Conceptualizing New Forms of Separatism in Europe
Astrid Bötticher, Miroslav Mares
Paper Presented at the 7th ECPR General Conference
Panel „State of Unions: Separatism and Crisis of National Unity in Time of EUs Crisis“
Bordeaux
4-7 September 2013
Abstract
This paper deals with new separatist tendencies in contemporary Europe and compares them
with traditional forms of separatism. It classifies and analyses such phenomena as the extreme
right “identitarian movement” or the Neo-Nazi strategy of no-go zones in Europe, Islamist
struggle for establishing regional “Sharia areas” and caliphates in European cities or socially
excluded Roma communities with their own power structures in East Central Europe.
Reaction of the traditional separatist movement to this new challenge will be mentioned.
Interdependence of various forms of separatism will be mentioned, too. The authors will
present an analytical framework of new separatism, including intervening factors (economic
crisis, migration, rise of intolerance).
Keywords: Separatism; Irredentism; Autonomism; Extremism; Europe
1. Introduction
Separatism in Europe was traditionally connected mostly with territorial claims of traditional
European stateless nations (struggling to create their own state) or with irredentist demands,
resulting from a European order that was established as a result of negotiations of powers
after civil, continental or world wars.
Separatist movements like the ones in Catalonia, Ireland, Basque and northern Italy derive
from a mixture of in-group and out-group processes that get triggered by perception, levelling
pressures, an independent common history that is shared and under pressure, ones own
minority language and separate culture and the referral to land. It is carried by minority
groups that have members who have different social backgrounds. These mainly regional
movements carry the awareness that there exists a nation with land but without recognition as
independent political power. Their minority rights are granted by „others‟ (mainly the
majority) that these minorities are highly dependent on, therefore we often find asymmetrical
power relations. Traditional forms of separatism are still an important part of European
politics (as the example of Scotland shows, for example). However, traditional separatist
movements are facing challenges, mostly due to new migration in Europe but also due to new
possibilities like juridical processes that EU has opened for them.1 Some new claims are
formulated due to processes where the European order has been re-established and transitory
processes have been installed (mostly in post-communist area as a consequence of ethnic
conflicts in the 1990s). A part of the representatives of the Roma minority, understood here as
a disperse nation without land and without recognition as nation in the most national states of
Europe, declares new separatist demands as they face levelling pressures and preparation of or
expulsion. Islamist separatism and irredentism are propagated in relation to European
territory. European right-wing extreme scene is spreading its own “white” separatist concepts.
The aim of this paper is to identify and describe new forms of separatism in Europe and to
conceptualize these forms in the general context of separatism with the goal to outline a
framework for analysing these new phenomena.
2. Basic conceptualizing of terms and scope of research
Europe is limited in its geographical borders in this paper (Caucasus is for example in this
paper not considered as a part of Europe). As traditional separatism we understand separatism
with a historical tradition of territorial, national, ethnic and/or religious separatist struggle on
European territory, declared by groups with long-term continuity on the territory. These
demands were declared in a similar way in previous European orders (in the sense of border
delimitation).
While one-dimensional approaches like Ted Gurrs thesis of relative deprivation or Charles
Tillys thesis of frustration do not explain separatist tendencies it is acknowledged widely that
separatism has in all cases a history, a diachronic dimension, so that historiographic questions
1
While migration processes have always faced a challenge to ethnic minorities as the case of Basque and
Catalonia shows, the latter examples were faced by inner-spanish migration processes, meaning that a relevant
number of the majority within a country settles in a minority region.
get widely debated.2 Separatism is therefore linked to history and the separatist movements
have changing connections towards the mainstream of the minority and the majority.3
New separatism is linked to:
1. New demands of traditional nations, ethnics or religious communities as a result of the
latest re-ordering European borders (it means as a result of post-communist ethnic conflicts);
2. New separatist demands of traditional minorities from European territory;
3. Separatist demands of racial, national, ethnic or religious communities with no or very
limited or long-term interrupted tradition on European territory, which are now rising in
Europe as a result of modern migration trends.
4. Separatism of “white Europeans”, respectively traditional majority European nations,
ethnic or religious communities in reaction to the existence of new minorities.
