Name __________________________ Date: ________________ Section: 11.1 11.2 11.3 (circle one) U.S.HistoryII Unit3Coursepack:
AmericanImperialism
Thiscoursepackcontainsnearlyallofthereadingsthatwewilluseinouruniton
Americanimperialism.Youwillneediteveryday,inclassandforhomework;
youwillearnademeritforeverydaythatyoucometoclasswithoutthis
coursepack.Extrascanbefoundonthecoursewebsite.
Contents
SecondarySources
TheExpansionofAmericanPower....................................................................................................2
TheSpanish‐AmericanWar,Part1....................................................................................................4
RemembertheMaine!..............................................................................................................................8
TheSpanish‐AmericanWar,Part2.................................................................................................11
AcquiringthePhilippines....................................................................................................................14
ChoicesinthePhilippines...................................................................................................................18
ThePhilippine‐AmericanWar...........................................................................................................21
TheRooseveltCorollary.......................................................................................................................24
AcquiringHawaii.....................................................................................................................................27
TheOpenDoorPolicy............................................................................................................................29
BuildingthePanamaCanal.................................................................................................................31
AmericainHaiti.......................................................................................................................................33
AmericainCubaandthePlattAmendment.................................................................................35
PrimarySources
PrimarySources:TheDebateoverImperialism.......................................................................37
PrimarySources:TheSinkingoftheU.S.S.Maine.....................................................................44
PrimarySource:TheTellerAmendment(1898)......................................................................46
PrimarySource:TheDeLômeLetter.............................................................................................47
PrimarySource:TheRooseveltCorollarytotheMonroeDoctrine...................................49
PrimarySources:ThePhilippine‐AmericanWar......................................................................51
TheExpansionofAmericanPower
Source:TheAmericans:Reconstructiontothe21stCentury(Evanston,IL:McDougal
Littell,2005),342‐344.
Americanshadalwayssoughttoexpandthesizeoftheirnation,andthroughoutthe
19thcenturytheyextendedtheircontroltowardthePacificOcean.However,bythe
1880s,manyAmericanleadershadbecomeconvincedthattheUnitedStatesshould
jointheimperialistpowersofEuropeandestablishcoloniesoverseas.
Imperialism—thepolicyinwhichstrongernationsextendtheireconomic,political,
ormilitarycontroloverweakerterritories—wasalreadyatrendaroundtheworld.
GlobalCompetition
Europeannationshadbeenestablishingcoloniesforcenturies.Inthelate19th
centuryAfricahademergedasaprimetargetofEuropeanexpansionism.Bythe
early20thcentury,onlytwocountriesinallofAfrica—EthiopiaandLiberia—
remainedindependent.
ImperialistsalsocompetedforterritoryinAsia,especiallyinChina.Initslate‐19th‐
centuryreformera,Japanreplaceditsoldfeudalorderwithastrongcentral
government.Hopingthatmilitarystrengthwouldbolsterindustrialization,Japan
joinedEuropeannationsincompetitionforChinainthe1890s.
MostAmericansgraduallywarmedtotheideaofexpansionoverseas.Withabelief
inmanifestdestiny,theyalreadyhadpushedtheU.S.bordertothePacificOcean.
ThreefactorsfueledthenewAmericanimperialism:
 desireformilitarystrength
 thirstfornewmarkets
 beliefinculturalsuperiority
DesireforMilitaryStrength
Seeingthatothernations
wereestablishingaglobal
militarypresence,American
leadersadvisedthatthe
UnitedStatesbuildupits
ownmilitarystrength.One
suchleaderwasAdmiral
AlfredT.MahanoftheU.S.
Navy.Mahanurged
governmentofficialsto
buildupAmericannaval
powerinordertocompete
withotherpowerfulnations.
Asaresultoftheurgingof
2 Mahanandothers,theUnitedStatesbuiltninesteel‐hulledcruisersbetween1883
and1890.TheconstructionofmodernbattleshipssuchastheMaineandtheOregon
transformedthecountryintotheworld’sthirdlargestnavalpower.
ThirstforNewMarkets
Inthelate19thcentury,advancesintechnologyenabledAmericanfarmsand
factoriestoproducefarmorethanAmericancitizenscouldconsume.Nowthe
UnitedStatesneededrawmaterialsforitsfactoriesandnewmarketsforits
agriculturalandmanufacturedgoods.Imperialistsviewedforeigntradeasthe
solutiontoAmericanoverproductionandtherelatedproblemsofunemployment
andeconomicdepression.
BeliefinCulturalSuperiority
Culturalfactorsalsowereusedtojustifyimperialism.SomeAmericanscombined
thephilosophyofSocialDarwinism—abeliefthatfree‐marketcompetitionwould
leadtothesurvivalofthefittest—withabeliefintheracialsuperiorityofAnglo‐
Saxons.TheyarguedthattheUnitedStateshadaresponsibilitytospread
Christianityand“civilization”totheworld’s“inferiorpeoples.”Thisviewpoint
narrowlydefined“civilization”accordingtothestandardsofonlyoneculture.
KeyTerms:imperialism,SocialDarwinism
3
TheSpanish‐AmericanWar,Part1
Source:Choicesforthe21stCenturyEducationProgram,BeyondManifestDestiny:
AmericaEnterstheAgeofImperialism(Providence,RI:WatsonInstitutefor
InternationalStudies,BrownUniversity,2006),12‐15.
AstheUnitedStatesexperienceddramaticchangesinthe1880sand90s,theisland
ofCuba,acolonyofSpain,heldrenewedinterestformanyAmericans.American
presidentsandaveragecitizensalikehadcovetedCubaformanyyears.Intheyears
beforetheCivilWar,manypeoplehopedthatCubawouldbecomeanotherslave
territoryoftheUnitedStates.PresidentPolk,in1848,hadevenofferedtobuyCuba
fromSpain.
Cuba,thelargestislandinthe
Caribbean,wasespeciallysignificant
forpolicymakersinbothSpainandthe
UnitedStatesattheendofthe
nineteenthcentury.ForSpain,Cuba
wasthelastmajorremnantofwhat
hadoncebeenahugeempireinthe
NewWorld.NearlyallofSpain’s
possessionsintheWestern
Hemispherehadgainedindependence
inthe1800s,andSpainitselfhadsunk
tothelevelofathird‐rateEuropean
power.Nonetheless,thegovernmentinMadridrefusedtoconsidergranting
independencetoCuba—“thePearloftheAntilles”—orsellingtheislandtoanother
country.
Atthetime,thecountrywiththegreatestinterestinacquiringCubawastheUnited
States.FormanyAmericans,extendingU.S.controloverthelushislandninetymiles
fromthetipofFloridaseemedonlylogical.
RevolutioninCuba
In1868,arevoltagainstSpanishrulebrokeoutinCuba.Manyoftheleadingrebels
hopedeventuallytojointheUnitedStatesafterbreakingfreefromSpain.U.S.
PresidentUlyssesGrantwasopentotheproposal,buthissecretaryofstate
persuadedhimtokeeptheUnitedStatesoutoftheconflict.Afteradecadeof
fightingandthelossof200,000lives,theCubanrebelsputdowntheirarms.Spanish
ruleremainedinplace,althoughSpainpledgedtoallowCubalimitedself‐
government.
WhatwereU.S.interestsinCuba?
Withtherevoltover,$50millionworthofAmericaninvestmentflowedintoCuba.
Mostofitwentintotheisland’ssugarindustry,whichrepresentedfour‐fifthsofthe
Cubaneconomy.TheUnitedStateswasalsobyfarthelargestconsumerofCuban
4 sugar.In1890,theUnitedStatesremovedtariffsonCubansugarenteringthe
Americanmarket,makingitlessexpensivetobuythesugarintheUnitedStates.The
legislationboostedthefortunesofboththeoverallCubaneconomyandAmerican
investorsontheisland.Cuban‐Americantradesoonapproached$100million
annually.
Thedepressionof1893,however,affectedtheU.S.andCubaneconomies.Pressure
mountedintheU.S.Congresstocutbackonimportsandprotectsugarproducersin
theUnitedStates.In1894,theUnitedStatesimposeda40percenttariff[importtax]
onsugarimportsfromCuba.Cubansimmediatelyfelttheeffects.
AsCuba’seconomysputtered,therebellionagainstSpainagaingainedmomentum.
Thistime,muchofthefundingandorganizationforthemovementcamefromCuban
immigrantsinNewYorkandFlorida.Theyhelpedtobuyweaponsandtosmuggle
themintoCubaaboardshipssailingfromsouthernU.S.ports.Suchexpeditionswere
illegalunderinternationallaw,andU.S.coastalpatrolsblockedmostofthem.
HowdidSpainrespondtotheCubanrevolt?
Afull‐scalerevolteruptedinCubain1895andquicklyengulfedtheisland.Spain
respondedevenmoreharshlythaninthefirstroundofrebellion,sendingmorethan
120,000troopstofightanestimated60,000Cubanrebels.Theserebelswerealso
callednationalists,becausetheysoughttofreetheCubannationfromSpanishrule.
ThemilitarycommanderoftheCubannationalists,MaximoGomez,usedtacticsthat
wouldshaketheeconomicfoundationofSpanishrule.Heattemptedtocutoff
Spanishgarrisons,ormilitaryposts,inthecitiesfromfoodsuppliesinthe
countryside.Heorderedsugargrowerstostopproducing,andforbidsmallfarmers
fromsellingsuppliestotheSpanish.Gomezwarnedthattherebelmilitarywould
severelypunishviolators.By1898,GomezhadbroughttheCubaneconomytoa
standstill.Civilianspaidaheavypriceforhisstrategy.
Likethenationalists,theSpanish
alsosaweconomiccontrolofthe
islandasthekeytovictory.
Unabletocapturethenationalist
forces,theSpanishsoughtto
isolatethemfromthegeneral
populationinthecountrysideso
thatnon‐rebelscouldnotsupply
themwithfoodorshelter.To
thatend,Spain’sgovernorin
Cuba,GeneralValerianoWeyler,
herdedhundredsofthousandsof
Cubanpeasantsintotowns
5
policedbySpanishtroops.The“reconcentration”camps,astheywereknown,
lackedadequatefood,housing,andsanitation.Diseaseandstarvationtookaterrible
toll,killingmanythousands.
HowdidthepressswayU.S.publicopinion?
AsthewarinCubaintensified,coverageintheAmericanpressincreased.Often,
CubannationalistslivingintheUnitedStatessup‐pliedthestories.Publisherssoon
foundthatnewsoftheCubanrevoltsoldnewspapers.Theywereeagertoprint
reportsofSpanishatrocities,realorfictitious.
WilliamRandolphHearstandJosephPulitzer,ownersoftwoofthelargest
newspaperchains,competedfiercelyfornewsaboutCuba.Bothmensentteamsof
reportersandartiststocovertherevoltandgeneratesupportforU.S.intervention
intheconflict.Religiousmagazines,particularlythosepublishedbyProtestant
denominations,likewisecalledfortheUnitedStatestojointhefightingon
humanitariangrounds.OtherpublicationsarguedthatAmericanpropertyonthe
islandwasbeingdestroyedinthefighting.
Noman’slife,noman’spropertyissafe.Americancitizensare
imprisonedorslainwithoutcause.Americanpropertyisdestroyedon
allsides....Cubawillsoonbeawildernessofblackenedruins.This
yearthereislittletoliveupon.Nextyeartherewillbenothing.The
horrorsofabarbarousstrugglefortheexterminationofthenative
populationarewitnessedinallpartsofthecountry.Bloodonthe
roadsides,bloodonthefields,bloodonthedoorsteps,blood,blood,
blood!Istherenonationwiseenough,braveenoughtoaidthisblood‐
smittenland?
‐NewYorkWorld,aPulitzer‐ownedpaper
HowdidAmericansrespondtoeventsinCuba?
Despitethecallsforinterventioninthepress,Americansweredividedabouttheir
country’sroleintheCubanrevolt.ManyAmericansidentifiedwiththestruggleofa
smallcolonyagainstitsoppressive,Europeangovernment.Theywereappalledby
theatrocitiestheyreadabout.ThestruggleofCuba,whichhadalargeblack
population,hadgainedparticularsympathyintheAfrican‐Americancommunity.
ThesegroupshopedtheUnitedStateswouldintervenemilitarily.Ontheotherhand,
manyinthebusinesscommunityofthenortheastwantedpeacerestoredsotheir
investmentswouldnolongerbethreatened.Lastly,someAmericanmerchants
advocatedforinterventionastherebellioncausedtheirtradetodryup.
Amongthepoliticalleadership,advocatesoffull‐scalewarwithSpainwereinthe
minority,althoughtheyvoicedtheiropinionsloudly.SomecalledontheMonroe
Doctrine,sayingthatSpainhadnobusinessmeddlingintheWesternhemisphere.
OthersarguedthatafutureCentralAmericancanalwouldbemoreprofitableifthe
UnitedStatesratherthanSpaincontrollednearbyCuba.OftenCongressional
supportforstrongactionwastiedtoareligiousconvictionthatAmericashouldhelp
6 easesufferingabroad.MostCongressmen,however,sidedwiththecautiouspolicy
ofPresidentMcKinley,whofavoredapeacefulsettlementoftherevolt.
HowdidtheSpanishambassadorinsult
PresidentMcKinley?
InFebruary1898,twoeventsturnedAmerican
publicopinionsharplytowardfavoringwar.
OnFebruary9,theNewYorkJournalpublished
aprivateletterwhichtheSpanishambassador
totheUnitedStates,EnriqueDupuydeLome,
hadsenttoafriendinSpain.Theletter
includedabitingcritiqueofthepresident.
McKinleyisweakandabidderforthe
admirationofthecrowdbesidesbeinga
would‐bepoliticianwhotriestoleavea
dooropenbehindhimselfwhilekeeping
ongoodtermswiththejingoes
[extremepatriotswhoadvocatean
aggressiveforeignpolicy]ofhisparty.
—EnriqueDupuydeLome
Publicationoftheletter—andtheincendiarynewspaperheadlinesthat
accompaniedit—provokedoutrageintheUnitedStates.ManyAmericanstookde
Lome’scommentsasaninsultagainsttheircountry.TheSpanishambassador
quicklyresignedandSpainapologized.Beforetheepisodedieddown,however,a
muchmoreseriousincidentinCuba’sHavanaharborstunnedAmericans.[Note:
you’llreadaboutthesecondincidenttomorrow!]
KeyTerms:ValerianoWeyler,reconcentrationcamps,DeLomeletter
7
RemembertheMaine!
Source:Choicesforthe21stCenturyEducationProgram,BeyondManifestDestiny:
AmericaEnterstheAgeofImperialism(Providence,RI:WatsonInstitutefor
InternationalStudies,BrownUniversity,2006),15,38‐39.
OnJanuary25,1898,thebattleshipU.S.S.MainedroppedanchorinHavanaharbor
ona“courtesy”call.WhileSpainhadlittleinterestinhostinganAmericanwarship,
peacefulvisitsbyforeignwarshipswerecommoninthelatenineteenthcentury,and
MadridhadnochoicebuttowelcomeMcKinley’srequesttosendtheMainetoCuba.
McKinleyhadtwopurposesfordispatchingtheMaine.First,theship’ssailorswould
beinapositiontoprotectandevenevacuateAmericancitizenslivinginHavanaifa
threattotheirsafetyarose.Second,thewarship’spresencegaveMcKinleyadded
leverageinpressingSpaintoreachajustsettlementwiththeCubannationalists.
