Biology
Technical Writing I
When scientists do research and experiments, they usually communicate their findings by writing a technical
paper that follows a particular format. Most of the biology lab reports we do from now on will follow a
similar format in which you will explain the lab and your results in four sections: an introduction, a materials
and methods section, a results section, and a discussion/conclusion section.
For this lab, you will write a partial technical paper. You’ll get some experience writing the first two sections
of a formal lab report: the introduction and the materials/methods section.
Typing Format
 Paper must be typed with 12 pt., Times New Roman or Arial type font
 Paper must be double-spaced, with no large gaps between sections or between paragraphs
 Paper must have 1-inch margins
 Sections must have appropriate headings with one space between it and the paragraph
 All nouns and pronouns are in third person
 All verbs should be in past tense
 Spelling and grammar should be correct
 Do not use contractions (it’s, can’t, etc.)
 All figures and tables must have a figure legend and be referred to in the text
 Paper must include a separate “Work Cited” page citing references used
 References must be cited within the body of the paper (endnotes) –see reference handout
The Introduction
The introduction is where you give background information about the lab and mention the purpose of the
investigation. There are three areas you need to address in your introduction:
 The “What.” This is background information about your topic, which you can get from the lab
procedure, your textbook or outside sources. Be sure to identify and explain the main topic of your
lab and define any important terms. Be sure to use endnotes to cite the references you used to get
your information
 The “Why.” This is where you identify the purpose of the lab. Clearly state why the lab was done.
What did we hope to learn? You will include your hypothesis in the “why” part of your introduction.
 The “How.” This is a brief overview of the lab. What was done? How do you plan to test your
hypothesis?
After reading the introduction, a reader should know what the main topic of the lab was, what you were trying
to find out, what your hypothesis was, and how the lab procedure addressed your hypothesis.
Good Example: Remember the second acid/base lab when you investigated how many drops of acid it took to
neutralize a base and an egg white solution? Here’s an example of a good introduction for that lab:
Organisms are very sensitive to how acidic or basic (alkaline) their environment is. For example, some bacteria
and fungi can grow only in acidic solutions while some marine organisms can only live in a slightly basic
environment. The reason for this sensitivity is that the enzymes used to control metabolic functions can operate
only within a narrow range of pH. The acidity of a solution depends on the number of hydrogen ions (H +) that it
contains. Water naturally forms these ions when it ionizes (splits into ions) and forms hydrogen ions and
hydroxide (OH-) ions. Pure water has an equal number of hydrogen and hydroxide ions, so we consider it neutral.
If an aqueous solution contains more hydrogen ions than hydroxide ions, we consider the solution acidic. If it
contains less hydrogen than hydroxide ions, we consider the solution basic.
A special measure called the pH scale uses numbers to indicate the relative concentration of hydrogen ions
in a solution. It can range from 0 to 14, with low numbers indicating an acidic solution and high numbers
indicating a basic solution. A pH of 7 is a neutral solution, a pH lower than 7 is acidic and a pH higher than 7
is basic.
The purpose of this lab was to measure the pH level of several different household solutions and 3
unknown substances using pH paper and litmus paper.
During the lab, drops of various household solutions and three unknown solutions were applied to pH
paper, red litmus paper, and blue litmus paper. It was hypothesized that if the solution was an acid, the pH
paper would change some variation of red, the red litmus paper would not change, and the blue litmus paper
would turn red. If the solution was a base, the pH paper would change some variation of blue, the red litmus
paper would turn blue, and the blue litmus paper would not change.
Study the sample introduction. The first paragraph tells the reader what a buffer is and explains why buffers
are important to living things. It tells us that “What” of the lab. The second paragraph explains the purpose of
the lab and clearly states my hypothesis. It tells us the “Why.” Finally, the last paragraph summarizes the lab
procedure in one sentence and relates the procedure back to my hypothesis (the “How.”) After reading this
introduction, a reader should have a good idea of what the lab is all about and why I did it.