To these new trends and consequences also traditional separatist movements are reacting.
In our paper we understand separatism as an umbrella term for various phenomena:
– Secessionism (split of one territory and/or racial, national, ethnic or religion community
from one state and creating a new state or states),
- Separatism in strict sense (split of two or more territories and/or racial, ethnic or religion
community/ies from the existing states and creating a new state), and
- Irredentism (split of one or more territories and/or or racial, ethnic or religion community/ies
with minority statute from one or more existing states and its annexation to the existing state,
where this community occupies majority position)4,
including autonomism in all three previous various ways within the existing state5 (demands
to autonomy for a race, nation, ethnic or religious community within the existing state)6.
Separatism is a dynamic process. For example, secessionist autonomism can be transferred to
separatism with demands to create new statehood during the stages of development of some
2
Peter Waldmann: Ethnischer Radikalismus – Ursachen und Folgen gewaltsamer Minderheitenkonflikte am
Beispiel des Bskenlandes, Nordirlands und Quebecs. Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag, 31f.
3
Stephan Rosiny: Vomradikalen Milieu in die Mitte der Gesellschaft – Die Dynamik der Hizb Allah im
Libanon. In: Stefan Malthaner, Peter Waldmann (Ed.): Radikle Milieus – Das soziale Umfeld terroristischer
Gruppen. Frankfurt/New York: Campus Verlag. 167-189.
4
Krulík, Oldřich. Terorismus a organizovaný zločin ve střední Evropě. Brno: Ústav strategických studií
Univerzity obrany, 2002.
5
Autonomy can be carried out by secessionist, separatist (in strict sense) or irredentist way within the existing
borders.
6
Bötticher, Astrid – Mareš, Miroslav. Extremsimus. Theorien-Konzepte-Formen. München: Oldenbourg Verlag,
343.
ethnic or regionalist movements. One territory can be claimed by more separatist or irredentist
movements7.
3. Forms of traditional separatism
Traditional Separatism (related to consistent territory with clear borders) demanded by
traditional European nations is typical mostly in the post-communist area. In Eastern Europe
these new separatist demands are determined by results of ethnic wars after violent
dissolutions of former communist federal states8. As a Western European example there can
be mentioned the North Italian separatism, in which some representatives construct the idea of
a “Padanian nation“9 and others, like the demands of the Catalonian minority in Spain that
proves to have a wide social support for its independence efforts.10
In the Baltic States and in Ukraine the radical part of representation of Russian minority
declares irredentist claims. The goal is re-unification of Russians in one state. As a leading
nation within the Soviet Union, many Russians feel badly the loss of this status. The National
Bolshevist Party of Russia (NBPR), Russian National Unity (RNE) or the Liberal Democratic
Party of Russia (LPDR) with branches among Russian minority in Estonia or Latvia had such
demands, for example. It is a marginal phenomenon today, more powerful were these
groupings in the 1990s.11
The NBPR declared even the idea of the so called “second Russia”. It was a project with the
aim to create national Bolshevist regime on the territory of one neighbouring country with
strong Russian minority. This regime should be a propagandist model for the win of political
support for the NBPR in Russia. The final goal should be national Bolshevist empowering
also in Russia12.
A specific case is the issue of Transnistria. Officially it is a part of the Republic of Moldova,
however, it is in fact not under control of its government. Real power is held by regime under
7
For example (in the context of traditional separatism in Europe) - the Carpathian Ukraine (currently part of
Ukraine), was former claim of Ukrainian irredentists, current its is claimed by Hungarian and Czechoslovak
irredentists. Secessionist claims are declared by a part of representatives of Ruthenian minority.
8
Mareš, Miroslav. The Extreme Right in Eastern Europe and Territorial Issues. Central European Political
Studies Review, Vol. 11, N. 2-3, 82-106. Available from http://www.cepsr.com (accessed on 17 July 2013).