AfterpassingthreeuneventfulweeksinHavanaharbor,theMainewasrippedapart
byatremendousexplosiononthenightofFebruary15.Twohundredandsixty
Americansailorsdied.AlthoughtheMaine’scaptain,whosurvivedtheexplosion,
urgedacarefulinvestigationtodeterminethecauseofthedisaster,theAmerican
pressimmediatelyblamedtheSpanishauthorities.Anewslogan—“Rememberthe
Maine,tohellwithSpain!”—sweptthenation.TheNewYorkJournalevenoffered
$50,000inexchangefortheidentityoftheculprits.WithintheMcKinley
administration,AssistantSecretaryoftheNavyTheodoreRooseveltexpressed
certaintythat“theMainewassunkbyanactofdirtytreacheryonthepartofthe
Spanish.”
Throughoutthespringof1898theMcKinleyadministrationconsideredthebest
courseofaction.PressuremountedonMcKinleyfromboththepublicandCongress
torespondtothesituation.McKinleylearnedinMarchthatmanybusinessleaders
werenowadvocatingwarwithSpainasawaytogainnotjustgreaterstabilityin
worldaffairs,butalsoincreasedeconomicstrengthfortheUnitedStates.Spain
ownednotjustCubaandPuertoRicointheCaribbeanbutGuamandthePhilippines
inthePacific.VictoryinawarwithSpainwouldlikelymeanthattheUnitedStates
wouldcometocontrolstrategicportsfromwhichitcouldincreasethelucrative
tradewithAsia…
History’sVerdictontheMaineDisaster
TheexplosionwhichsankthebattleshipU.S.S.Maineandclaimedthelivesof260
AmericansailorsinFebruary1898wasthesparkthatinflamedwarfeverinthe
UnitedStates.OnceaU.S.Navycourtofinquiryassertedthattheshiphadbeensunk
byanexternalexplosion,warwasalmostunavoidable.Americanpublicopinionwas
clearlyconvincedofSpain’sguiltanddemandedvengeance.
Evenatthetime,however,thereweredoubtsabouttheofficialreport.Threedays
aftertheexplosion,thenavy’sleadingweaponsexpert,ProfessorPhilipAlger,said
8 inanewspaperinterviewthattheMainecouldnothavebeensunkbyanexternal
mine,butratherwasprobablyrippedapartbyaninternalexplosion.
AssistantSecretaryoftheNavyTheodoreRooseveltwassofuriouswhenheread
theinterviewthatheaccusedAlgeroftaking“theSpanishside.”Inalettertothe
professor’ssuperior,Rooseveltwrotethat“whetherprobableornot,itcertainlyis
possiblethattheshipwasblownupbya[Spanish]mine.”Rooseveltfearedthat
membersofCongresswhoopposedhisefforttostrengthenthenavywouldusethe
incidentagainsthim.Infact,twoRepublicancongressionalleadersimmediately
calledforahalttoRoosevelt’sprogramtobuildnewbattleships.
HistorianswouldlateruncovernewevidencethatessentiallyclearedSpainof
responsibility.Themostseriousstudywaspublishedin1976byRetiredAdmiral
H.G.Rickover.
AfteradetailedexaminationoftheMaine’swreckage,Rickoverconcludedthatthe
shipwasdamagedbyaninternalexplosion.Rickoverbelievedthattheexplosion
hadbeenanaccident,mostlikelycausedbytheignitionofgunpowderfromtheheat
ofacoalfire.
BelowisasummaryoftheelevenmainpointsthatRickoverpresentedtosupport
hisfindings.
1. Anunderwaterexplosion,suchasthatcausedbyamine,typicallyproducesa
highplumeofwater,muchlikeageyser.Noneoftheobserverswho
witnessedtheexplosionoftheMainereportedseeingsuchaplume.
2. Theshockwaveofanunderwaterexplosiontypicallykillsalargenumberof
fish.AftertheMainedisaster,fewdeadfishfloatedtothesurface.
3. A1911navalinvestigationhadconcludedthattheprimaryexplosionwithin
theMainehadoccurredinareservemagazine(astorageareaforexplosives)
containingnearlysixtonsofgunpowder.Theinvestigators,how‐ever,had
assumedthataminehadtriggeredtheinternalexplosion.
4. Nomineavailablein1898couldhavehadtheexplosivepowertoignitethe
Maine’smagazine,eveniftheminehadbeenincontactwiththeship’shull.
Rickovercalculatedthatonlyaminecontainingatleast100poundsof
explosivepowerplaceddirectlybeneaththeMaine’smagazinecouldhave
ignitedthegunpowder.
5. ThegunpowderstoredintheMainetendedtochemicallydecomposein
warm,humidconditions,leavingitsusceptibletospontaneouscombustion.
In1907and1911,twoanchoredFrenchbattleshipsexplodedinsimilar
circumstances.
6. PlacingalargemineclosetotheMaine’shullwouldhavebeennearly
impossible.AftertheMainedroppedanchorinHavanaharbor,Captain
CharlesSigsbeeorderedhissailorstomaintainanaround‐the‐clockwatchto
protecthisship.SmallboatswereprohibitedfromapproachingtheMaine.
Rickoveralsorejectedthetheorythattheminecouldhavebeenplaced
9
beforetheMaine’sarrival,sinceanchoredshipsdriftoverlargeareas
dependingontidesandwindpatterns.
7. TheMaine’skeel(themainstructuralcomponentofaship’sbottom)had
beenbentintotheshapeofaninverted“V”bytheexplosion.Although
investigatorsin1898citedthisasevidenceofanexternalexplosion,Rickover
foundnoneofthemanglingofthesteelplatesthatwouldhavebeen
expected.
8. Theinverted“V”shapeofthekeelwasmuchmoreconsistentwithamassive
internalexplosion,whichwouldhaveliftedandtwistedthestructure.
9. From1895toearly1898,therewereatleasttwelverecordedcoalfireson
U.S.warships.AssistantSecretaryoftheNavyRooseveltwassoconcerned
abouttheproblemthatinlate1897herecommendedtheappointmentofa
navalboardtodevelopmethodsforpreventingcoalfires.
10. Onlyasinglesteelwallseparatedthereservemagazinethatexplodedonthe
Mainefromthecoalbunker(storagecompartment)thatisbelievedtohave
ignitedthegunpowder.CaptainSigsbeehadfilledtheMaine’sbunkersin
Virginiawithbituminouscoal,whichwasknowntobeparticularly
susceptibletospontaneouscombustion.(Sigsbeecouldhaveoptedtoloada
lesscombustiblefuel,anthracitecoal,inKeyWest,Florida,theMaine’slast
Americanportofcall.)
11. TheSpanishhadnomotivetosinktheMaine.Onthecontrary,theywere
eageratthetimetorepairrelationswiththeUnitedStatestoavertAmerican
interventioninCuba.TheCubannationalistsdidhaveaninterestin
provokingtheUnitedStatestoentertheconflict.However,theyhadneither
themeansnortheopportunitytosinktheship.
Rickover’sstudyfocusedonthetechnicalandfactualweaknessesofthenaval
investigation.Otherhistorianshaveexploredhowthepoliticalatmosphereofearly
1898mayhaveinfluencedthereport’sconclusions.
Aboveall,thenavalcourtofinquirywasunderpressuretoputforwarditsfindings
quickly.ThesinkingoftheMainehadsetinmotionaseriesofpreparationsforwar.
Shortlyaftertheexplosion,McKinleyorderedthemilitarytodrawupplanstofight
Spain.OnMarch9,1898,bothhousesofCongressunanimouslyapprovedhis
requesttoadd$50milliontothedefensebudget.
BythetimethenavalinquirywrappedupitsworkonMarch21,McKinleyhadlittle
roomtoretreat.Hehadbeenkeptinformedoftheinquiry’sprogresssincelate
Februaryandthefinalreportcontainednosurprisesforhimwhenitreachedhis
deskonMarch25.Thefollowingday,McKinleyinstructedtheU.S.ambassadorin
MadridtodemandthatSpaingrantCubafullindependence.Warwasathand.
KeyTerms:U.S.S.Maine
10 TheSpanish‐AmericanWar,Part2
Source:Choicesforthe21stCenturyEducationProgram,BeyondManifestDestiny:
AmericaEnterstheAgeofImperialism(Providence,RI:WatsonInstitutefor
InternationalStudies,BrownUniversity,2006),16‐19.
AlthoughMcKinleyhaddoubtsaboutthecauseoftheMaineexplosion,hedidlittle
tocalmthewarfeverthatwasbuildingintheUnitedStates.Withoutwaitingforthe
resultsoftheofficialinvestigation,hetookstepstopreparetheUnitedStatesfor
war.OnMarch9,1898,bothhousesofCongressunanimouslyapprovedthe
president’srequesttoadd$50milliontothedefensebudget.U.S.investigators,
workingunderintensepoliticalpressure,reportedtothepubliconMarch28that
theMainehadbeensunkbyanunderwatermine.Thisnews,combinedwith
additionalnewsthatmanybusinessleadersnowsupportedthewar,gaveMcKinley
theopportunitytotakeyetboldermeasures.
WhendidtheUnitedStatesdeclarewar?
Meanwhile,U.S.diplomatsfoundSpainincreasinglyanxioustoavoidwarwiththe
UnitedStates.TheyreportedthattheSpanishwerepreparedtodismantlethe
concentrationcampsinCuba,asMcKinleyhadearlierdemanded.OnApril9,Spain
announcedatruceinitscampaignagainstthenationalistsandpledgedtoexpand
thescopeofCubanself‐government.TheUnitedStateswasnotsatisfied.Leaders
felttheonlywaytheUnitedStatescouldgetSpainoutofCuba,andgetU.S.military
andeconomicinterestsin,waswar.
OnApril19,respondingtoarequestfromPresidentMcKinley,Congressgranted
himtheauthoritytogotowar.
WhatwereU.S.goalsinCuba?
BothMcKinleyandCongresswantedtopresenttheirstancestrictlyintermsof
defendingtherightsoftheCubanpeople.Tothatend,Congresspassedan
amendmenttothewarresolutionstatingthattheUnitedStateshadnointerestin
asserting“sovereignty,jurisdiction,orcontrol”overCubaandpromisedto“leave
thegovernmentandcontroloftheislandtoitspeople”oncepeacewasrestored.
Theamendment,namedforSenatorHenryTeller,addressedtwosourcesof
criticism.First,anti‐imperialistsworriedthatinterventioninCubadisguiseda
largerplantoacquireanAmericanempire.Second,sugargrowersintheSouth
fearedthattheannexationofCubawouldleavethemunabletocompetewiththe
island’ssugarplantations.
TheU.S.declarationleftSpainwithfewchoices.OnApril24,1898,Madriddeclared
warontheUnitedStates.TheUnitedStateswasnotpreparedforwar,however.At
theoutsetofthewar,theU.S.Armynumberedonly28,000men.Mostwere
stationedatremotepostsinthesouthwest.Incontrast,Spainhad150,000tiredbut
11
seasonedtroopsinCuba.ThousandsofAmericanvolunteerswereneededtodefeat
theSpanish.
HowdidvictoryinManilaleadtoanincreasein
volunteers?
FortunatelyfortheU.S.wareffort,theU.S.Navy
providedthecountrywithanearlytasteof
victory.Nearlytwomonthsbeforethewarbegan,
AssistantSecretaryoftheNavyRoosevelthad
instructedthecommanderofthePacificfleet,
CommodoreGeorgeDewey,todrawupplansto
attacktheSpanishfleetbasedinthePhilippines.
WhenSpaindeclaredwar,Deweyhadalreadyled
theU.S.fleetfromitshomeportinHongKongto
themouthofManilaharbor.OnMay1,he
attacked.Dewey’ssquadronfirstknockedoutthe
Spanishcannonsonshore,thensankeveryshipin
theSpanishfleet.
Dewey’striumphsparkedanoutpouringofprideintheUnitedStates.Inthemonths
thatfollowed,morethan220,000volunteerssigneduptofighttheSpanishinCuba.
AmongthemostprominentofthevolunteerswasRoosevelt,whoresignedfromthe
McKinleyadministrationtoformacavalryregiment.JoinedbyhisfriendColonel
LeonardWood,anarmysurgeonwhohadbeenawardedtheCongressionalMedalof
Honor,RooseveltrecruitedprimarilyfromtheruggedterritoriesofArizona,New
Mexico,andOklahoma,aswellasfromNorthandSouthDakota.Theunit,
nicknamedthe“RoughRiders,”alsoincludedasprinklingofvolunteersfromIvy
Leaguecolleges.
Arming,clothing,transporting,andtrainingthevolunteerstaxedthecapabilitiesof
thearmy.TheshipsthathadbeenassembledinTampa,FloridatosailforCubaeven
lackedspaceforthehorsesoftheRoughRiders.Nonetheless,aU.S.forceof
seventeenthousandsoldierslandedinsoutheasternCubaonJune22,1898.
WhydidblackAmericansvolunteertofight?
Manyblackleaderssawthewarasanopportunitytoelevatethestatusofblacksin
theUnitedStates.Theyhopedthatblackparticipationinthefightingwouldwinthe
African‐Americancommunitynewrespectandchipawayatthewallof
discrimination.
AftertheCivilWar,militaryservicehadbeenoneofthefewavenuesfor
advancementopentoblacksinAmericansociety.Thearmy’sfourall‐black
regiments(eachcomprisedoffourhundredtoeighthundredtroops)wereranked
amongthecountry’smosteliteunits.Stationedmostlyinfrontierposts,black
soldiershadamuchlowerrateofdesertionanddisciplineproblemsthantheir
whitecounterparts.Nonetheless,theyweredeniedpromotionintotheofficercorps.
12 HowdidblacksoldierscontributetotheU.S.victoryoverSpain?
Whenwarwasdeclared,theblackregimentswereamongthefirstunitstobe
mobilized.WarDepartmentofficialsassumedthatblacksoldierswerebettersuited
toCuba’stropicalclimateandmorelikelytowithstandtropicaldiseases.Inthe
fighting,blacksoldiersearnedwidespreadpraisefortheirbravery.
Inadditiontotheregularblackunits,thousandsofblackmenofferedtofightas
volunteers.Initially,theywererejectedbyallbutthreestates.Inthesecondcallfor
volunteers,fivemorestatesacceptedblackrecruits.TheAfrican‐American
communityalsopressedfortheinclusionofblackofficers,andinthreestatesblacks
wereputincommandofthevolunteerunits.Atthesametime,theWarDepartment
organizedtenvolunteerregimentsmadeupofmenwhowerepresumedtobe
immunetoyellowfever.Fouroftheregimentsconsistedofblacksoldiersledby
blacklieutenants.TheblackvolunteerswerenotgiventhechancetofightinCuba.
Onlyoneblackunit,aregimentfromMassachusetts,sawactionintheCaribbean,
takingpartintheinvasionoftheSpanishcolonyofPuertoRico.Meanwhile,their
uniformsseldomshieldedthemfromdiscriminationatbasesintheUnitedStates.
HowdidtheUnitedStateswinthewar?
TheAmericanssettheirsightsonSantiago,theprincipalSpanishgarrisoninCuba,
andsteadilyadvancedagainstdeter‐minedSpanishresistance.Casualtieswere
heavyonbothsides.AmongtheU.S.forces,10percentofthetroopsinvolvedinthe
offensiveagainstSantiagowerekilledorwounded.Nearlyallofthe345Americans
whodiedinbattleduringtheentirewarwerekilledintheSantiagocampaign.(More
than2,500U.S.servicemendiedfromdisease,foodpoisoning,andaccidentsduring
theSpanish‐AmericanWar.)
