
European country who have settled in Britain, both recently and long ago. Some of
these to maintain elements of a distinct national identity, both formal and informal
- particularly people of Italian origin. In big towns, Poles, Ukrainians and others
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have their own churches, mostly taken over from English congregations which had
dwindled and could no longer maintain the buildings.
5.2 Immigrants from outside Europe. Like other northern European countries
Britain has received large numbers of immigrants from the Third World, but in
Britain's case they have come mostly from the Indian subcontinent or the
Caribbean. There are now well over a million people whose origins were in the
Indian subcontinent, and 600,000 from the Caribbean. The number of people with
Commonwealth origins, including those from Africa and the Far East, is about 4
per cent of the whole population. The vast majority are in London and the big
cities of the midlands, rather fewer in other regions - though there is a big Muslim
Asian community in West Yorkshire. Restrictions on immigration from the
Commonwealth were first imposed in the 1960s, and have been kept, with
variations, since that time.
There are a few industrial areas where big Asian communities remain closely knit,
with many of their people working in local factories. In one of these, Southall in
West London, Sikhs and Hindus have reflected the conflict within India. In the
West Yorkshire area there are many separate schools for those Muslims who want
them. Some Muslims and Hindus at first arrived in Britain with English as their
second language. Some came knowing no English, but equipped to work in
factories along with others speaking the same language.
Many Asians work for public services and many others run their own businesses.
Together with their Chinese competitors (kept mainly by people from Hong Kong),
Indian restaurants provide a fine addition to the great variety of eating places
available in most towns. Londoners and other city people also have good reason to
be grateful to the Asians who have taken over many of the small shops. Typically
these are run by families who keep them open late at night and on Sundays, and
help to keep the streets alive in spite of the competition of the supermarkets.
For the immigrants from the Caribbean, coming from societies with many of their
customs as well as their first language close to the British pattern, there was less
fundamental novelty in the new homeland. In some respects the people from the
Caribbean have had experiences similar to those of American blacks who have
moved to northern cities of the United States, with high unemployment for
unqualified young black people.
People of West Indian origin have excelled in several forms of athletic sports, and
Britain's most recent teams at Olympic Games have included many black people.
The Caribbean influence on song and dance is obvious.
Answer the questions.
1.What is the general classification of a British social class system today?
2. To what class does the majority of the population in GB belong today?
3. What is the common characteristics of each class in terms of higher
education?
4. Where do the immigrants in GB mainly come from?
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5. Do you agree that economical immigrants belong to underclass stratum of
the British society?
6. Can you explain the idea of a multicultural society?
3. Литература
3.1 Основная литература
1. David McDowall. Britain in Close-Up. Longman. ISBN: 0582328268. 208
pages. - 2008.
2. Михайлов Н.Н. Лингвострановедение Англии. / English Cultural
Studies. ISBN 5-7695-3548-2. Учеб. пособие для студ. филол. фак. и фак.
ин. яз. высш. учеб. заведений. — 2-е изд., стер. - М.: Издательский
центр «Академия », 2006. — 208 с.
3. The history of Britain and Ireland. ISBN: 9780199112517. Oxford :
Oxford University Press, 416 pages. – 2005.
3.2 Дополнительная литература:
1. Contemporary Britain. McCormick, John. ISBN: 9780333964200.
Basingstoke : Palgrave Macmillan, 242 pages. - 2003.
2. G.D. Tomakhin: Great Britain, Cities and Counties (2001).
3. G.D. Tomakhin: : Great Britain, London (2000).
4. Peter Bromhead. Life in Modern Britain. ISBN: 9780582749191. – 1998.
5. The official website of the British Monarchy.
6. The official website of the UK Parliament .
7. Голицынский Ю.Б. Great Britain (2006).
8. Yerokhina L. Palette of Five Countries (2005).
9. Томахин Г.Д. Образование в Британии. Education in Britain:
Лингвострановед. справ. / Г.Д. Томахин. - Москва : Просвещение, 2002.
- 80 с. - ISBN 5-09-010835-8.
10. Томахин Г. Д. Дом англичанина - его крепость. An Englishman's home
is his castle : Лингвострановед. справ. / Сост. Г.Д.Томахин. - Москва :
Просвещение, 2002. - 126 с. - ISBN 5-09-009881-6.
11. Томахин Г.Д. Будни и отдых британцев. Everyday life and leisure:
Лингвострановед. справ. / Г.Д. Томахин; Сост. Г. Д. Томахин. - Москва:
Просвещение, 2002. - 128 с. - ISBN 5-09-009959-6.
12.G.D. Tomakhin: Across The Countries of the English Language (1998).
13.Bogdanor, Vernon. The Monarchy and the Constitution (1996).
14.Britain. O'Driscoll, James. ISBN: 9780194324298. Oxford : Oxford
University Press, 224 pages. - 1995.
15.Bell, Michael, Childerley: The Moral Landscape of a Country Village
(1994).
16.Champion, A.G., and Townsend, A.R. Contemporary Britain: A
Geographical Perspective (1991).
17.Kearney, Hugh, The British Isles: A History of Four Nations (1989).
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18.Elbaum, Bernard the Decline of the British Economy (1985).
19.Khimunina Т., Konon N., Welsh I. Customs, Traditions and festivals of Great
Britain. M., Prosveschenie, 1984.
20.Томахин Г.Д. Страноведение Великобритании. // Иностранные языки в
школе.
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