9
Padania. The Foundations of a Nation. 2013. Available from
http://digilander.libero.it/vimercatepadana/english%20pg4.htm (accessed 17 July 2013)
10
Catalonians against Spain – the majority favors its independence. Available from: http://deutsche-wirtschaftsnachrichten.de/2013/06/22/katalanen-gegen-spanien-mehrheit-will-einen-eigenen-staat/ (accessed on
20.08.2013)
11
Poleshchuk, Vadim. Estonia. In Mudde, Cas (ed.): Racist Extremism in Central and Eastern Europe. London:
Routledge, 65-66.
12
Limonov, Eduard. Drugaja Rossia. Očertanija Budushego.Moskva: Ultra-Kultura, 2003.
Russian protection. The frozen conflict in Moldova is connected also with “traditional”
irredentist Romanian demands related to this territory13.
Several separatist struggles are connected with the situation after the Balkan wars. All
conflicts in this area have deep historical roots. The goal of separatist, respectively irredentist
movement, is to establish own ethnic homogenous “greater states” (“greater Serbia”, “greater
Albania”, “greater Macedonia” etc.). Separatist groups, which fought in the border territories
for the enlargement of contemporary states or for the establishing new states without
historical tradition, are active after the delimitation of new borders. As mentioned above, all
these quasi-new separatist movements must be considered as a part of larger traditional
irredentist struggle. Liberation Army of Preševo, MedveĎa and Bujanovac (UÇPMB) in
Serbia, recent Serbian separatism in Northern Kosovo14 or the separatism of the Republika
Srpska Krajina in Croatia (respectively representation of this quasi-state in exile)15 can be
mentioned as examples.
4. Roma autonomism and separatism
Approximately ten million Roma (or Romani) people live in Europe as a stateless nation
(according to some authors as a conglomerate of various sub-ethnics). As Aidan McGary
writes: “Roma are a heterogenous minority community with multiple subgroups which
impedes efforts to secure representation and articulate interests in the domestic and
transnational political context”16.
At the beginning of modern Roma politics in the 1930s, the inspiration from Zionist
movement led some Roma leaders to demands to establish their own Roma state in India.
However, during the development of Roma political movement this demand was rejected17. In
contemporary Europe such demands are connected with anti-Gypsyist propaganda (including
racist motto “Roma back to India”) rather than with Roma movement.
13
Rojansky, Matthew. Prospects for Unfreezing Moldova´s Frozen Conflict in Transnistria. Washington:
Carnegie
Endowment
for
International
Peace.
Available
from
http://carnegieendowment.org/files/Rojansky_Transnistria_Briefing.pdf (accessed on 17 July 2013)
14
Stojarová, Věra – Mareš, Miroslav – Stojar, Richard – Prtina, Srdjan. Security Perspectives on the Western
Balkan Countries. Brno: Centre for the Study of Democracy and Culture, 43-46.
15
Stojarová, Věra - Mareš, Miroslav, Republika Srpska Krajina - obstacle for the Croatian integration in to
Euro-Atlantic structures? Western Balkans Security Observer, 2008, Vol. 3, N. 11, 27-45.
16
McGarry, Aidan. Who Speaks for Roma? Political Representation of a Transnational Minority Community.
London, New York: Continuum, 170.
17
Pečínka, Pavel, Romské strany a politici v Evropě. Brno: Nakladatelství doplněk, 2009, 84.
On the other hand, within the Roma movement claims to “Roma autonomous zones” are
being now declared. They are connected with a demanded autonomy of localities with strong
Roma population. This claim is not clearly specified, however. Real separation of Roma
communities is caused by social exclusion, mostly in East Central European and Balkan
countries (so called “Roma ghettos”). Sometimes the chance to the future growth of these
localities is connected with the above mentioned autonomous demands18. The network of
small territories under Roma control can be demanded more strongly in future Europe, mostly
in the case of continuous social exclusion of Roma. Roma face in Europe discrimination and
social exclusion19 and hostile attitudes20. The highest discrimination rate (in percent) has been
found in Czech Republic, by “European Union Minorities and Discrimination Survey“,
followed by Hungary in 2009. Here, the Roma minority faces severe ethnic tensions that get
promoted by racist ideologies.21
European Union Minorities and Discrimination Survey
6. Separatism of “new minorities”?
Europe was in last decades a target area of mass immigration from various parts of the world.