ThedecisivebattlesoftheoffensivetookplaceonJuly2,whentheAmericans
capturedtwoheavilyfortifiedhillsoverlookingtheroadtoSantiago.Spearheading
theassaultupKettleHillwereRoosevelt’sRoughRidersandtworegimentsofblack
soldiers.Atthesametime,otherU.S.regimentschargedSanJuanHill.Bytheendof
theday,theAmericanscontrolledtheroutetoSantiago.
Thefollowingday,AmericanwarshipsmettheSpanishCaribbeanfleetoutsideof
Santiagoharbor.AsinthePhilippines,theSpanishshipswereoutgunned.They
wereeithersunkorforcedtoshore.OnJuly17,theSpanishsurrenderedSantiago.
ThewarinCubawasallbutover.
TheswiftcourseofthewaraswellastheoverwhelmingU.S.victoryrestoredagreat
dealofprideinAmericanswhohadfeltconcernfortheirnation’sstatusinthe
world.Americanswerethrilledtolearnoftheirmilitarysuccess.Somefeltthatthe
war’sprogressprovedthattheUnitedStateswasnolongerabitplayerontheworld
stagebuthaddemonstrateditspositionasagreatworldpower.
KeyTerms:TellerAmendment,Spanish‐AmericanWar,CommodoreGeorgeDewey
13
AcquiringthePhilippines
Source:Choicesforthe21stCenturyEducationProgram,BeyondManifestDestiny:
AmericaEnterstheAgeofImperialism(Providence,RI:WatsonInstitutefor
InternationalStudies,BrownUniversity,2006),19‐21.
RevolutioninthePhilippines
HalfaworldawayinthePhilippines,SpanishdefensesinManilawerelikewise
crumbling.AlthoughU.S.groundtroopsdidnotreachthePhilippinesuntiltwo
monthsafterDewey’snavalvictory,oncetheretheyjoinedforceswithFilipino
rebelswhohadbeenfightingtheSpanishsince1896.
WhatdidFilipinonationalistsdemand?
AsinCuba,thestruggleagainstSpanishcolonialisminthePhilippineshadbuiltup
slowly.Initially,Filipinonationalistsdidnotpressforfullindependence.Instead,
theycalledforpolitical,economic,andreligiousreforms.Theirdemandsincluded
fullequalitybeforethelaw,localself‐rule,freedomofthepress,equalpayforequal
work,andthereturnoflandwhichSpanishreligiousauthoritieshadtakenfrom
nativeFilipinos.
Thefirstroundofrebellionhadendedina
stalemateinDecember1897.TheSpanish
promisedtomakemodestreformsand,inturn,
therebelsagreedtoacease‐fire.Theleaderofthe
nationalists,EmilioAguinaldo,wentintoexile.In
March1898,thenationalistsresumedtheir
revolt,complainingthattheSpanishhadfailedto
liveuptotheirpromises.Theirgoalwasnowfull
independence.Thenationalistcausereceiveda
boostwhenDeweysanktheSpanishfleetat
Manila.Threeweekslater,Aguinaldoreturnedto
thePhilippinestoagaintakecommandofthe
struggle.
HowdidthewarinthePhilippinesend?
TheFilipinowarforindependencehadarousedlittleinterestintheUnitedStates.In
late1897,anappealfromAguinaldoforU.S.supportfellondeafearsinthe
McKinleyadministration.PresidentMcKinleywasscarcelyexaggeratingwhenhe
latertoldagroupofclergymenthat,beforeDewey’svictory,hewasnotevensure
wherethePhilippineswerelocated.
DeweywasthefirstAmericantotaketheFilipinonationalistsseriously.Althoughhe
destroyedSpain’snavalcapability,herealizedthatU.S.groundtroopswouldnot
reachthePhilippinesforatleasttwomonths.DeweysawAguinaldo’sforcesasallies
inthewaragainstSpain,andsuppliedthemwithrifles,ammunition,andsmall
cannons.Dewey’sstrategy,forwhichhewaslatercriticized,wasbasedonhis
14 experienceasaUnionsoldierintheSouthduringtheCivilWar.Herecalledthat
freedblackslaveswereanassetindefeatingtheConfederacy.
Isaidthesepeople[theFilipinos]wereourfriendsandwehavecome
hereandtheywillhelpusjustexactlyasthenegroeshelpedusinthe
CivilWar.
—CommodoreGeorgeDewey
ThemainattackagainstSpain’sdefensesinManilatookplaceonAugust13,1898,
onedayafterWashingtonandMadridsignedapreliminarypeacetreaty.A
communicationsdelayleftbothsidesunawareoftheagreement.Fromtheir
positionsoutsideManila,U.S.andFilipinoforcesquicklytrappedtheSpanish.After
abriefshowofresistance,Spain’scommandersurrendered.
FollowingtheSpanishDefeat
Inlinewiththeracialstereotypesoftheday,mostAmericanleadershadlittlehope
thattheblacksandAsianswholivedinCuba,PuertoRico,thePhilippines,andGuam
couldbeaforceforprogress.Atthesametime,theSpanishwerethoughtofas
backwardandcruel.Fewexpectedthattheinhabitantsoftheseislandswere
capableofdevelopingstabledemocraciesontheirown.Likewise,Americans
worriedthatbringingtheislandsintotheUnitedStateswouldthreatenthe
Americanpoliticalsystem.
FancytheSenatorsandRepresentativesoftenortwelvemillionsof
tropicalpeople,peopleoftheLatinracemixedwithIndianand
Africanblood;...fancythemsittingintheHallsofCongress,throwing
theweightoftheirintelligence,theirmorality,theirpoliticalnotions,
andhabits,theirprejudicesandpassions,ontothescaleofthe
destiniesofthisRepublic....Tellme,doesnotyourimaginationrecoil
fromthepicture?
—CarlSchurz,newspapereditor
WhyweretheCubanrebelsnotincludedinthenegotiationsaboutthefutureofCuba?
WhentheUnitedStatesdefeatedSpain’sforcesinCuba,theCubanrebelswerenot
invitedtoconferonthesurrender.Onthewhole,infact,theUnitedStatesignored
theCubanrebels.ManyintheadministrationandCongressfeltthattherebels,most
ofwhomwereblack,neededguidanceinmanagingalloftheiraffairs.Afterthe
SpanishdefeatCongresslookedagainatthelanguageoftheTellerAmendment,
whichcalledfor“pacification”beforeCubanindependence.Congressinterpretedthe
termtomeanthatUnitedStatesforceswouldneedtoremainasoccupiersofCuba
untilastablegovernmentcouldbeformed.Asaresult,Americanbusinesses
returnedtoCuba,takingoverlandandrailroadsanddominatingtheeconomy.
WhathappenedtothePhilippines?
ThePhilippinespresentedwhiteAmericansanevenmorealienpicturethanthe
Caribbean.BeforetheSpanish‐AmericanWar,onlyahandfulofAmericanshadbeen
15
awareoftheFilipinorevoltagainstSpain.Inthepoliticalcartoonsthatappearedin
U.S.newspapersaftertheoutbreakoffighting,Filipinoswereoftendepictedas
havingAfricanfeatures.
WilliamHowardTaft,thefuturepresident,referredtoFilipinosas“littlebrown
brothers.”WhiletheircausewonsupportintheAfrican‐Americanpress,therewas
scanteffortinwhitenewspaperstoexplainthepositionoftheFilipinonationalists.
EmilioAguinaldo,thenationalistleader,hadassumedthattheUnitedStatesmeant
toliberatethePhilippinesafterthewar.OnMay24,1898,hehadproclaimed
himselftheheadofatemporaryrevolutionarygovernmentandpledgedtohold
elections.HehadevenexpressedhisspecialgratitudetotheUnitedStates…
DespiteAguinaldo’shopesforimmediateindependence,thepreliminarytreatyof
August12,1898saidthatSpainwouldpermittemporaryU.S.occupationofManila
untilthestatusofthePhilippineswasdeterminedinafinaltreaty.Thepreliminary
treatyalsosaidthatSpainwouldrelinquishallclaimstoCuba,andgivecontrolof
PuertoRicoandGuamtotheUnitedStates.Inthenextfewmonths,boththepublic
andleadersintheUnitedStateswoulddiscusswhatlonger‐termstrategyto
embrace.
Fall1898:AmericaattheCrossroads
Throughouttheremainderofthe
summerandfallof1898thepublic
discussedthepeacetreaty’stermsand
debatedwhethertheUnitedStates
shouldpermanentlyannexterritoriesas
farawayasthePhilippines.President
McKinleyevenwentonamid‐western
speakingtourinOctobertogaugepublic
opinionontheissue.Itwasthe
Philippines—notCuba—attheeyeofthe
storm.Attheconclusionofthewar
Congresshadauthorizedtheoccupation
ofCuba,buthadfailedtoaddressthe
futureofthedistantPhilippinesandits
nearlytenmillionpeople.
Atthesametime,U.S.andSpanish
negotiators(noFilipinos)workedout
thedetailsofthefinaltreatyinParis.OfthefivemembersoftheU.S.peace
commissionPresidentMcKinleyappointed,fourwerebackersofexpansion.Ittook
severalmonthsforthenegotiatorstohashoutatreaty.Oneoftheproposedarticles
theydiscussedwouldaddtheentirearchipelagoofthePhilippinestotheUnited
Statesasacolony.
16 Opponentsofimperialismwereoutrageduponhearingthisnews.Thevarious
groupsofanti‐imperialistsfelttheyshouldjoinforcestoformtheAnti‐Imperialist
League.ThiswaytheycouldmoreeffectivelyprojecttheirmessagetotheAmerican
peopleandtoCongress,whowouldeventuallybevotingonthefinaldraftofthe
treaty.
Theanti‐imperialistscontendedthatthecreationofacolonialempirewouldchange
thepoliticalsystemintheUnitedStatesandalterthecharacterofthenation.They
wereparticularlyconcernedthatannexationwouldmeantheUnitedStatescouldno
longerholditselfupasagovernmentinpowerbythe“consentofthegoverned,”a
principleoftheDeclarationofIndependence.Amongtheranksoftheanti‐
imperialistswereformerPresidentGroverCleveland,industrialistAndrew
Carnegie,andlaborleaderSamuelGompers…
LeadingthefightfortheannexationofthePhilippineswasapowerfulcoalitionof
politicians,businessmen,religiousleaders,andmilitarystrategists.Withinitsranks
wereTheodoreRoosevelt,MassachusettsSenatorHenryCabotLodge,andIndiana
SenatorAlbertBeveridge…
Athirdgroup,madeupmostlyofbigbusinessmenandothersconcernedwith
commerce,favoredretainingonlytheharborofManilasothattheUnitedStates
couldgainasecureeconomicfootholdinAsia.Advocatesofthispositiondidnotlike
theideaoftheUnitedStatesbecominganimperialpower,andpredictedthat
annexationofalltheislandsofthearchipelagowouldbecostly…
AllsegmentsofthedebateinfluencedthenegotiationsforapeacetreatyinParis.
KeyTerms:EmilioAguinaldo(dates:1869‐1964),Anti‐ImperialistLeague
17
ChoicesinthePhilippines
Source:Choicesforthe21stCenturyEducationProgram,BeyondManifestDestiny:
AmericaEnterstheAgeofImperialism(Providence,RI:WatsonInstitutefor
InternationalStudies,BrownUniversity,2006),23‐29.
ThefollowingsummariesdescribethreepossiblecoursesofactionfortheUnitedStates
totakeregardingthePhilippines.
Option1:GraspanEmpire
America’sstunningtriumphoverSpainhasusheredournationintoaneweraof
opportunityandresponsibility.Justasthecourageofourfoundingfathersopened
thedoortotamingtheNorthAmericancontinent,theheroismofoursoldiersand
sailorsinCubaandthePhilippineshasrevealedanewhorizonofexpansionand
possibility.ThisisourGod‐givenmission.Wemustgrasptheempirethatourbrave
youngmenhavewonandfulfillournationaldestiny.
Fromthebeginning,AmericawaschosenbyGodforgreatness.Withdivineblessing,
hardwork,andasenseofdutyrootedinourAnglo‐Saxonheritage,wehavebuiltthe
greatestnationonearth.Noothercountrycancompetewiththeproductivityof
America’sfarmsandfactories.Nootherpeoplehasdemonstratedthesamecapacity
forwiseandmoderateself‐government.Nowwehavetheopportunity—some
wouldsaytheobligation—toextendthegrandAmericanexperimentbeyondour
shores.Wemustbringlibertytothedowntrodden.
Wemustalsolookoverseastocontinueoureconomicadvancement.Theingenuity,
efficiency,andinnovationofourpeopleareproducingmoreproductsthanour
countrycanconsume.Aswehavewitnessedinrecentyears,theeconomicproblems
andsocialunrestresultingfromsurplusproductionthreatentobringdownallthat
wehaveachieved.ThemarketsofAsiaholdthekeytokeepingAmerica’seconomy
healthyandstrong.Toreachthem,however,weneedtocontrolthePhilippinesin
theirentirety.Withtheirsafeharborsandstrategiclocation,thePhilippineislands
arethegatewaytoallofAsia.
Ofcourse,ourroleinthePhilippinesmustgowellbeyondeconomics.Nowthatwe
haverescuedtheFilipinosfromSpanishmisrule,weoweittothemtobringthe
benefitsofAmericancivilizationtotheislands.Tomoveforward,theFilipinosneed
orderandsecurityastheylearnabouttheAmericanconceptsofdemocracyand
freedom.Theyneedourhelpinghandtodeveloptheresourcesoftheirislandsand
toenterthemodernage.Thetaskawaitingusisdifficultandprobablythankless,but
itisthemorallycorrectthingtodo.
Considerthealternatives.Inthisageofruthlesscolonialism,thePhilippineswithout
U.S.protectionwouldbeeasypreyforpowerful,unscrupulousnationslikeJapan
andGermany.AstheywereundertheSpanish,theFilipinoswouldagainbe
conquered,exploited,andleftinmisery.Moreover,ManilaBay—thefinestnatural
18 harborinthewesternPacific—couldfallunderthecontrolofanunfriendlypower.
BothAmericansandFilipinoswouldlose.
Ifweshirkthechallengebeforeus,wewillbothdishonorournationanddeprive
futuregenerationsoftheeconomicblessingswhichanempirecanprovide.Wewill
betraythemissionwhichGodhasgivenustoactasabeaconoflibertyand
Christianity.Letusseizeournationaldestinyandmovebravelyforward.
Option2:WalkAwayfromEmpire
Americatodaystandsatacrossroads.Alongonepath,wecancontinuetofollowthe
wisdomofourfoundingfathersandmakefurtherstridestowardpeaceand
prosperity.Alongtheother,wecanjointhemilitaristicgovernmentsoftheOld
Worldandfallintotheruinoustrapofimperialism.
Weknowthatrulingoveranotherpeoplewithouttheirconsentistyranny,whether
theyearbe1776or1898.Imperialismfliesinthefaceofourcorevaluesof
individualfreedomandself‐government.TheFilipinosdonotwanttobegoverned
byus.Toimposeourwillonthemwouldbetodepriveothersofliberty.Isthisa
worthycauseforsheddingAmericanblood?
America’sexpansionwestwardfollowedalogicalcourse.Wehavegradually
extendedourcontrolacrossthecontinent,openingnewlandstosettlementby
Americancitizensandeventualstatehood.ThisishardlythecaseinthePhilippines.