Now, take a look at an example of a poor introduction:
In this lab, I added drops of hydrochloric acid to egg whites and a weak base until the color changed. I thought the
egg white would take more drops because it’s thicker. Egg whites have a buffer.
There are several problems with this sample. First, it is written in first person and not third person. Second,
although the introduction mentions a buffer (the “What” of the lab), it doesn’t describe what a buffer is or
why we care. Third, a hypothesis is given (the egg white solution will require more acid than the weak base)
but the purpose of the lab is never mentioned (the “Why” of the lab). Finally, the procedure is summarized at
the beginning of the introduction, but it’s not at all clear how the procedure relates to the purpose of the lab,
or even what the purpose of the lab is. After reading this introduction, a reader has no idea what the lab is
about or why it was done.
The Materials and Methods Section
This is where you describe the exact procedure you used in the lab. You will give a sequential explanation of
how the lab was carried out in paragraph form. Do not just give a numbered list of steps that you followed
in the lab. Instead, tell a story: write a couple of paragraphs carefully describing what you did. Do not just list
the materials and equipment used. Instead, mention the materials when they come up in the procedure. Your
materials and methods section should be written in the past tense – you’re describing what you already did,
not what you’re doing now. Make sure your procedure is detailed. Always give sizes and amounts. Someone
should be able to repeat your procedure based just on your materials and methods section. Do not give the
results of your lab in this section.
Here’s an example of a good materials and methods section from the buffers lab:
First, 25 mL of a weak base (sodium hydroxide) was put into a 150-mL flask and measured the pH of the
solution with pH paper. Next, 8 drops of bromothymol blue indicator was added to the solution in the flask. This
turned the base blue. Then, 1.0 N hydrochloric acid to the flask, one drop at a time, until the indicator turned the
solution yellow. The number of drops of HCl required to neutralize the solution was recorded.
Into a second clean 150-mL flask, 25 mL of egg white solution was added. The procedure described above
was repeated with the egg white solution and the number of drops of acid required to neutralize the egg white
solution was recorded.
After reading this sample, a reader would know exactly what was done in the lab. The procedure is clearly
explained, the materials used are included, and all equipment sizes and chemical amounts are mentioned. If
someone wanted to, they could repeat the lab just based on my materials and methods section.
Now look at this example of a poor materials and methods section:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
I got some base
I put in some blue stuff
I added some acid and counted the drops
I got some eggs
I put in some blue stuff
6. I added some acid and counted the drops
First, this sample is not in paragraph form. It’s just a list of steps. Second, the procedures are not specific or
clear. What base was used? What acid? What is the “blue stuff?” Were whole eggs used or an egg white
solution? In addition, not all of the equipment is included (flasks were used in the experiment, but the
procedure doesn’t mention them) and none of the amounts are mentioned. It would be impossible for
someone to repeat the lab based on this materials and methods section.
Using American Psychological Association (APA) Format (Updated to 5th Edition)
Handling Quotations In Your Text
When using APA format, follow the author-date method of citation. This means that the author's last name
and the year of publication for the source should appear in the text, and a complete reference should appear in
the reference list at the end of the paper.
Examples:
Jones (1998) compared student performance...
In a recent study of student performance (Jones, 1998)...
In 1998, Jones compared student performance ...
If there is no author to cite, such as when you are citing a web page that lists no author, use an abbreviated
version of the title of the page in quotation marks to substitute for the name of the author.
Webber did a similar study of students learning to format research papers ("Using
APA," 2001).
If you are citing a work that has no author, no date, and no page numbers, use the first few words from the
title, then the abbreviation n.d. (for "no date"), and then use paragraph numbers (if available) or simply leave
out any reference to pages.
In another study of students and research decisions, it was discovered that students
succeeded with tutoring ("Tutoring and APA," n.d.).