Three or more generations of immigrants established in many European countries a
population consisting from various nations of non-European origin. The integration of these
immigrants is in progress in many cases, however, some communities created their own
“parallel societies”.
18
Mareš, Miroslav, Romský extremismus v ČR. Analýza pojmu a možností jeho aplikace. Rexter - časopis pro
radikalismu, extremismu a terorismu, vol. 10, no. 2, 2012, 18-19. .
19
experience discrimination and social exclusion available from:
http://fra.europa.eu/en/publication/2012/situation-roma-11-eu-member-states-survey-results-glance accessed
20.08.2013
20
Gewaltsame Attacken gegen Roma in Ungarn. available from: http://www.amnesty.ch/de/laender/europazentralasien/ungarn/diskriminierung-der-roma-in-ungarn-gewaltsame-attacken-gegen-roma-in-ungarn accessed
on 20.08.2013.
21
Erhebung der Europäischen Union zu Minderheiten und Diskriminierung 2009 – Die Roma. available from:
http://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra_uploads/413-EU-MIDIS_ROMA_DE.pdf accessed on 20.08.2013.
Chinese, Vietnamese, Kurdish or other communities sometimes live predominantly
separately, up to now without demands to territorial self-government on European territory
(sometimes their political representation struggles for traditional separatist demands outside
Europe, as the Kurdish PKK or Tamil Tigers).
Territorial separation is connected mostly with social division and with the rise of “poor
immigrant suburbia” in many European cities. Such zones are under control of various nonelected authorities, including crime groups (they are sometimes created on ethnic, sometimes
on multi-ethnic base). Governments tend to show a lack of interest to integrate them and
private organisations, civil initiatives and networks are left to help themselves.22 The main
claim of these minorities is the urge for integration and recognition as a minority and not
separation. Governmental attacks against these communities can be a starter for ethnic riots,
as in France in 2005, London in 2011 or Malmö in 2013. These riots are sometimes connected
also with Islamist struggle in Europe23.
5. Islamic separatism
Muslim communities are growing in Europe, also in the countries where Islam does not
traditionally have strong roots (Western Europe, Scandinavia etc.). From traditional Islam
areas outside Europe (Middle East, Horn of Africa, Central and East Asia etc.) as well as
within Europe (Bosna, Turkey) new immigrants are coming. It is a challenge also to Islamist
politics in Western countries.
The claims to own statehood is claimed by radical Muslim politicians. In Germany Metin
Kaplan proclaimed himself Kaliph from Cologne and leader of the “Caliph State”. His group
gain relatively strong support. However, his main goal was to establish a caliphate in Turkey.
In his teaching the idea of Muslim “parallel society” in Western Europe can also be found 24.
This idea can be considered also as a separatist struggle, despite the fact that it is not
necessarily connected with territorial claims. Parallel society separates people according to
22
Bundesamt für Migration und Flüchtlinge: Migrationsbericht 2011. Available from:
http://www.bamf.de/SharedDocs/Anlagen/DE/Publikationen/Migrationsberichte/migrationsbericht2011.html;jsessionid=2CF01DAC6DE3318036A8850FDEE0EF19.1_cid368?nn=1663558 (accessed on 20th
August 2013)
23
Centrum strategických studií, Hrozí Evropě islámská městská guerilla? Revue Politika, 20.12.2005, available
from http://www.revuepolitika.cz/clanky/620/hrozi-v-evrope-islamska-mestska-guerilla (accessed on 17 July
2013)
24
Kandel, Johannes, Islamismus in Deutschland. Zwischen Panikmache und Naivität. Freiburg im Breisgau:
Herder Verlag. 2011.
their religious identity. Territorial claims are declared by Islamists in large urban areas where
the Muslim community is granted majority status.
The so called “Sharia Zones”, respectively “Sharia Controlled Zones” are claimed, where
only the Muslim law should be valid under the governance of Muslim religious authorities.
For example, in London the posters on the borders of these self-proclaimed zones declare that
smoking, alcohol, music, drugs, prostitution and porn are forbidden25. Sharia law in these
areas is enforced by Muslim vigilantes26.