Rather,theimperialistsareaskingustoannexafar‐flungcollectionofislandshalfa
worldawaywithnearlytenmillionpeople.Thereisnothoughttogivingthe
Filipinoscitizenshiporgrantingtheislandsstatehood.Rather,wearebeingaskedto
stepintotheroleofcolonialmaster,justastheSpanishbeforeus.
TheFilipinosarenotlikeus.Theyspeakadifferentlanguage,theypracticea
differentreligion,andtheyknowlittleaboutcivilization.Ourcountryalreadysuffers
fromseriousracialproblems.WeareplaguedbydifficultieswithAmerica’sblacks.
MillionsofalienimmigrantsfromsouthernandeasternEuropearepouringintoour
citiesandthreateningthestabilityofourinstitutions.Toaggravatethisalready
dangeroussituationbyaddingtheFilipinostothemixwouldbemadness.
Imperialismisadiseasethat,ifpermittedtoenteroursystem,wouldeventually
infectourentiresociety.AcquiringacolonialempirewouldplungeAmericainto
conflictswithJapan,Germany,France,Britain,andotherimperialistpowers.We
wouldsoonfindourselvessuckedintotheintriguesandsquabblesoftheOldWorld.
TwovastoceanshaveprotectedusfromthesenselesswarsofEuropeandAsia.To
acquireafar‐flungempirewouldbetothrowawaythesplendidisolationwith
whichGodhasblessedus.
Additionally,theburdenofadministeringanempirewouldswellthepowerandcost
ofourcentralgovernmentattheexpenseofindividualliberty.Asanimperialist
power,theUnitedStateswouldbecompelledtoenlargethenavyandmaintaina
19
largestandingarmy.Dowewanttoexchangethevaluesofademocraticrepublicfor
thoseofamilitarydictatorship?
Wemustnotallowourselvestobedeceivedbythefalsepromiseofimperialism.
America’sfocusbelongsathome,notonseizingdistantcolonies.
Option3:EstablishControloverManila
Americatodayfacesacrucialdecision.OurvictoryoverSpainhaspresenteduswith
bothopportunityanddanger.TheUnitedStatesmustagaindrawonitsproven
abilitytoresolvedifficultissuesfromapracticalpointofview.Acarefulassessment
ofournationalinterestswillsurelyleadustotheconclusionthattheUnitedStates
shouldacquiretheharborofManilaandestablishatemporaryprotectoratethere.
Whilemanyhavebeendazzledbytheprospectofempire,fewoftheenthusiastsfor
foreignadventurehavethoughtfullyconsideredthecostsandrisks.Plunging
headlongdownthepathofrecklessimperialismwouldinevitablybringusinto
conflictwiththeimperialpowersofEuropeandJapan.Hugesumswouldhavetobe
spentonexpandingAmerica’sarmyandnavy.Thisismoneythatwouldbemuch
betterinvestedinrailroads,schools,andbusinessesathome.Imperialismwould
alsothreatenourpoliticalsystem.Inthepast,theUnitedStateshasfoughtto
advancethecauseofliberty.TotakeuptheswordasaconquerorinthePhilippines
andtowielditpermanentlyasanoverlordwouldchangethecharacterofAmerica.
Ontheotherhand,giventheGerman,French,Japanese,andRussianencroachments
inChina,itisclearthatothernationshopetoforceusoutofAsia,andweneedto
gainawaybackin.Indeed,wehaveevenrecentlylearnedofapactamongGermany,
France,andRussiathatdeliberatelyattemptstoexcludesusandGreatBritainfrom
theFarEast.JapanandBritainhavebothannouncedtheywouldtakethe
Philippinesifwedonotestablishsomepresencethere.Asseveralofthesenations
haverecentlycarvedupAfricaascolonies,weneedtobesteadfastinour
determinationtopreventaEuropeandominationoftheFarEastaswell.Wehave
surplusgoodsherethatmustfindmarketsoverseasinorderthatourcountrymay
stillgrowandprosper.Oureconomicsuccessisdependentonourestablishingports
andbasesfromwhichtocontinueouroverseascommercialexpansion.
TheharborofManilawouldbeanimportantassetfortheUnitedStates.Its
proximitytoChinaandAustraliawillassistourcommercethereandwouldprevent
greedyforeignnationsfromannexingit.Weshouldthereforeseektomaintaina
postinManila.Weshouldalsopressforan“opendoor”totradeinAsia.Allnations
shouldbeallowedtocompeteintheAsianmarketwithoutrestrictions.The
Philippineswouldbepermittedtodeveloptheirowngovernment,perhaps
observingandadoptingourpractices,butnotfallingtoanyEuropeannation.
Ourvaluesandourpeoplearebestsuitedtotradeandindustry,nottoconquestand
empire.
20 ThePhilippine‐AmericanWar
Source:Choicesforthe21stCenturyEducationProgram,BeyondManifestDestiny:
AmericaEnterstheAgeofImperialism(Providence,RI:WatsonInstitutefor
InternationalStudies,BrownUniversity,2006),32‐35.
Throughoutthelatesummerandfallof1898,
membersoftheAnti‐ImperialistLeaguewrote
pamphletsandlobbiedfortheircause.Advocatesof
furtherexpansionalsotriedtodrawconvertstotheir
ranks.McKinley,forhispart,increasedpressureon
Spainduringthenegotiationsforthepeacetreaty.By
October,heinsistedthatSpainturnovertheentire
PhilippineislandarchipelagototheUnitedStates.
SpainwasinnopositiontoresistU.S.demands.
Thefinaltreaty,whichMcKinleysignedDecember10,
1898,reflectedhiswishes.Ittransferredthe
Philippines,Cuba,PuertoRico,andGuamtotheUnitedStates.McKinleyagreedto
pay$20milliontocompensateSpainforSpanishgovernmentbuildingsinthe
Philippines.ThetreatywasnowreadyforconsiderationbytheSenatewhereatwo‐
thirdsmajoritywasneededforratification…
TwodaysbeforetheSenatevote,anAmericansoldierfiredonaFilipinopatrolthat
refusedtohalt.ThisoutbreakmayhaveinfluencedsomeSenators,whoweretold
thattheFilipinoshadfiredfirst.
OnFebruary6,1899,theU.S.SenateapprovedtheTreatyofParisbyamarginof57
to27–justonevotemorethantherequiredtwo‐thirdsmajority.Congressdidnot
passaproposedamendmenttograntthePhilippinesindependenceonceastable
governmentwasestablished.
InsurrectioninthePhilippines
EvenastheSenatewasdebatingthetreaty,manyoftheworstfearsoftheanti‐
imperialistswerebecomingreality.TensionsbetweenU.S.andFilipinoforceshad
beenbuildingformonths.TheFilipinoshadassumedthattheywouldbegranted
independenceafterthedepartureoftheSpanish,butU.S.troopshadordersto
establishcontrolovertheislands.Withinhoursoftheshootingincident,fightinghad
spreadtomuchoftheareaaroundManila.TheFilipinosbelievedtheywerefighting
fortheirindependence.
HowdidAmericanforcesadapttoanewkindofwarfare?
Overthenextthreeyears,U.S.forcesinthePhilippinesfoughtthePhilippine‐
AmericanWar,oneoftheUnitedStates’mostbrutalandleastrememberedwars.
Beforeitendedinmid‐1902,battleanddiseasehadkilled4,300Americans—nearly
twicethedeathtolloftheSpanish‐AmericanWar.AmongtheFilipinos,fightingas
21
wellasstarvationanddiseasecausedbythewarkilled20,000soldiers.Asmanyas
250,000civiliansdied.
ThewarinthePhilippineswasfardifferentthananyconflictinwhichAmericans
hadpreviouslyfought.Ratherthanconfrontinganorganizedarmy,astheyhadin
Cuba,U.S.soldiersfacedaquick‐strikingguerrillamovement.Therulesofwarthat
generallyprevailedinbattlesinvolvingWesternnationswerelargelyignored.Both
sidestorturedandexecutedprisonersandcommittedotheratrocities.TheFilipino
insurgents,knownasinsurrectos,easilymeltedintothecivilianpopulationinthe
countryside.
TheFilipinoswerecommandedbyEmilioAguinaldo,the
samenationalistfigurewhohadledthestruggleagainst
SpainandhadpraisedtheUnitedStatesas“thefriendof
ourpeople.”Aguinaldo’scaptureinMarch1901marked
aturningpointintheconflict.Heagreedtodeclarehis
allegiancetotheUnitedStatesand,inturn,theU.S.
governmentawardedhimapension.
BythenAmericantacticshaddeeplyscarredrelations
withtheFilipinos.Toputdowntheinsurrection,the
UnitedStatesadoptedmanyofthesametacticsusedby
theSpanishinCuba.U.S.commandersroutinelypunishedciviliansinresponseto
attacksbyFilipinoguerrillas.Inoneofthewar’sbloodiestepisodes,U.S.forces
imprisonedvirtuallytheentirepopulationofthesmallislandofSamarafter
guerrillashadwipedoutanAmericangarrison.U.S.troopshadorderstokillall
malesontheislandabovetheageoftenwhohadnotsurrendered.Inotherareas,
AmericansoldiersexecutedFilipinoprisonersatrandomwheneveranAmerican
soldierwaskilled.
WhatwastheroleofblackAmericansoldiers?
AsinCuba,blacksoldiersplayedaprominentroleinthePhilippines.Tworegiments
ofblackvolunteerswereamongthenearlyseventythousandU.S.troopswhofought
intheconflict.InresponsetodemandsfromtheAfrican‐Americancommunity,the
WarDepartmentappointedblackofficerstocommandthevolunteers.Inaddition,
allfouroftheregulararmy’sall‐blackregimentssawactioninthePhilippines.
TheconflictinthePhilippinesgeneratedlittleoftheprideamongblacksoldiersthat
wasevidentinCuba.Athome,African‐Americanleaderswereattheforefrontofthe
backlashagainstthewar.Theywereespeciallycriticaloftheracistattitudesthat
typifiedthemilitary’sviewoftheFilipinos.Amongwhitetroops,officersand
enlistedmenalike,theFilipinoswereoftenreferredtoas“niggers.”
Moreover,blacksoldiersinthePhilippinesweresubjectedtothesame
discriminationtheyfacedintheUnitedStates.Theywerebarredfromrestaurants,
barbershops,andotherfacilitiesmarked“whiteonly.”Filipinonationalistsopenly
22 playedontheracialdivisionswithintheU.S.Army.Theydistributedposters
addressedtothe“ColoredAmericanSoldier”thatremindedblacksofthe
discriminationtheysuffered.Infact,therateofdesertionamongblacksoldiersin
thePhilippineswasunusuallyhigh.ManyofthedesertersjoinedtheFilipino
insurgence.In1903,ayearafterthefightinghadended,therewereroughlyfive
hundredAfricanAmericanslivinginthePhilippines…
HowdidthePhilippinesgainindependence?
TheFilipinosremainedintentonachievingindependenceevenaftertheUnited
Statesdefeatedtheirinsurrection.Atthesametime,theUnitedStatesrapidlylostits
appetiteforadministeringacolonyandtheAmericanpublicbecameincreasingly
apatheticabouttheissue.EvenTheodoreRoosevelt,realizingthedifficultiesof
occupation,saidthatthepeopleoftheUnitedStateswerenotpreparedtoacceptthe
burdensofempire.Hecalledtheislands“America’sAchillesheel”in1907.
Intheearly1900s,Americanofficials
quicklyturnedovermuchofthe
responsibilityforgoverningthe
islandstoFilipinos.Bythe1910s,
Filipinosformedasolidmajorityof
theircountry’sbureaucrats.In1934,
theUnitedStatesgrantedthe
Philippinescommonwealthstatus.
Underthenewarrangement,the
Filipinoshadnearlycompleteauthorityoverlocalissues.Fullindependencewas
promisedwithintenyears.AlthoughWorldWarIIinterruptedthetransferof
power,thePhilippinesfinallydidgainindependencein1946–fiftyyearsafterthe
outbreakoftherevoltagainstSpain.
KeyTerms:TreatyofParis,Philippine‐AmericanWar,insurrectos
23
TheRooseveltCorollary
Source:TheAmericans:Reconstructiontothe21stCentury(Evanston,IL:McDougal
Littell,2005),359‐363.
TheassassinationofWilliamMcKinleyin1901thrust
Vice‐PresidentTheodore
Rooseveltintotheroleofaworldleader.Rooseveltwas
unwillingtoallowtheimperialpowersofEuropeto
controltheworld’spoliticalandeconomicdestiny.In
1905,buildingontheOpenDoornotestoincrease
AmericaninfluenceinEastAsia,Rooseveltmediateda
settlementinawarbetweenRussiaandJapan.
RooseveltthePeacemaker
In1904,TsarNicholasIIofRussiadeclaredwaronJapan,
Russia’sneighborinEastAsia.RussiaandJapanwereboth
imperialistpowers,andtheywerecompetingforcontrol
ofKorea.TheJapanesetookthefirstactioninthewarwith
asurpriseattackontheRussianPacificfleet.Toeveryone’ssurprise,Japan
destroyedit.Japanthenproceededtodestroyasecondfleetsentasreinforcement.
Japanalsowonaseriesoflandbattles,securingKoreaandManchuria.
Asaresultofthesebattles,Japanbegantorunoutofmenandmoney,afactthatit
didnotwanttorevealtoRussia.Instead,JapaneseofficialsapproachedPresident
Rooseveltinsecretandaskedhimtomediatepeacenegotiations.Rooseveltagreed,
andin1905,RussianandJapanesedelegatesconvenedinPortsmouth,New
Hampshire…
TheJapanesewantedSakhalin
Island,offthecoastofSiberia,
andalargesumofmoneyfrom
Russia.Russiarefused.Roosevelt
persuadedJapantoaccepthalf
theislandandforgothecash
payment.Inexchange,Russia
agreedtoletJapantakeover
RussianinterestsinManchuria
andKorea.Thesuccessfulefforts
innegotiatingtheTreatyof
PortsmouthwonRooseveltthe
1906NobelPeacePrize.
AsU.S.andJapaneseinterestsexpandedinEastAsia,thetwonationscontinued
diplomatictalks.Inlateragreements,theypledgedtorespecteachother’s
possessionsandinterestsinEastAsiaandthePacific.
24 PanamaCanal
BythetimeRooseveltbecamepresident,manyAmericans,includingRoosevelt,felt
thattheUnitedStatesneededacanalcuttingacrossCentralAmerica.Suchacanal
wouldgreatlyreducetraveltimeforcommercialandmilitaryshipsbyprovidinga
shortcutbetweentheAtlanticandPacificoceans.Asearlyas1850,theUnitedStates
andBritainhadagreedtosharetherightstosuchacanal.IntheHay‐Pauncefote
Treatyof1901,however,BritaingavetheUnitedStatesexclusiverightstobuildand
controlacanalthroughCentralAmerica.
Engineersidentifiedtwopossibleroutesfortheproposedcanal.One,through
Nicaragua,posedfewerobstaclesbecausemuchofitcrossedalargelake.Theother
routecrossedthroughPanama(thenaprovinceofColombia)andwasshorterand
filledwithmountainsandswamps.Inthelate1800s,aFrenchcompanyhadtriedto
buildacanalinPanama.Aftertenyears,thecompanygaveup.Itsentanagent,
PhilippeBunau‐Varilla,toWashingtontoconvincetheUnitedStatestobuyitsclaim.
In1903,thepresidentandCongressdecidedtousethePanamarouteandagreedto
buytheFrenchcompany’sroutefor$40million.