Website citation-- with author (author, date)
without author (http:// website address)
Short Quotations
To indicate quotations of fewer than 40 words in your text, enclose the quotation within double quotation
marks. Provide the author, year, and specific page citation in the text, and include a complete reference in the
reference list. Punctuation marks, such as periods, commas, and semicolons, should appear after the
parenthetical citation. Question marks and exclamation points should appear within the quotation marks if
they are a part of the quotation but after the parenthetical citation if they are a part of your text.
Examples:
She stated, "Students often had difficulty using APA style,"
(Jones, 1998, p. 199), but she did not offer an explanation as to why.
According to Jones (1998), "Students often had difficulty using APA style, especially when it was
their first time" (p. 199).
Basic Forms for Sources in Print
An article in a periodical (e.g., a journal, newspaper, or magazine)
Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (Year, add month and day of publication for daily, weekly, or
monthly publications). Title of article. Title of periodical, volume number, pages.
NOTE: You need list only the volume number if the periodical uses continuous pagination throughout a
particular volume. If each issue begins with page 1, then you should list the issue number as well: Title of
Periodical, Volume number (Issue number), pages. Note that the issue number is not italicized.
A nonperiodical (e.g., book, report, brochure, or audiovisual media)
Author, A. A. (Year of publication). Title of work: Capital letter also for subtitle. Location: Publisher.
NOTE: For "Location," you should always list the city, but you should also include the state if the city is
unfamiliar or if the city could be confused with one in another state.
Part of a nonperiodical (e.g., a book chapter or an article in a collection)
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Year of publication). Title of chapter. In A. Editor & B. Editor (Eds.), Title
of book (pages of chapter). Location: Publisher.
NOTE: When you list the pages of the chapter or essay in parentheses after the book title, use "pp." before
the numbers: (pp. 1-21). This abbreviation, however, does not appear before the page numbers in periodical
references.
Basic Forms for Electronic Sources
Article in an Internet Periodical
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of article. Title of journal, volume number(issue
number if available). Retrieved month day, year, from http://Web address.
Nonperiodical Internet Document (e.g., a Web page or report)
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of article. Retrieved month date, year, from
http://Web address.
NOTE: When an Internet document is more than one Web page, provide a URL that links to the home page
or entry page for the document. Also, if there isn't a date available for the document use (n.d.) for no date.
Part of Nonperiodical Internet Document
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of article. In Title of book or larger
document (chapter or section number). Retrieved from http://Web address.
Work Cited
Examples:
Journal article, one author
Harlow, H. F. (1983). Fundamentals for preparing psychology journal articles. Journal of Comparative and
Physiological Psychology, 55, 893-896.
Journal article, three to six authors
Kernis, M. H., Cornell, D. P., Sun, C. R., Berry, A., & Harlow, T. (1993). There's more to self-esteem than
whether it is high or low: The importance of stability of self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 65, 1190-1204.
Magazine article, one author
Henry, W. A., III . (1990, April 9). Making the grade in today's schools. Time, 135, 28-31.
Book
Calfee, R. C., & Valencia, R. R. (1991). APA guide to preparing manuscripts for journal
publication. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
An article or chapter of a book
O'Neil, J. M., & Egan, J. (1992). Men's and women's gender role journeys: Metaphor for healing, transition,
and transformation. In B. R. Wainrib (Ed.), Gender issues across the life cycle (pp. 107-123). New York:
Springer.
A government publication
National Institute of Mental Health. (1990). Clinical training in serious mental illness (DHHS Publication
No. ADM 90-1679). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
A book or article with no author or editor named
Merriam-Webster's collegiate dictionary (10th ed.). (1993). Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster. New drug
appears to sharply cut risk of death from heart failure. (1993, July 15). The Washington Post, p. A12.
NOTE: For parenthetical citations of sources with no author named, use a shortened version of the title
instead of an author's name. Use quotation marks and italics as appropriate. For example, parenthetical
citations of the two sources above would appear as follows: (Merriam-Webster's, 1993) and ("New Drug,"
1993).