In the future struggle to create more and more such Sharia zones and their unification to one
territory can be expected. In contemporary Europe the number of “no-go zones” for Muslims
is growing (not only in the UK, but also in France, Benelux countries, Scandinavia etc.)27.
This can be connected also with the activities of the Sharia movement, which has been active
since the end of last decade in many Western countries. It provisory goal is to establish sharia
on national level, then to create new Islamist states and caliphates28.
In this context the idea of Jihadist irredentism can be mentioned, as was defined by the
International Crisis Group, jihad can be categorized as:
- “Internal jihad (combating nominally Muslim regimes considered impious);
- Irredentist jihad (fighting to redeem land ruled by non-Muslims or under occupation);
- Global jihad (combating the West).“29
7. Right-wing extremist separatist concepts
Modern right-wing extremism in Europe started in the 1990s with strong anti-immigrant
campaigns, including violent activities against immigrants. Struggle for ethnically
homogenous territory was proclaimed in the context of the so called “National Liberated
Zones”, which was elaborated in Germany in the 1990s. The power of the right-wing
extremist scene should be enforced in such zones and they should be “cleared” from
25
Geen, Jessica, More extremist posters appear in East London, Pink News, 18. July 2011, available from
http://www.pinknews.co.uk/2011/07/18/more-extremist-posters-appear-in-east-london/ (accessed 17 July 2013)
26
Kern, Soeren, Muslim Gangs Enforce Sharia Law in London. New York: Gatestone Institute, Available from:
http://www.gatestoneinstitute.org/3555/sharia-law-london (accessed 17 July 2013)
27
Kern, Soeren, European 'No-Go' Zones for Non-Muslims Proliferating, New York: Gatestone Institute
Available from: http://www.gatestoneinstitute.org/2367/european-muslim-no-go-zones (accessed 18 July 2013)
28
Ibid.
29
International Crisis Group: Understanding Islamism. Middle East/North Africa Report N°37, 2005. Available
at http://www.crisisgroup.org/home/index.cfm?id=3301 (accessed 12 July 2009).
foreigners, political opponents and criminals. The “no-go zones” for foreigners were
proclaimed also before the World Soccer Championship in Germany in 200630.
Separation of Central and Eastern European states from “Islamized” Western Europe,
probably with a new territorial and governmental form, is demanded by some right-wing
extremists from this area. As an example the Czech-Slovak group White Media can be
mentioned31.
Current white racist separatist struggle can be characterized also as “Americanization” of
European white separatism, because in Northern America concepts to separate people of
different race and nation have a long tradition within the extremist scene32. However, in
Europe the final goal is to annihilate “non-Europeans” and/or to transfer them from Europe
(the concept of European war to 2083 elaborated by right-wing terrorist Anders Breivik is a
typical example of this approach)33.
8. New challenges to traditional separatism
Immigration and separatist demands of new minorities pose a challenge to traditional
separatist movements. Traditional enemies – central governments, respectively the majority
nation or religion, are supplemented or even substituted by the new “invaders” coming to the
territory claimed. In previous era such problems were typical on intra-state level, as – for
instance – in the 1980s, ETA attacked Castilians coming into the Basque country34.
In recent era some traditional separatist movements propagate strong anti-immigrant
statements and they can be categorized as a specific subtype of contemporary extreme right
party family, as the Flemish Interest (Vlaams Belang) or the above mentioned Northern
League (Lega Nord). Also the militant scene in separatist regions is fighting against
immigration, as the Bloed, Bodem, Eer en Trouw (Blood, Soil, Honour and Loyalty) in
30
Novotný, Lukáš. Right-wing Extremism and No-go-areas in Germany. Sociologicky časopis/Czech
Sociological Review, Vol. 45, No. 3, 2009, 591–609.
31
Mareš, Miroslav.Strategies for Creating Insurgencies and Civil Wars in Europe: From Violent Extremism to
Paramilitary Conflicts? Jindal Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 2, N. 1, 2012, 90-119. Available from:
http://www.jsia.edu.in/JJIA/PDF/Miroslav-StrategiesforCreating.pdf (accessed 18 July 2013).