BeforebeginningworkonthePanama
Canal,theUnitedStateshadtoget
permissionfromColombia,which
thenruledPanama.Whenthese
negotiationsbrokedown,Bunau‐
VarillahelpedorganizeaPanamanian
rebellionagainstColombia.On
November3,1903,nearlyadozenU.S.
warshipswerepresentasPanama
declareditsindependence.Fifteen
dayslater,PanamaandtheUnited
Statessignedatreatyinwhichthe
UnitedStatesagreedtopayPanama
$10millionplusanannualrentof
$250,000foranareaoflandacross
Panama,calledtheCanalZone.The
paymentsweretobeginin1913…
TheRooseveltCorollary
FinancialfactorsdrewtheUnitedStatesfurtherintoLatinAmericanaffairs.Inthe
late19thcentury,manyLatinAmericannationshadborrowedhugesumsfrom
Europeanbankstobuildrailroadsanddevelopindustries.Rooseveltfearedthatif
thesenationsdefaultedontheirloans,Europeansmightintervene.Hewas
determinedtomaketheUnitedStatesthepredominantpowerintheCaribbeanand
CentralAmerica.
25
RooseveltremindedEuropean
powersoftheMonroeDoctrine,
whichhadbeenissuedin1823by
PresidentJamesMonroe.The
MonroeDoctrinedemandedthat
Europeancountriesstayoutofthe
affairsofLatinAmericannations.
RooseveltbasedhisLatinAmerica
policyonaWestAfricanproverb
thatsaid,“Speaksoftlyandcarrya
bigstick.”InhisDecember1904
messagetoCongress,Roosevelt
addedtheRooseveltCorollarytotheMonroeDoctrine.Hewarnedthatdisorderin
LatinAmericamight“forcetheUnitedStates...totheexerciseofaninternational
policepower.”Ineffect,thecorollarysaidthattheUnitedStateswouldnowuse
forcetoprotectitseconomicinterestsinLatinAmerica.
DollarDiplomacy
Duringthenextdecade,theUnitedStatesexerciseditspolicepoweronseveral
occasions.Forexample,whena1911rebellioninNicaragualeftthenationnear
bankruptcy,PresidentWilliamH.Taft,Roosevelt’ssuccessor,arrangedforAmerican
bankerstoloanNicaraguaenoughmoneytopayitsdebts.Inreturn,thebankers
weregiventherighttorecovertheirmoneybycollectingNicaragua’scustoms
duties[importandexporttaxes].TheU.S.bankersalsogainedcontrolofNicaragua’s
state‐ownedrailroadsystemanditsnationalbank.WhenNicaraguancitizensheard
aboutthisdeal,theyrevoltedagainstPresidentAdolfoDíaz.TopropupDíaz’s
government,some2,000marinesweresenttoNicaragua.Therevoltwasputdown,
butsomemarinedetachmentsremainedinthecountryuntil1933.
TheTaftadministrationfollowedthepolicyofusingtheU.S.governmentto
guaranteeloansmadetoforeigncountriesbyAmericanbusinesspeople.Thispolicy
wascalleddollardiplomacybyitscriticsandwasoftenusedtojustifykeeping
EuropeanpowersoutoftheCaribbean.
KeyTerms:PanamaCanal,RooseveltCorollary
26 AcquiringHawaii
Source:StevenMintzandSaraMcNeil,“TheAnnexationofHawaii,”DigitalHistory,
2014,http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID=2&psid=3159.
AfteracenturyofAmericanrule,manynativeHawaiiansremainbitterabouthow
theUnitedStatesacquiredtheislands,located2,500milesfromtheWestCoast.
In1893,asmallgroupofsugarandpineapple‐growingbusinessmen,aidedbythe
AmericanministertoHawaiiandbackedbyheavilyarmedU.S.soldiersand
marines,deposedHawaii'squeen.Subsequently,theyimprisonedthequeenand
seized1.75millionacresofcrownlandandconspiredtoannextheislandstothe
UnitedStates.
OnJanuary17,1893,theconspirators
announcedtheoverthrowofthequeen's
government.Toavoidbloodshed,Queen
LydiaKamakaehaLiliuokalaniyieldedher
sovereigntyandcalledupontheU.S.
government"toundotheactionsofits
representatives."TheU.S.government
refusedtohelpherregainherthrone.When
shediedin1917,HawaiiwasanAmerican
territory.In1959,Hawaiibecamethe50th
stateafteraplebiscite[vote]inwhich90
percentoftheislanderssupported
statehood.
Thebusinessmenwhoconspiredtooverthrowthequeenclaimedthattheywere
overthrowingacorrupt,dissoluteregimeinorder[to]advancedemocratic
principles.TheyalsoarguedthataWesternpowerwaslikelytoacquiretheislands.
Hawaiihadthefinestharborinthemid‐Pacificandwasviewedasastrategically
valuablecoalingstationandnavalbase.In1851,KingKamehamehaIIIhadsecretly
askedtheUnitedStatestoannexHawaii,butSecretaryofStateDanielWebster
declined,saying"Nopoweroughttotakepossessionoftheislandsasaconquest...or
colonization."ButlatermonarchswantedtomaintainHawaii'sindependence.The
nativepopulationprovedtobevulnerabletowesterndiseases,includingcholera,
smallpox,andleprosy.By1891,nativeHawaii'swereanethnicminorityonthe
islands.
Afterthebloodless1893revolution,theAmericanbusinessmenlobbiedPresident
BenjaminHarrisonandCongresstoannextheHawaiianIslands.Inhislastmonthin
office,HarrisonsentanannexationtreatytotheSenateforconfirmation,butthe
newpresident,GroverCleveland,withdrewthetreaty"forthepurposeofre‐
examination."HealsoreceivedQueenLiliuokalaniandreplacedtheAmericanstars
andstripesinHonoluluwiththeHawaiianflag.
27
ClevelandalsoorderedastudyoftheHawaiianrevolution.Theinquiryconcluded
thattheAmericanministertoHawaiihadconspiredwiththebusinessmento
overthrowthequeen,andthatthecoupwouldhavefailed"butforthelandingofthe
UnitedStatesforcesuponfalsepretextsrespectingthedangerstolifeandproperty."
LookingbackontheHawaiitakeover,PresidentClevelandlaterwrotethat"the
provisionalgovernmentowesitsexistencetoanarmedinvasionbytheUnited
States.Byanactofwar...asubstantialwronghasbeendone."
PresidentCleveland'srecommendationthatthemonarchyberestoredwasrejected
byCongress.TheHouseofRepresentativesvotedtocensuretheU.S.ministerto
Hawaiiandadoptedaresolutionopposingannexation.ButCongressdidnotactto
restorethemonarchy.In1894,SanfordDole,whowasbeginninghispineapple
business,declaredhimselfpresidentoftheRepublicofHawaiiwithoutapopular
vote.Thenewgovernmentfoundthequeenguiltyoftreasonandsentencedherto
fiveyearsofhardlaboranda$5,000fine.Whilethesentenceofhardlaborwasnot
carriedout,thequeenwasplacedunderhousearrest.
TheRepublicanPartyplatforminthepresidentialelectionof1896calledforthe
annexationofHawaii.PetitionsforapopularvoteinHawaiiwereignored.Fearing
thathelackedtwo‐thirdssupportforannexationintheSenate,thenewRepublican
president,WilliamMcKinley,calledforajointresolutionofCongress(thesameway
thattheUnitedStateshadacquiredTexas).WiththecountryarousedbytheSpanish
AmericanWarandpoliticalleadersfearfulthattheislandsmightbeannexedby
Japan,thejointresolutioneasilypassedCongress.HawaiiofficiallybecameaU.S.
territoryin1900.
WhenCapt.JamesCooke,theBritishexplorer,arrivedinHawaiiin1778,therewere
about300,000Hawaiiansontheislands;however,infectiousdiseasesreducedthe
nativepopulation.Today,about20percentofHawaii'speopleareofnative
Hawaiianancestry,andonlyabout10,000areofpureHawaiiandescent.Native
Hawaiianswerepoorer,lesshealthy,andlesseducatedthanmembersofother
majorethnicgroupsontheislands.
Sugargrowers,whodominatedtheislands'economy,importedthousandsof
immigrantlaborersfirstfromChina,thenJapan,thenPortuguesefromMadeiraand
theAzores,followedbyPuertoRicans,Koreans,andmostrecentlyFilipinos.Asa
result,Hawaiihasoneoftheworld'smostmulticulturalpopulations.
In1993,a[joint]Congressionalresolution,signedbyPresidentBillClinton,
apologizedfortheU.S.roleintheoverthrow.TheHouseapprovedtheresolutionby
voicevote.TheSenatepassedit65to34votes.
KeyTerms:AnnexationofHawaii
28 TheOpenDoorPolicy
Source:OfficeoftheHistorian,U.S.DepartmentofState,“SecretaryofStateJohnHay
andtheOpenDoorinChina,1899‐1900,”
https://history.state.gov/milestones/1899‐1913/hay‐and‐china.
SecretaryofStateJohnHayfirstarticulatedthe
conceptofthe“OpenDoor”inChinainaseriesof
notesin1899–1900.TheseOpenDoorNotesaimed
tosecureinternationalagreementtotheU.S.policy
ofpromotingequalopportunityforinternational
tradeandcommerceinChina,andrespectforChina’s
administrativeandterritorialintegrity.Britishand
AmericanpoliciestowardChinahadlongoperated
undersimilarprinciples,butonceHayputtheminto
writing,the“OpenDoor”becametheofficialU.S.
policytowardstheFarEastinthefirsthalfofthe
20thcentury.
TheideabehindtheOpenDoorNotesoriginatedwithBritishandAmericanChina
experts,AlfredE.HippisleyandWilliamW.Rockhill.Bothmenbelievedthattheir
countries’economicinterestsinChinawouldbebestprotectedandpromotedbya
formalagreementamongtheEuropeanpowersontheprincipleofmaintainingan
OpenDoorfortradeandcommercialactivity.Undertheirinfluence,SecretaryHay
sentthefirstoftheOpenDoorNotesonSeptember6,1899,totheothergreat
powersthathadaninterestinChina,includingGreatBritain,France,Russia,
Germany,andJapan.Thesenationsmaintainedsignificantphysicalandcommercial
presencesinChina,andwereprotectiveoftheirvariousspheresofinfluenceand
tradingprivilegesthere,andelsewhereinAsia.
Hayproposedafree,openmarketandequaltradingopportunityformerchantsof
allnationalitiesoperatinginChina,basedinpartonthemostfavorednationclauses
alreadyestablishedintheTreatiesofWangxiaandTianjin.Hayarguedthat
establishingequalaccesstocommercewouldbenefitAmericantradersandtheU.S.
economy,andhopedthattheOpenDoorwouldalsopreventdisputesbetweenthe
powersoperatinginChina.FortheUnitedStates,whichheldrelativelylittlepolitical
cloutandnoterritoryinChina,theprincipalofnon‐discriminationincommercial
activitywasparticularlyimportant.HaycalledforeachofthepowersactiveinChina
todoawaywitheconomicadvantagesfortheirowncitizenswithintheirspheresof
influence,andalsosuggestedthattheChinesetariffsapplyuniversallyandbe
collectedbytheChinesethemselves.Althoughtheotherpowersmaynothave
agreedfullywiththeseideas,noneopenlyopposedthem.
First,HaysoughttheapprovaloftheBritishandJapaneseGovernments,bothof
whichconsideredtheAmericansuggestiontobeintheirinterests,althoughboth
conditionedtheiracceptanceofthetermsontheagreementofallthepowers
29
involved.FrancefollowedtheBritishandJapaneseexample.ThisBritish,Japanese,
andFrenchendorsementofHay’ssuggestionpressuredGermanyandRussiato
adheretothetermsofthenote,althoughRussiadidsowithsomanycaveatsthatit
practicallynegatedtheNote’scentralprinciples.Nevertheless,Haydeclaredthatall
thepowershadacceptedtheideaswithresponsesthatwere“finalanddefinitive.”
In1900,however,internaleventsinChinathreatenedtheideaoftheOpenDoor.An
anti‐foreignmovementknownastheBoxerRebellion,namedforthemartialartists
thatledthemovement,gatheredstrength,andbeganattackingforeignmissionaries
andChineseconvertstoChristianity.WiththebackingofEmpressDowagerCixi
(Tz’uHsi)andtheimperialarmy,theBoxerRebellionturnedintoaviolentconflict
thatclaimedthelivesofhundredsofforeignmissionariesandthousandsofChinese
nationals.AstheBoxersdescendeduponBeijing,foreignnationalslivinginthat
city—includingembassystaff—clusteredtogetherinthebesiegedforeignlegations,
andcalledupontheirhomegovernmentsforassistance.
WithforeignarmiesfightingtheirwayfromtheChinesecoasttorescuetheir
citizensinthecapital,insomecasessecuringtheirownconcessionsandareasof
specialinterestalongtheway,theprincipleoftheOpenDoorseemedtobeingrave
danger.OnJuly3,1900,Haycirculatedanothermessagetotheforeignpowers
involvedinChina,thistimenotingtheimportanceofrespectingthe“territorialand
administrativeintegrity”ofChina.Althoughthegoalwastopreventthepowers
fromusingtheBoxerRebellionasanexcusetocarveChinaintoindividualcolonies,
theOpenDoorCircularrequestednoformalagreementorassurancesfromthe
otherpowers.
Together,theOpenDoorNotesservedtheimportantpurposeofoutliningU.S.policy
towardChinaandexpressingU.S.hopesforcooperationwiththeotherforeign
powerswithastakeintheregion.TheywereoflastingimportanceinU.S.‐East
Asianrelations,andcontributedtotheideaofaSino‐American“special
relationship.”However,becausetheywerenon‐binding,theNotesdidnotprevent
theUnitedStates—oranyotherpower—fromonedayseekingChineseterritory,or
actinginanywaythatwaspreferentialtotheirowninterests,evenattheexpenseof
theChineseGovernment.HayhimselfevenbrieflyconsideredaseizureofChinese
territory,althoughhequicklyrejectedtheidea.AlthoughtheNoteswerenot
binding,Hay’ssuccessorsnonethelessadheredtothepolicyofmaintainingtheOpen
DoorinChina.ThearticulationoftheOpenDoorpolicyrepresentedthegrowing
AmericaninterestandinvolvementinEastAsiaattheturnofthecentury.
Ironically,HayarticulatedtheOpenDoorpolicyatatimewhentheU.S.Government
wasdoingeverythinginitspowertoclosethedooronChineseimmigrationtothe
UnitedStates.ThiseffectivelystifledopportunitiesforChinesemerchantsand
workersintheUnitedStates.
KeyTerms:JohnHay,OpenDoorpolicy,BoxerRebellion
30 BuildingthePanamaCanal
Source:StevenMintzandSaraMcNeil,“AMan,APlan,ACanal,Panama,”Digital
History,2014,
http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID=2&psid=3157.
AtnoononDecember31,1999,theUnitedStatesvoluntarilygaveupthePanama
Canal,ending85yearsofcontrol.Priortothedevelopmentoftheatomicbomband
thelandingofastronautsonthemoon,thePanamaCanalwasperhapsthiscountry's
signalengineeringachievement.Fifty‐onemileslong,withabout$3.5billionin
basesandinfrastructure,thecanallinkstheAtlanticandPacificoceans.
Attheendofthe20thcentury,thecanalwasnolongeressentialtoU.S.strategicor
economicinterests.Aircraftcarriersandoiltankersweretoolargetopassthrough
thecanal'slocks.Earlierinthecentury,however,thecanalwasregardedasavital
nationalinterest.DuringWorldWarII,theUnitedStatesstationed65,000troopsin
Panamatoprotectthecanal.AnumberofU.S.interventionsintheCaribbeanand
CentralAmericawereundertakenlargelytoprotectthecanalfromhostilepowers.