An entry in an encyclopedia
Bergmann, P. G. (1993). Relativity. In The New Encyclopedia Britannica (Vol. 26, pp. 501-508). Chicago:
Encyclopedia Britannica.
An online journal article
Kenneth, I. A. (2000). A Buddhist response to the nature of human rights. Journal of Buddhist Ethics,
8(4). Retrieved February 20, 2001, from: http://www.cac.psu.edu/jbe/twocont.html
Chapter or section of an online document
The Foundation for a Better World. (2000). Pollution and banana cream pie. In Great chefs cook with
chlorofluorocarbons and carbon monoxide (Chap. 3). Retrieved July 13, 2001, from:
http://www.bamm.com/cream/pollution/bananas.htm
NOTE: Use a chapter or section identifier and provide a URL that links directly to the chapter section, not the
home page of the Web site.
Biology
Technical Writing II
You already have experience writing the introduction and methods sections of a technical paper. Now, you
will begin writing complete papers that include all four sections: the introduction, the material/methods
section, the results section, and a conclusion. This handout has information about what you should include in
your results and conclusion sections.
Results
Unsurprisingly, you should report the results of your lab in this section. You will tell the reader what you
observed and report any data that you collected. Do not interpret the data in this section. Don’t tell the reader
why the lab came out the way it did, just report you observations and measurements in a narrative (paragraph)
format.
In addition to describing your observations and data, it is a good idea to include tables, graphs, and
illustrations when appropriate. These visuals help the reader understand your results at a glance. When using
graphs, tables, or illustrations you must include a figure legend and refer to them as you describe their content
in the text.
Here is a good example from the buffer lab:
The weak base required had an initial pH of 8 (table 1). It took 11 drops of HCl to turn the indicator
yellow. The final pH of the solution was 6. The egg white solution also had an initial pH of 8 and a final
pH of 6, but it required 45 drops to turn the indicator yellow (table 1). The buffered solution required 34
more drops of HCl than the non-buffered weak acid (figure 1).
Table 1: Number of HCl drops required to change pH
Initial pH Final pH # Drops HCl
Weak base
8
6
11
Egg white solution
8
6
45
Number of HCl Drops
Figure 1: Amount of HCl Required to
Change the pH of a Buffered Solution
50
40
30
20
10
0
weak base
egg white solution
Solution Type
Conclusion
There are several items you should include in your conclusion, but in general, you should explain why you
got the result you did and relate you results back to the purpose and hypothesis of the lab. The conclusion
should be written in paragraph form and should include each of the following items:




Restate your hypothesis. Was it supported or not supported? Explain how your results support or fail
to support your hypothesis. Include actual data values in your discussion of your results. Be sure to
refer to the table or graph in the results section.
Explain why your results make sense or do not make sense. You will refer back to the information
you included in the background information of your introduction.
Identify possible sources of error that happened during your conducting the lab. Be specific in your
discussion and explain how such errors might be avoided in the future.
Suggest future experiments that might expand your knowledge on the lab topic. Do not simply repeat
the same experiment but change one variable.
Here is an example from the buffers lab. The last point above is not included in this conclusion.
In conclusion, the hypothesis was supported: the egg white solution, which contained a buffer, did
require more HCl (45 drops) than the weak base (11 drops) to become neutral. The egg white solution
required 34 more drops than the weak base (figure 1). This occurred because the egg white solution
contained buffers, which removed the extra hydrogen ions from the solution, resisting a change in pH.
The weak base did not contain a buffer so the hydrogen ions of the acid lowered the pH more quickly.
Since buffers prevent rapid changes in pH level, it makes sense that a buffered solution (the egg white
solution) would require more HCl than an unbuffered base.
One possible source of error in this experiment is that pH paper was used to measure both the initial
and final pH levels of each solution. Since we used the pH paper to simply estimate the pH, the pH levels
recorded were very subjective. This subjectivity could be reduced in the future by having several
different people estimate the pH of each solution or use a calibrated electronic pH meter.