32
Dobratz, Betty – Shanks-Meile, Stephanie. The White Separatist Movement in the United States. Baltimore
and London: The John Hopkins University Press.
33
Berwick, Andrew. 2083 – A European Declaration of Independence. London:
De Laude Novae Militae, 2011.
34
Zariski, Raphael. Ethnic Extremism among Ethnoteritorial Minorities in Western Europe. Dimensions, Causes,
and Institutional Responses. Comparative Politics, vol. 21, N. 3, 253–272.
Flanders35. In Slovakia and Hungary the anti-Roma racism led to cooperation‟s between
former rivals from the Slovak and Hungarian right-wing extremist scene. The second one is
typical of irredentist demands. However, in this cooperation only marginal Hungarian rightwing extremist groupings are engaged, up to now36, though anti-Roma racism becomes more
and more socially accepted in Hungary.
In Northern Ireland, the loyalists attacked Roma immigrants from Eastern Europe in 2009.
The loyalist Combat 18 (branch of neo-Nazi group) was responsible for threatening Roma37.
In Ulster racially motivated attacks against immigrants from various areas (Roma, East
Europeans, Muslims, Chinese etc.) are generally growing. As writes Jake Wallis Simons (a
Telegraph features writer): “Sectarian hatred is being overtaken by xenophobic racism in
Northern Ireland”38.
9. Conclusion
Current separatism in Europe is an important issue with a dynamic development. Traditional
forms of separatism are combined with new fringes. The main framework for an analysis can
be defined with the help of two main axes. The first is the traditional or new form of entity
with its own identity (racial, national, ethnic, religious) on a specific territory in Europe (in
the historical and geopolitical context39), the second is traditional territorial claim to a
homogenous and consistent territory with clear borders at one pole of the axis, the network of
flexible or vague defined zones without clear borders at the opposite pole of the axis. This
axis can be understood also as a process because the zones can be only the first step for the
establishing of large new units or states (Caliphate, Roma state, white racist states etc.).
35
Diab, Khaled Neo-nazism is Europe‟s hidden terrorist menace, The Guardian, 11 July 2010,
www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2010/jul/11/islam-white-racist-terror-attack (accessed 18 July 2013).
36
Nociar, Tomáš. Cooperation and joint activities of the Slovak and Hungarian far
Right. In Danilov, Sergej – Nociar, Tomáš (ed.), 2012, Loved and Hated. Commonalities and Differences
between the Slovak and Hungarian Far Right. Bratislava: Institute for Intercultural Dialogue / Inštitút pre
medzikultúrny dialóg, 22-23. Available from http://www.ipmd.sk/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/loved-andhated1.pdf (accessed 18 July 2013).
37
McDondald, Henry. 'Romanian gypsies beware. Loyalist C18 are coming to beat you like a baiting bear'. The
Observer, 21 June 2009. Available from: http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2009/jun/21/race-northern-irelandromanian-gypsies (accessed 18 July 2013)
38
Simons, Jake Wallis, Sectarian hatred is being overtaken by xenophobic racism in Northern Ireland, The
Telegraph, 20 September 2012. Available from:
http://blogs.telegraph.co.uk/news/jakewallissimons/100181659/sectarian-hatred-is-being-overtaken-byxenophobic-racism-in-northern-ireland/ (accessed on 18 July 2013).
39
For example, Muslims in Bosnia are a traditional entity, Muslims in Northern Europe a new entity.
Traditional European entities
Clear borders + consistent territory
Flexible/vague borders
and inconsistent territory
New European Entities
Examples for each category are included in the next table.
Clear borders and consistent Vague/flexible borders and
territory
Traditional entity
Basque
inconsistent territory
separatism, Roma autonomous zones
Hungarian irredentism etc.
New entity
White racist “no go zones”
Islamic caliphates in Western Sharia
Europe
controlled
zones,
immigrant suburbia
Source: Authors
Social stratification is an important driver for the establishing of new informal (but strong)
borders, at least in the case of immigrant suburbia and socially excluded Roma localities with
their autonomous demands. Islamist and right-wing extremist “no-go zones” have a dangerous
conflict potential. The slogan “Europa of separatisms” can be characteristic for the future
development of the “old continent”.