Thecanal'sconstructionwasaphenomenalundertaking.In1850,U.S.interestsin
PanamabuiltarailroadacrosstheIsthmustotransport'49ers[peopleseekinggold
inCalifornia]toCalifornia.In1879,theFrench,freshfromtheirsuccessinbuilding
theSuezCanal,startedbuildingthe
canal.Overthenext20years,between
16,000and22,000workersdiedfrom
malaria,yellowfever,typhoid,snake
bites,andaccidents.Torrentialrains
averaging200inchesayearwashed
awaymuchofthework.
America's1898warwithSpainmadea
canalseemessential.DuringtheSpanish
AmericanWar,theonlywayforU.S.
battleshipstosailfromtheAtlanticto
thePacificOceanwastomakean8,000
milejourneyaroundCapeHornatthe
tipofSouthAmerica.
Thecanalwascompletedinthefaceofseeminglyinsurmountablepolitical,medical,
andtechnologicalobstacles.TheIsthmusofPanamawaslocatedinColombia,which
hadrejectedaU.S.proposaltobuildacanal."Youcouldnomoremakeanagreement
withthemthanyoucouldnailcurrantjellytoawall,"PresidentTheodoreRoosevelt
saidinresponsetotherejection.
AFrenchadventurer,PhilippeBunau‐Varilla,andanAmericanlawyer,Nelson
Cromwell,conceivedoftheideaofcreatingtheRepublicofPanama.Theypersuaded
31
RoosevelttosupportaPanama.Bunau‐VarillaengineeredarevolutionandU.S.
warshipspreventedColombiafromstoppingPanama'sattempttobreakaway(In
1921,theU.S.paidanindemnitytoColombiainrecognitionoftheU.S.roleinthe
Panamanianrevolution).Bunau‐VarillarepaidtheUnitedStatesforitsassistanceby
signingatreatyonbehalfofthePanamanians,whichgavetheUnitedStatesazone
stretchingfivemilesfromeachbankofthecanalinperpetuity.Withinthezone,U.S.
laws,police,andcourtsruled.
Yearslater,PresidentRooseveltsaidthatthepeopleofPanamarebelledagainst
Colombia"literallyasoneman."Asenatorquipped,"Yes,andtheonemanwas
Roosevelt."In1911,Rooseveltsaidbluntly,"ItooktheIsthmus,startedthecanal
andthenleftCongressnottodebatethecanalbuttodebateme."In1906,eagerto
seethegreatestaccomplishmentofhispresidency,hebecamethefirstpresidentto
traveloverseas.HewenttoPanamaattheheightoftherainyseasonandtookthe
controlsofa95‐tonsteamshovel.
Duringtheconstructionofthecanal,WilliamGorgas,anarmyphysician,triedto
reducethenumberofdeathscausedbydisease.Heoversawthemassivedrainingof
swampsinordertoeliminatemosquitoesthatcarriedyellowfeverandmalaria.
TheFrenchhadattemptedtobuildacanalatsealevel,butgrosslyunderestimated
thedifficultyofachievingthisgoal.Toallowshipstotravelbetweentheoceans,
Americanengineersdesignedasystemoflockscapableofraisingandlowering
ships64feetbyusingtheforceofgravityand40‐horsepowermotorstomovethe
gates.Onesetoflocksusedenoughconcretetobuildawall8‐feetthickand12‐feet
high,stretchingbetweenClevelandandPittsburgh.
Atitspeakin1913,theworkforceconsistedof44,000persons.WestIndianworkers
werethecanal'sunsungheroes.Eachday,200trainloadsofdirthadtobehauled
away.Morethan25,000workedascanaldiggers‐‐threetimesthenumberof
Americanswhoworkedonthecanal.Between1904and1915,some5,600lives
werelosttodiseaseandaccidents.MostofthosewhodiedwerefromBarbados.The
quinineusedtotreatmalarialeftmanyworkersdeaf.InDecember1908,amassive
22tonsofdynamiteexplodedprematurely,killing23workers.
Builtatacostof$387millionoveraperiodof10years,thePanamaCanalwasa
declarationofAmerica'scomingofageintheworld.
KeyTerms:PanamaCanal,RepublicofPanama
32 AmericainHaiti
Source:OfficeoftheHistorian,U.S.DepartmentofState,“U.S.Invasionand
OccupationofHaiti,1915‐34,”https://history.state.gov/milestones/1914‐
1920/haiti.
Underinterventionistpoliciesoftheearly20thcentury,PresidentWoodrowWilson
senttheUnitedStatesMarinesintoHaititorestoreorderandmaintainpoliticaland
economicstabilityintheCaribbeanaftertheassassinationoftheHaitianPresident
inJulyof1915.Thisoccupationcontinueduntil1934.
TheUnitedStatesGovernmenthadbeeninterested
inHaitifordecadespriortoitsoccupation.Asa
potentialnavalbasefortheUnitedStatesand
otherimperialistpowers,Haiti’sstabilitywasof
greatinteresttoU.S.diplomaticanddefense
officialswhofearedinstabilitymightresultin
foreignruleofHaiti.In1868,PresidentAndrew
Johnsonsuggestedtheannexationoftheislandof
Hispaniola,madeupofHaitiandtheDominican
Republic,tosecureaU.S.defensiveandeconomic
stakeintheWestIndies.From1889to1891,
SecretaryofStateJamesBlaineunsuccessfully
soughtaleaseofMole‐SaintNicolas,acityonHaiti’snortherncoaststrategically
locatedforanavalbase.In1910PresidentWilliamHowardTaftgrantedHaitia
largeloaninhopesthatHaiticouldpayoffitsinternationaldebt,thuslessening
foreigninfluence.Theattemptprovedfutileduetotheenormityofthedebtandthe
internalinstabilityofthecountry.
France,astheformercolonizerofHaiti,retainedstrongeconomicanddiplomatic
tieswiththegovernmentthere.Inthe1824Franco‐Haitianagreement,France
agreedtorecognizeHaitianindependenceifHaitipaidalargeindemnity.Thiskept
HaitiinaconstantstateofdebtandputFranceinapositionofpoweroverHaiti’s
tradeandfinances.
AlthoughunhappyaboutHaiti’scloseconnectiontoFrance,policymakersinthe
UnitedStatesweremoreconcernedaboutincreasedGermanactivityandinfluence
inthecountry.Inthebeginningofthe20thcenturyGermanpresenceinHaiti
increasedasGermanmerchantsbeganestablishingtradingbranchesinHaiti,
quicklydominatingcommercialbusinessinthearea.GermanmenmarriedHaitian
womentogetaroundlawsdenyingforeignerslandownershipandestablishedroots
intheHaitiancommunity.TheUnitedStatesconsideredGermanyitschiefrivalin
theCaribbean,andfearedGermancontrolofHaitiwouldgivethemapowerful
advantageinthearea.
33
IncreasedinstabilityinHaitiintheyearsbefore1915ledtoheightenedactionby
theUnitedStatestodeterforeigninfluence.Between1911and1915,seven
presidentswereassassinatedoroverthrowninHaiti,increasingU.S.policymakers’
fearofforeignintervention.In1914,theWilsonAdministrationsentmarinesinto
Haitiwhoremoved$500,000fromtheHaitianNationalBankinDecemberof1914
forsafe‐keepinginNewYork,thusgivingtheU.S.controlofthebank.In1915,
HaitianpresidentJeanVilbrunGuillaumeSamwasassassinatedandthesituationin
Haitiquicklybecameunstable.Inresponse,PresidentWilsonsenttheU.S.Marines
toHaiti,claimingtheinvasionwasanattempttopreventanarchy.Inrealitythe
WilsonadministrationwasprotectingU.S.assetsintheareaandpreventinga
possibleGermaninvasion.
TheinvasionendedwiththeHaitian‐AmericanTreatyof1915.Thearticlesofthis
agreementcreatedaHaitiangendarmerie,essentiallyamilitaryforcemadeupof
AmericansandHaitiansandcontrolledbytheU.S.marines.TheUnitedStatesgained
completecontroloverHaitianfinances,andtherighttointerveneinHaitiwhenever
theU.S.Governmentdeemednecessary.TheU.S.Governmentalsoforcedthe
electionofanewpro‐AmericanPresident,PhilippeSudréDartiguenave,bythe
HaitianlegislatureinAugustof1915.TheselectionofaPresidentthatdidnot
representthechoiceoftheHaitianpopulaceincreasedunrestinHaiti.
Followingthesuccessfulmanipulationofthe1915elections,theWilson
Administrationattemptedtostrong‐armtheHaitianlegislatureintoadoptinganew
constitutionin1917.Thisconstitutionallowedforeignlandownership,whichhad
beenoutlawedsincetheHaitianRevolutionasawaytopreventforeigncontrolof
thecountry.Thelegislaturewasextremelyreluctanttochangethelong‐standing
lawandrejectedthenewconstitution.Law‐makersbegandraftinganewanti‐
Americanconstitution,buttheUnitedStatesforcedPresidentDartiguenavedissolve
thelegislature,whichdidnotmeetagainuntil1929.
SomeoftheGendarmerie’smoreunpopularpolicies—includingracialsegregation,
presscensorshipandforcedlabor—ledtoapeasantrebellionfrom1919to1920.
TheU.S.SenatesentaninvestigativecommitteeintoHaitiin1921toexamineclaims
ofabuse,andsubsequentlytheU.S.Senatereorganizedandcentralizedpowerin
Haiti.Afterthereorganization,Haitiremainedfairlystableandaselectgroup
achievedeconomicprosperity,thoughmostHaitiansremainedinpoverty.
In1929,aseriesofstrikesanduprisingsledtheUnitedStatestobeginwithdrawal
fromHaiti.In1930,U.S.officialsbegantrainingHaitianofficialstotakecontrolof
thegovernment.In1934,theUnitedStates,inconcertwithPresidentFranklinD.
Roosevelt’sGoodNeighborPolicy,officiallywithdrewfromHaitiwhileretaining
economicconnections.
KeyTerms:Haitian‐AmericanTreatyof1915
34 AmericainCubaandthePlattAmendment
Source:OfficeoftheHistorian,U.S.DepartmentofState,“TheUnitedStates,Cuba,
andthePlattAmendment,1901,”https://history.state.gov/milestones/1899‐
1913/platt.
ThePlattAmendment,anamendmenttoaU.S.armyappropriationsbill,established
thetermsunderwhichtheUnitedStateswouldenditsmilitaryoccupationofCuba
(whichhadbegunin1898duringtheSpanish‐AmericanWar)and“leavethe
governmentandcontroloftheislandofCubatoitspeople.”Whiletheamendment
wasnamedafterSenatorOrvillePlattofConnecticut,itwasdraftedlargelyby
SecretaryofWarElihuRoot.ThePlattAmendmentlaiddowneightconditionsto
whichtheCubanGovernmenthadtoagreebeforethewithdrawalofU.S.forcesand
thetransferofsovereigntywouldbegin.
ThePlattAmendment’s
conditionsprohibitedthe
CubanGovernmentfrom
enteringintoany
internationaltreatythat
wouldcompromiseCuban
independenceorallow
foreignpowerstousethe
islandformilitarypurposes.
TheUnitedStatesalso
reservedtherightto
interveneinCubanaffairsin
ordertodefendCuban
independenceandto
maintain“agovernment
adequatefortheprotectionoflife,property,andindividualliberty.”Other
conditionsoftheAmendmentdemandedthattheCubanGovernmentimplement
planstoimprovesanitaryconditionsontheisland,relinquishclaimsontheIsleof
Pines(nowknownastheIsladelaJuventud),andagreetosellorleaseterritoryfor
coalingandnavalstationstotheUnitedStates.(Thisclauseultimatelyledtothe
perpetualleasebytheUnitedStatesofGuantánamoBay.)Finally,theamendment
requiredtheCubanGovernmenttoconcludeatreatywiththeUnitedStatesthat
wouldmakethePlattamendmentlegallybinding,andtheUnitedStatespressured
theCubanstoincorporatethetermsofthePlattAmendmentintheCuban
constitution.
TherationalebehindthePlattAmendmentwasstraightforward.TheUnitedStates
GovernmenthadintervenedinCubainordertosafeguarditssignificantcommercial
interestsontheislandinthewakeofSpain’sinabilitytopreservelawandorder.As
U.S.militaryoccupationoftheislandwastoend,theUnitedStatesneededsome
methodofmaintainingapermanentpresenceandorder.However,anti‐
35
annexationistsinCongresshadincorporatedtheTellerAmendmentinthe1898war
resolutionauthorizingPresidentWilliamMcKinleytotakeactionagainstSpainin
theSpanish‐AmericanWar.ThisTellerAmendmentcommittedtheU.S.Government
tograntingCubaitsindependencefollowingtheremovalofSpanishforces.By
directlyincorporatingtherequirementsofthePlattAmendmentintotheCuban
constitution,theMcKinleyAdministrationwasabletoshapeCubanaffairswithout
violatingtheTellerAmendment.
GeneralLeonardWood,commanderoftheU.S.occupationforcesandmilitary
governorofCuba,presentedthetermsofthePlattAmendmenttothedelegatesof
theCubanConstitutionalConventioninlate1900.AlthoughtheCubandelegates
realizedthattheamendmentsignificantlylimitedCubansovereignty,andoriginally
refusedtoincludeitwithintheirconstitution,theU.S.Governmentpromisedthema
tradetreatythatwouldguaranteeCubansugarexportsaccesstotheU.S.market.
AfterseveralfailedattemptsbytheCubanstorejectormodifythetermsofthePlatt
amendment,theCubanConstitutionalConventionfinallysuccumbedtoAmerican
pressureandratifieditonJune12,1901,byavoteof16to11.ThePlatt
Amendmentremainedinforceuntil1934whenbothsidesagreedtocancelthe
treatiesthatenforcedit.
KeyTerms:PlattAmendment
36 PrimarySources:TheDebateoverImperialism
SourceA.AlbertBeveridge,“TheMarchoftheFlag”(1898)
ThisspeechwasdeliveredasacampaignspeechbyAlbertBeveridge,aRepublican
senatorfromIndianaandastrongsupporterofAmericanexpansion,in1898.
…Today,weareraisingmorethanwecanconsume,makingmorethanwecanuse.
Thereforewemustfindnewmarketsforourproduce.
Andso,whilewedidnotneedtheterritorytakenduringthepastcenturyatthetime
itwasacquired,wedoneedwhatwehavetakenin1898andweneeditnow.The
resourcesandthecommerceoftheimmenselyrichdominionswillbeincreasedas
muchasAmericanenergyisgreaterthanSpanishsloth.
InCuba,alone,thereare15,000,000acresofforestunacquaintedwiththeax,
exhaustlessminesofiron,pricelessdepositsofmanganese,millionsofdollars'
worthofwhichwemustbuy,today,fromtheBlackSeadistricts.Therearemillions
ofacresyetunexplored.
TheresourcesofPortoRicohaveonlybeentrifledwith.Therichesofthe
Philippineshavehardlybeentouchedbythefingertipsofmodernmethods.And
theyproducewhatweconsume,andconsumewhatweproduce‐thevery
predestinationofreciprocity‐areciprocity"notmadewithhands,eternalinthe
heavens."Theysellhemp,sugar,cocoanuts,fruitsofthetropics,timberofpricelike
mahogany;theybuyflour,clothing,tools,implements,machineryandallthatwe
canraiseandmake.Theirtradewillbeoursintime.Doyouindorsethatpolicywith
yourvote?
CubaisaslargeasPennsylvania,andistherichestspotontheglobe.Hawaiiisas
largeasNewJersey;PortoRicohalfaslargeasHawaii;thePhilippineslargerthan
allNewEngland,NewYork,NewJerseyandDelawarecombined.Togethertheyare
largerthantheBritishIsles,largerthanFrance,largerthanGermany,largerthan
Japan.
37
SourceB.JosiahStrong,OurCountry(1885)
ThisisanexcerptfromabookbyJosiahStrong,aProtestantministerwhostrongly
supportedAmericanexpansionoverseas.
Mr.[Charles]Darwinisnotonlydisposedtosee,inthesuperiorvigorof[the
American]people,anillustrationofhisfavoritetheoryofnaturalselection,buteven
intimatesthattheworld'shistorythusfarhasbeensimplypreparatoryforour
future,andtributarytoit.Hesays:“Thereisapparentlymuchtruthinthebeliefthat
thewonderfulprogressoftheUnitedStates,aswellasthecharacterofthepeople,
aretheresultsofnaturalselection;forthemoreenergetic,restless,andcourageous
menfromallpartsofEuropehaveemigratedduringthelasttenortwelve
generationstothatgreatcountry,andhavetheresucceededbest.”…
ItseemstomethatGod,withinfinitewisdomandskill,istrainingtheAnglo‐Saxon
[white,English‐speaking]raceforanhoursuretocomeintheworld'sfuture.
Heretoforetherehasalwaysbeeninthehistoryoftheworldacomparatively
unoccupiedlandwestward,intowhichthecrowdedcountriesoftheEasthave
pouredtheirsurpluspopulations.Butthewideningwavesofmigration…meetto‐
dayonourPacificcoast…Thetimeiscomingwhenthepressureofpopulationon
themeansofsubsistencewillbefelthereasitisnowfeltinEuropeandAsia.Then
willtheworldenteruponanewstageofitshistory‐thefinalcompetitionofraces,
forwhichtheAnglo‐Saxonisbeingschooled.Longbeforethethousandmillionsare
here,themightycentrifugal[spreadingoutwards]tendency,inherentinthisstock
andstrengthenedintheUnitedStates,willassertitself.Thenthisraceofunequaled
energy,withallthemajestyofnumbersandthemightofwealthbehindit‐the
representative,letushope,ofthelargestliberty,thepurestChristianity,thehighest
civilization‐havingdevelopedpeculiarlyaggressivetraitscalculatedtoimpressits
institutionsuponmankind,willspreaditselfovertheearth.IfIreadnotamiss,this
powerfulracewillmovedownuponMexico,downuponCentralandSouthAmerica,
outupontheislandsofthesea,overuponAfricaandbeyond.Andcananyonedoubt
thattheresultsofthiscompetitionofraceswillbethe"survivalofthefittest?"
38 SourceC.PlatformoftheAmericanAnti‐ImperialistLeague(1899)
ThisdocumentrepresentsthepositionoftheAmericanAnti‐ImperialistLeague,a
politicalgroupformedin1898toopposetheAmericanannexationofthePhilippines.
Weholdthatthepolicyknownasimperialismishostiletolibertyandtendstoward
militarism,anevilfromwhichithasbeenourglorytobefree.Weregretthatithas
becomenecessaryinthelandofWashingtonandLincolntoreaffirmthatallmen,of
whateverraceorcolor,areentitledtolife,libertyandthepursuitofhappiness.We
maintainthatgovernmentsderivetheirjustpowersfromtheconsentofthe
governed.Weinsistthatthesubjugationofanypeopleis"criminalaggression"and
opendisloyaltytothedistinctiveprinciplesofourGovernment…
TheUnitedStateshavealwaysprotestedagainstthedoctrineofinternationallaw
whichpermitsthesubjugationoftheweakbythestrong.Aself‐governingstate
cannotacceptsovereigntyoveranunwillingpeople.TheUnitedStatescannotact
upontheancientheresythatmightmakesright.
Imperialistsassumethatwiththedestructionofself‐governmentinthePhilippines
byAmericanhands,alloppositionherewillcease.Thisisagrievouserror.Muchas
weabhorthewarof"criminalaggression"inthePhilippines,greatlyasweregret
thatthebloodoftheFilipinosisonAmericanhands,wemoredeeplyresentthe
betrayalofAmericaninstitutionsathome.Therealfiringlineisnotinthesuburbs
ofManila[thecapitalofthePhilippines].Thefoeisofourownhousehold.The
attemptof1861[i.e.,theCivilWar]wastodividethecountry.Thatof1899isto
destroyitsfundamentalprinciplesandnoblestideals…
Weproposetocontributetothedefeatofanypersonorpartythatstandsforthe
forciblesubjugationofanypeople.Weshallopposeforreelectionallwhointhe
WhiteHouseorinCongressbetrayAmericanlibertyinpursuitofun‐Americanends.
Westillhopethatbothofourgreatpoliticalpartieswillsupportanddefendthe
DeclarationofIndependenceintheclosingcampaignofthecentury.
39
Wehold,withAbrahamLincoln,that"nomanisgoodenoughtogovernanother
manwithoutthatother'sconsent.Whenthewhitemangovernshimself,thatisself‐
government,butwhenhegovernshimselfandalsogovernsanotherman,thatis
morethanself‐government‐thatisdespotism.""Ourrelianceisintheloveofliberty
whichGodhasplantedinus.Ourdefenseisinthespiritwhichprizeslibertyasthe
heritageofallmeninalllands.Thosewhodenyfreedomtoothersdeserveitnotfor
themselves,andunderajustGodcannotlongretainit."
Wecordiallyinvitethecooperationofallmenandwomenwhoremainloyaltothe
DeclarationofIndependenceandtheConstitutionoftheUnitedStates.
40 SourceD.WilliamJenningsBryan,“TheParalyzingInfluenceofImperialism”
(1900)
WilliamJenningsBryan,athree‐timeDemocraticcandidateforPresidentoftheUnited
States,deliveredthisspeechatthe1900DemocraticNationalConvention.Bryan
opposedtheannexationofthePhilippinesandAmericanimperialismingeneral.
Imperialistsaddresstheirargumentstothenation’sprideandtothenation’s
pocketbook.Itissufficientanswertoanswertheirargumentsaboutpridebysaying
thatformorethanacenturythisnationhasbeenaworldpower…
Iamnotwillingforthisnationtocastasidetheall‐powerfulweaponoftruthtoseize
againtheweaponsofphysicalwarfare.Iwouldnotexchangethegloryofthis
republicforthegloryofalltheempiresthathaverisenandfallensincetimebegan.
…TheDemocraticPartyisinfavoroftheexpansionoftrade.Itwouldextendour
tradebyeverylegitimateandpeacefulmeans;butitisnotwillingtomake
merchandiseofhumanblood…Itisnotnecessarytoownpeopleinordertotrade
withthem.Wecarryontradetodaywitheverypartoftheworld,andourcommerce
hasexpandedmorerapidlythanthecommerceofanyEuropeanempire.Wedonot
ownJapanorChina,butwetradewiththeirpeople.Wehavenotabsorbedthe
republicsofCentralandSouthAmerica,butwetradewiththem.
Whentradeissecuredbyforce,thecostofsecuringitandretainingitmustbetaken
outoftheprofits,andtheprofitsareneverlargeenoughtocovertheexpense.
ImperialismwouldbeprofitabletotheArmycontractors;itwouldbeprofitableto
theshipowners…;itwouldbeprofitabletothosewithbusinessinterestsoverseas;
buttothefarmer,tothelaboringman,andtothevastmajorityofthoseengagedin
otheroccupations,itwouldbringexpenseswithoutprofitsandriskwithoutreward.
ThelaboringmanwillbethefirsttosufferifOrientalsubjectsseekworkinthe
UnitedStates;thefirsttosufferifAmericancapitalleavesourshorestoemploy
OrientallaborinthePhilippinestosupplythetradeofChinaandJapan;andthefirst
tosufferfromtheviolencewhichthemilitaryarouses…
41
SourceE.CarlSchurz,“ManifestDestiny”(1893)
CarlSchurz,aRepublicansenatorfromMissouri,publishedthisarticleinHarper’s
NewMonthlyMagazineinOctober1893.
WheneverthereisaprojectonfoottoannexforeignterritorytotheUnitedStates,
thecryofmanifestdestinyisraisedtoproducetheimpressionthatalloppositionto
suchaprojectisastruggleagainstfate….Thenewmanifestdestinyideameansnot
merelyincorporatingterritorythatisneartoourborders,butratheracquiring
territory,farandnear,thatmaybeusefulingivinguscommercialadvantagesandin
securingareasdesirablefortheoperationsofagreatnavalpower.
…Accordingtothespiritofourconstitution,foreignterritoryshouldonlybe
acquiredifweareconsideringitsadmission,atnoverydistantday,intothisUnion
asoneormoreStatesonanequalfootingwiththeotherStates.Thepopulation
inhabitingsuchterritory,andadmittedintotheUnionwithit,wouldhavetobe
endowedwithcertainrightsandpowers.ThepeopleofthenewStateswouldnot
onlygoverntheirownstates,butalsotakepartinthegovernmentofthewhole
countrythroughtheSenatorsandRepresentativessentbythemtoCongress,aswell
asthroughthevotescastintheelectionsofourPresidents…Inotherwords,this
republicwouldadmitthemasequalmemberstoitsnationalhousehold.
…Thosewhoadvocateforannexationsaythatunlesswetakeacertaincountry
offeredtous(Hawaii,forinstance)someotherpowerwilltakeit,andthat,having
refusedourselves,wecannotobject.Thisisabsurd.Wearetoldthatunlesswetake
chargeofacertaincountryitwillbeill‐governedandgetintointernaltrouble.Our
countrycannottakechargeofallcountriesthatarebadlygoverned.Onthecontrary,
acountryapttogetintointernaltroublewouldnotbeadesirableadditiontoour
nationalhousehold.
Wearetoldthatweneedcoalingstationsindifferentpartsoftheworldforournavy
andthattherichresourcesofthecountrieswithinourreachshouldbeopento
America.Thereislittledoubtthroughnegotiationwecouldsecuresitesforcoaling
42 stations.Inthesamemannerwecanownplantationsandbusinesshousesinthe
HawaiianIslands.IntheAmericantropicswecanbuildandcontrolrailroads;we
canpurchasemines,andhavethemworkedforourbenefit;wecankeepup
businessesintheirtowns.Infact,wearealreadydoingmanyofthesethingsandall
thiswithouttakingthosecountriesintoournationalhousehold.
Surelytheadvantageswemightgainbyincorporatingthecountriesthemselvesin
theUnionappearutterlyvaluelesscomparedwiththepricethisrepublicwould
havetopayforthem.
43
PrimarySources:TheSinkingoftheU.S.S.Maine
DocumentA.“DestructionoftheWarShipMainewastheWorkofanEnemy,”
NewYorkJournal,February17,1898.
DESTRUCTIONOFTHEWARSHIPMAINEWASTHEWORKOFANENEMY
AssistantSecretaryRooseveltConvincedtheExplosionoftheWarShipWasNotan
Accident.
TheJournalOffers$50,000RewardfortheConvictionoftheCriminalsWhoSent
258AmericanSailorstoTheirDeath.NavalOfficersUnanimousThattheShipWas
DestroyedonPurpose.
NAVALOFFICERSTHINKTHEMAINEWASDESTROYEDBYASPANISHMINE.
GeorgeEugeneBryson,theJournal’sspecialcorrespondentatHavana,cablesthatit
isthesecretopinionofmanySpaniardsintheCubancapital,thattheMainewas
destroyedand258menkilledbymeansofmarinemineorfixed[torpedo].Thisis
theopinionofseveralAmericannavalauthorities.TheSpaniards,itisbelieved,
arrangedtohavetheMaineanchoredoveroneoftheharbormines.Wires
connectedthemineswitha...magazine,anditisthoughttheexplosionwascaused
bysendinganelectriccurrentthroughthewire.Ifthiscanbeproven,thebrutal
natureoftheSpaniardswillbeshownbythefactthattheywaitedtospringthemine
afterallthemenhadretiredforthenight.TheMaltesecrossinthepictureshows
wheretheminemayhavebeenfired.
MineoraSunkenTorpedoBelievedtoHaveBeentheWeaponUsedAgainstthe
AmericanMan‐Of‐War‐‐‐OfficerandMentellThrillingStoriesofBeingBlowninto
theAirAmidaMassofShatteredSteelandExplodingShells—SurvivorsBroughtto
KeyWestScou[t]theIdeaofAccident—SpanishOfficialsProtestTooMuch‐‐‐Our
CabinetordersaSearchingInquiry—JournalSendsDiverstoHavanatoReport
UpontheConditionoftheWreck.WastheVesselAnchoredOveraMine?
AssistantSecretaryoftheNavyTheodoreRooseveltsaysheisconvincedthatthe
destructionoftheMaineinHavanaHarborwasnotanaccident.TheJournaloffersa
rewardof$50,000forexclusiveevidencethatwillconvicttheperson,personsor
governmentcriminallyresponsibleforthe[destruction]oftheAmericanbattleship
andthedeathof258ofitscrew.
ThesuspicionthattheMainewasdeliberatelyblownupgrowsstrongereveryhour.
Notasinglefacttothecontraryhasbeenproduced...
44 DocumentB.“Maine’sHullWillDecide,”NewYorkTimes,February17,1898.
MAINE’SHULLWILLDECIDE
DiverstoFindWhethertheForceoftheExplosionWasfromtheExteriororInterior.
SHEWASAFLOATFORANHOUR
SpontaneousCombustioninCoalBunkersaFrequentPeriltotheMagazinesof
Warships–HardtoBlowUptheMagazine.
WASHINGTON,Feb.16–AfteradayofintenseexcitementattheNavyDepartment
andelsewhere,growingoutofthedestructionofthebattleshipMaineinHavana
Harborlastnight,thesituationatsundown,aftertheexchangeofanumberof
cablegramsbetweenWashingtonandHavana,canbesummedupinthewordsof
SecretaryLong,whowhenaskedashewasabouttodepartforthedaywhetherhe
hadreasontosuspectthatthedisasterwastheworkoftheenemy,replied:“Idonot.
InthatIaminfluencedbythefactthatCapt.SigsbeehasnotyetreportedtotheNavy
Departmentonthecause.Heisevidentlywaitingtowriteafullreport.Solongashe
doesnotexpresshimself,Icertainlycannot.Ishouldthinkfromtheindications,
however,thattherewasanaccident–thatthemagazineexploded.Howthatcame
aboutIdonotknow.Forthepresent,atleast,nootherwarshipwillbesentto
Havana.”
Capt.Schuley,whohashadexperiencewithsuchlargeandcomplicatedmachinesof
warastheNewYork,didnotentertaintheideathattheshiphadbeendestroyedby
design.Hehadfoundthatwithfrequentandverycarefulinspectionfirewould
sometimesbegeneratedinthecoalbunkers,andhetoldofsuchafireonboardof
theNewYorkclosetothemagazine,andsohotthattheheathadblisteredthesteel
partitionbetweenthefireandtheammunitionbeforethebunkersandmagazine
wereflooded.HewasnotpreparedtobelievethattheSpanishorCubansinHavana
weresuppliedwitheithertheinformationortheappliancesnecessarytoenable
themtomakesocompleteaworkofdemolition,whiletheMainewasunderguard…
45
PrimarySource:TheTellerAmendment(1898)
Whereastheabhorrentconditionswhichhaveexistedformorethanthreeyearsin
theIslandofCuba,sonearourownborders,haveshockedthemoralsenseofthe
peopleoftheUnitedStates,havebeenadisgracetoChristiancivilization,
culminating,astheyhave,inthedestructionofaUnitedStatesbattleship,withtwo
hundredandsixty‐sixofitsofficersandcrew,whileonafriendlyvisitintheharbor
ofHavana,andcannotlongerbeendured,ashasbeensetforthbythePresidentof
theUnitedStatesinhismessagetoCongressofAprileleventh,eighteenhundred
andninety‐eight,uponwhichtheactionofCongresswasinvited:Therefore,
Resolved,First.ThatthepeopleoftheIslandofCubaare,ofrightoughttobe,free
andindependent.
Second.ThatitisthedutyoftheUnitedStatestodemand,andtheGovernmentof
theUnitedStatesdoesherebydemand,thattheGovernmentofSpainatonce
relinquishitsauthorityandgovernmentintheIslandofCubaandwithdrawitsland
andnavalforcesfromCubaandCubanwaters.
Third.ThatthePresidentoftheUnitedStatesbe,andheherebyis,directedand
empoweredtousetheentirelandandnavalforcesoftheUnitedStates,andtocall
intotheactualserviceoftheUnitedStatesthemilitiaoftheseveralStates,tosuch
extentasmaybenecessarytocarrytheseresolutionsintoeffect.
Fourth.ThattheUnitedStatesherebydisclaimsanydispositionorintentionto
exercisesovereignty,jurisdiction,orcontroloversaidIslandexceptforthe
pacificationthereof,andassertsitsdetermination,whenthatisaccomplished,to
leavethegovernmentandcontroloftheIslandtoitspeople.
46 PrimarySource:TheDeLômeLetter
Source:TranslationofletterbySenorDonEnriqueDupuydeLômetoSenorDon
JoséCanelejas,December1897(?),
http://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true&doc=53&page=transcript.
LEGACIONDEESPAÑA.
WASHINGTON.
HisExcellency
DonJoséCanalejas.
Mydistinguishedanddearfriend:
Youhavenoreasontoaskmyexcusesfornothavingwrittentome,Ioughtalsoto
havewrittentoyoubutIhaveputoffdoingsobecauseoverwhelmedwithworkand
noussommesquittes.
Thesituationhereremainsthesame.Everythingdependsonthepoliticaland
militaryoutcomeinCuba.Theprologueofallthis,inthissecondstage(phase)ofthe
war,willendthedaywhenthecolonialcabinetshallbeappointedandweshallbe
relievedintheeyesofthiscountryofapartoftheresponsibilityforwhatis
happeninginCubawhiletheCubans,whomthesepeoplethinksoimmaculate,will
havetoassumeit.
Untilthen,nothingcanbeclearlyseen,andIregarditasawasteoftimeand
progress,byawrongroad,tobesendingemissariestotherebelcamp,orto
negotiatewiththeautonomistswhohaveasyetnolegalstanding,ortotryto
ascertaintheintentionsandplansofthisgovernment.The(Cuban)refugeeswill
keeponreturningonebyoneandastheydosowillmaketheirwayintothesheep‐
fold,whiletheleadersinthefieldwillgraduallycomeback.Neithertheonenorthe
otherclasshadthecouragetoleaveinabodyandtheywillnotbebraveenoughto
returninabody.
TheMessagehasbeenadisillusionmenttotheinsurgentswhoexpectedsomething
different;butIregarditasbad(forus).
Besidestheingrainedandinevitablebluntness(grosería)withwhichisrepeatedall
thatthepressandpublicopinioninSpainhavesaidaboutWeyler,itoncemore
showswhatMcKinleyis,weakandabidderfortheadmirationofthecrowdbesides
beingawould‐bepolitician(politicastro)whotriestoleaveadooropenbehind
himselfwhilekeepingongoodtermswiththejingoesofhisparty.
Nevertheless,whetherthepracticalresultsofit(theMessage)aretobeinjurious
andadversedependsonlyuponourselves.
47
Iamentirelyofyouropinions;withoutamilitaryendofthematternothingwillbe
accomplishedinCuba,andwithoutamilitaryandpoliticalsettlementtherewill
alwaysbethedangerofencouragementbeinggivetotheinsurgents,buyapartof
thepublicopinionifnotbythegovernment.
IdonotthinksufficientattentionhasbeenpaidtothepartEnglandisplaying.
NearlyallthenewspaperrabblethatswarmsinyourhotelsareEnglishmen,and
whilewritingfortheJournaltheyarealsocorrespondentsofthemostinfluential
journalsandreviewsofLondon.Ithasbeensoeversincethisthingbegan.
AsIlookatit,England’sonlyobjectisthattheAmericansshouldamusethemselves
withusandleaveheralone,andifthereshouldbeawar,thatwouldthebetterstave
offtheconflictwhichshedreadsbutwhichwillnevercomeabout.
Itwouldbeveryadvantageoustotakeup,evenifonlyforeffect,thequestionof
commercialrelationsandtohaveamanofsomeprominencesenthither,inorder
thatImaymakeuseofhimheretocarryonapropagandaamongtheseantorsand
othersinoppositiontotheJuntaandtotrytowinovertherefugees.
So,Amblardiscoming.Ithinkhedevoteshimselftoomuchtopettypolitics,andwe
havegottodosomethingverybigorweshallfail.
Adelareturnsyourgreeting,andwealltrustthatnextyearyoumaybeamessenger
ofpeaceandtakeitasaChristmasgifttopoorSpain.
Everyourattachedfriendandservant,
ENRIQUEDUPUYdeLÔME.
48 PrimarySource:TheRooseveltCorollarytotheMonroeDoctrine
Source:TheodoreRoosevelt,“AnnualMessagetoCongress”(1906)
ThisisanexcerptfromaspeechtoCongressgivenbyPresidentTheodoreRooseveltin
1906.Init,RooseveltlaidoutaprincipleofforeignpolicynowknownastheRoosevelt
CorollarytotheMonroeDoctrine.TheMonroeDoctrine(1823)proclaimedthattheUS
wouldnottolerateattemptsbyEuropeancountriestocolonizeorinterferewithany
territoryinNorthorSouthAmerica.TheRooseveltCorollaryassertedthattheUS
couldandwouldusemilitaryforceinLatinAmericainordertorestoreorderor
protectAmericaninterests.
ItisnottruethattheUnitedStatesfeelsanylandhungerorentertains
anyprojectsasregardstheothernationsoftheWesternHemisphere
savesuchasarefortheirwelfare.Allthatthiscountrydesiresistosee
theneighboringcountriesstable,orderly,andprosperous.Any
countrywhosepeopleconductthemselveswellcancountuponour
heartyfriendship.Ifanationshowsthatitknowshowtoactwith
reasonableefficiencyanddecencyinsocialandpoliticalmatters,ifit
keepsorderandpaysitsobligations,itneedfearnointerferencefrom
theUnitedStates.Chronicwrongdoing,oranimpotencewhichresults
inagenerallooseningofthetiesofcivilizedsociety,mayinAmerica,
aselsewhere,ultimatelyrequireinterventionbysomecivilizednation,
andintheWesternHemispheretheadherenceoftheUnitedStatesto
theMonroeDoctrinemayforcetheUnitedStates,however
reluctantly,inflagrantcasesofsuchwrongdoingorimpotence,tothe
exerciseofaninternationalpolicepower.Ifeverycountrywashedby
theCaribbeanSeawouldshowtheprogressinstableandjust
civilizationwhichwiththeaidofthePlattAmendmentCubahas
49
shownsinceourtroopslefttheisland,andwhichsomanyofthe
republicsinbothAmericasareconstantlyandbrilliantlyshowing,all
questionofinterferencebythisNationwiththeiraffairswouldbeat
anend.Ourinterestsandthoseofoursouthernneighborsarein
realityidentical.Theyhavegreatnaturalriches,andifwithintheir
bordersthereignoflawandjusticeobtains[isestablished],
prosperityissuretocometothem.Whiletheythusobeytheprimary
lawsofcivilizedsocietytheymayrestassuredthattheywillbe
treatedbyusinaspiritofcordialandhelpfulsympathy.Wewould
interferewiththemonlyinthelastresort,andthenonlyifitbecame
evidentthattheirinabilityorunwillingnesstodojusticeathomeand
abroadhadviolatedtherightsoftheUnitedStatesorhadinvited
foreignaggressiontothedetrimentoftheentirebodyofAmerican
nations.Itisameretruismtosaythateverynation,whetherin
Americaoranywhereelse,whichdesirestomaintainitsfreedom,its
independence,mustultimatelyrealizethattherightofsuch
independencecannotbeseparatedfromtheresponsibilityofmaking
gooduseofit.
50 PrimarySources:ThePhilippine‐AmericanWar
SourceA.PresidentWilliamMcKinley’s“BenevolentAssimilation
Proclamation”onannexingthePhilippines,December21,1898.
Inperformingthisduty[theextensionofAmericansovereigntythroughoutthe
Philippinesbymeansofforce]themilitarycommanderoftheUnitedStatesis
enjoined[ordered]tomakeknowntotheinhabitantsofthePhilippineIslandsthat…
theauthorityoftheUnitedStatesistobeexertedforthesecuringofthepersonsand
propertyofthepeopleoftheIslandsandfortheconfirmationofallprivaterights
andrelations.Itwillbethedutyofthecommanderoftheforcesofoccupationto
announceandproclaiminthemostpublicmannerthatwecomenotasinvadersor
conquerors,butasfriends,toprotectthenativesintheirhomes,intheir
employment,andintheirpersonalandreligiousrights.Allpersonswho,eitherby
activeaidorbyhonestsubmission,cooperatewiththeGovernmentoftheUnited
Statestogiveeffecttothesebeneficentpurposeswillreceivetherewardofits
supportandprotection.Allotherswillbebroughtwithinthelawfulrulewehave
assumed,withfirmnessifneedbe,butwithoutseverity,sofarasmaybepossible….
Finally,itshouldbetheearnestandparamountaimofthemilitaryadministrationto
wintheconfidence,respect,andaffectionoftheinhabitantsofthePhilippinesby
assuringthemineverypossiblewaythatfullmeasureofindividualrightsand
libertieswhichistheheritageofafreepeople,andbyassuringtheminevery
possiblewaythatfullmeasureofindividualrightsandlibertieswhichistheheritage
ofafreepeople,andbyprovingtothemthatthemissionoftheUnitedStatesisone
ofbenevolentassimilation,substitutingthemildswayofjusticeandrightfor
arbitraryrule.Inthefulfillmentofthishighmission,supportingthetemperate
administrationofaffairsforthegreatestgoodofthegoverned,theremustbe
sedulously[diligently,consistently]maintainedthestrongarmofauthority,to
repressdisturbanceandtoovercomeallobstaclestothebestowaloftheblessingsof
goodandstablegovernmentuponthepeopleofthePhilippineIslandsundertheflag
oftheUnitedStates.
51
SourceB.TestimonyofCorporalRichardO’Brien,U.S.Army,atSenate
hearingsonthePhilippine‐AmericanWar.
Asweapproachedthetownthewordpassedalongthelinethattherewouldbeno
prisonerstaken.Itmeantthatweweretoshooteverylivingthinginsight—man,
woman,andchild.Thefirstshotwasfiredbythethenfirstsergeantofourcompany.
Histargetwasamereboy…Theboywasnotstruckbythebullet,butthatwasnot
thesergeant'sfault.ThelittleFilipinoboy…fledinterrorupthemountainside.Half
adozenshotswerefiredafterhim.Theshootingnowhadattractedthevillagers,
whocameoutoftheirhomesinalarm,wonderingwhatitallmeant.Theyofferedno
offense,didnotdisplayaweapon,madenohostilemovementwhatsoever,butthey
wereruthlesslyshotdownincoldblood—men,women,andchildren.Thepoor
nativeshuddledtogetherorfledinterror.Manywerepursuedandkilledonthe
spot.
Twooldmen,bearingbetweenthemawhiteflagandclaspinghandsliketwo
brothers,approachedthelines.Theirhairwaswhite.Theyfairlytottered,theywere
sofeebleundertheweightofyears.Tomyhorrorandthatoftheothermeninthe
command,theorderwasgiventofire,andthetwooldmenwereshotdownintheir
tracks.Weenteredthevillage.Amanwhohadbeenonasick‐bedappearedatthe
doorwayofhishome.Hereceivedabulletintheabdomenandfelldeadinthe
doorway.Dum‐dumbullets[whichweredesignedtoexpandonimpact,producinga
largerwound]wereusedinthatmassacre,butwewerenottoldthenameofthe
bullets.Wedidn'thavetobetold.Weknewwhattheywere.
Inanotherpartofthevillageamotherwithababeatherbreastandtwoyoung
childrenathersidepleadedformercy.Shefearedtoleaveherhome,whichhadjust
beenfiredaccidentally,Ibelieve.Shefacedtheflameswithherchildren,andnota
handwasraisedtosaveherorthelittleones.Theyperishedmiserably.Itwassure
deathifsheleftthehouse—itwassuredeathifsheremained.Shefearedthe
Americansoldiers,however,worsethanthedevouringflames.
52 SourceC.LettersfromAmericansoldiersinthePhilippines
SourceC‐1.FrankErbofthePennsylvaniaRegiment,February27,1899
Wehavebeeninthisnigger‐fightingbusinessnowfortwenty‐threedays,andhave
beenunderfireforthegreaterpartofthattime.Theniggersshootoverone
another’sheadsoranyoldway.EvenwhileIamwritingthistheblackboysare
bangingawayatouroutposts,buttheyveryseldomhitanybody.Themorningofthe
6thaburyingdetailfromourregimentburiedforty‐nineniggerenlistedmenand
twoniggerofficers,andwhenwestoppedchasingthemthenightbefore,wecould
see‘emcarryingagreatmanywiththem.Wearesupposedtohavekilledabout
threehundred…Wewill,nodoubt,starthomeassoonaswegettheseniggers
roundedup.
SourceC‐2.AnonymousprivateoftheFirstRegiment,WashingtonStateVolunteers,
dateunknown
[Theprivateisdescribinghiscompany’smarchintotheforestinpursuitofFilipino
soldiers.]Ineverstoodsuchahotfire,butwekeptrighton,andkilledfifty‐twoof
them,whileaboutthreehundredgotaway.Prettygood,wasn'tit,foraboutsixty
men?...Theysentfourcompaniestoreinforceus,buttheycouldnotcatchus,asour
bloodwasup,andwewantedrevengefor[anothersoldier’s]death.Themenwere
justcrazy.Igotthreeofthem.Wehadonemankilledandfivewounded.Soonwe
hadorderstoadvance,andweroseupfrombehindourtrenchesandstartedacross
thecreekinmudandwateruptoourwaists.However,wedidnotminditabit,our
fightingbloodwasupandweallwantedtokill'niggers.'Thisshootinghuman
beingsisa'hotgame,'andbeatsrabbithuntingalltopieces....Wesooncharged
themagain,andsuchaslaughteryouneversaw.Wekilledthemlikerabbits;
hundreds,yes,thousandsofthem.Everyonewascrazy.Itellyouitwasawfulafter
itwasover.Butitwaswar....Wewillsoonroundthemupandkillthemalloff.No
moreprisoners.Theytakenone,andtheytortureourmen,sowewillkillwounded
andallofthem....Theweatherisintenselyhot,andwearealltired,dirty,and
hungry,sowehavetokillniggerswheneverwehaveachance,togetevenforallour
trouble.
53