The Meiji Restoration (1868-1912) was a revolutionary
period in Japanese history. With the return of political
power to the emperor, Japan was thrust into the modern
world in an attempt to avoid Western dominance which
was already the fate of China, the Dutch East Indies and
the Indian subcontinent.
1868 marked the beginning of a deliberate
transformation by Japan and its new leaders in response to
the threat posed by the West. Western technology and
foreign expertise were imported; modern communications
such as the railway and telegraph were established;
strategic industries were developed for the purpose of
defence; and taxation was reformed to sponsor industry
and promote enterprise. By the turn of the twentieth
century, Japan had almost achieved a level of economic
growth eqnal to that of the Western powers.
Along with the success of the Restoration years, Japan
adopted excessive Westcmisation. Western ideas, fashion
and food dominated the early part of the period. The
status of Japanese women, however, did not improve.
Under the Meiji Constitution of 1889, they were not
accorded with political rights and continned to playa
snbordinate role to men.
The Meiji Restoration saw Japan's involvement in two
snccessfnl wars against China and Russia. With its
reputation growing on the world stage, Japan formed an
alliance with Britain in 1902 and annexed Korea in 1910.
In a period of less than fifty years, Japan was able to
retain its independence and find 'a place among the
aggressors instead of among the victims of aggression'.
responsible for creating the new goverument and initiated
many of Meiji's early reforms.
The Charter Oath
Emperor Meiji
and the Charter
Oath
In April 1868, Emperor Meiji made clear his government's
intention to modernise the country when he issued an
Imperial Oath of Five Articles (often known in English as
the Charter Oath). It became an important statement of
imperial policy regarding Japanese reform.
By this oath we set up as our aim the establishment
of the national weal on a broad basis and the
forming of a constitution and laws.
The
young emperor
When Mutsuhito became emperor of Japan in 1867,
he was only fifteen years old. In the following year,
he dismissed the ruling shogun and ended more than
two and a half centuries of Tokugawa rule. His uame
or title~ was soon changed to Meiji (meaning
'enlightened rule') and so began a remarkable period
of change which historians generally refer to as the
Meiji Restoration.
The Meiji Restoration marked the real beginning of
Japan's modernisation and entry into the international
world. It should not be assumed, however, that absolute
power was transferred to the emperor. After all, he was
still very young and in the early part of his reign Nijo
Nariyuki served as regent (seesho).
The driving force behind the economic, social and
political changes of the Meiji Restoration were the
Article 1
Deliberative assemblies shall be widely established
and all matters decided by public discussion.
Article 2
All classes, bigh and low, shall unite in vigorously
can-ying out the administration of affairs of state.
Article 3
The common people, no less than the civil and
military officials, shall each be allowed to pursue
his own calling so that there be no discontent.
Article 4
Evil customs of the past shall be broken off and
everything based upon the just laws of Nature.
Article 5
Knowledge shall be sought throughout the world
so as to strengthen the foundations of imperial rule.
The fifth article of the Charter Oath was perhaps the
most important for Japan as it promoted a new policy of
young samurai from the Satsuma, Chashu, Hizen and
Tosa clans who had helped defeat the shogun and
restore the emperor to power. They were largely
Ii.
~2 ')~l~
't
Figure 9.1 An illustration of brick and
stone shops on GinzaAvenue, Tokyo, during
the Mei;i Restoration
I
1I
early Meiji government for a number of years, although
the Constitution of 1868, having been hastily prepared,
proved unworkable and was later abandoned.
The end of feudalism
The new government's first task was to establish its
power over all the 260 feudal domains (han). Some of
them had become almost independent states ruled by their
daimyo during the final years of the Tokugawa
shogunate. Japan's leaders could not hope to create a
fully centralised governmeut if they were constantly
challenged by powerful lords exercising their feudnl
powers.
Figure 9.2 Emperor MeUi in a military uniform,
adomed with medals
modernisation along Western lines. Japan's new leaders
realised that unless their country modernised and became
strong militarily it would forever be at the mercy of
Western demands. The cry of sanna joi was replaced by
the ancient Chinese ideal of 'rich country; strong
military' (jukoku kyo/wi). One historian later made the
following observation.
Defence, therefore, became the main task of the new
government, while those numerous Japanese whose
fear of the Western nations was mingled with
admiration of their prowess overseas considered that
the adoption of Western material equipment might
enable Japan to find a place among the aggressors
instead of among the victims of aggression.
The Constitution of 1868
I
i
I
Japan's first constitution (Seitaisho} was drawn up in
June 1868 to bring the Charter Oath into effect and to
define the powers of the new government and the rights
of the Japanese people. Its main features were:
All authority was vested in a Council of State, or the
upper house of the Japanese parliament, known as the
D{{jokan
• Council members were not elected but chosen
according to noble rank
• The Deliberative Assembly, or lower house, held little
power and was called the Giseikan
Assembly members were elected from each clan, city
and prefecture of Japan. Only qualified men could
hold a seat in the Giseikon.
Ruling Japan in the emperor's name, members of the
Choshu, Satsuma, Hizen and Tosa clans dominated the
The new government was already in control of those
han whose military strength had brought about the Meiji
Restoration. Having persuaded their own daimyo to give
up their feudal rights, the new leaders set about
destroying the feudal powers of the rest of the daimyo. On
25 July 1869, Emperor Meiji issued an imperial decree
which forced all daimyo to surrender their lands (fiefs)
and the powers that went with them.
The court nobles [kuge] and the feudal lords
[shako] are given the same rank, and are to be
called kazoku. Those who have not yet given up
their fiefs are to be compelled to hand back their
registers. The feudal lords are created chiha'1ji
[governors of the han].
Two years later, the process was complete. On
29 August 1871, the fonnerterritories of the shogun were
divided into a new system of districts or prefectures
known as ken. With Tokyo the new imperial capital,
central government had become a political reality in
Meiji Japan.
ofApril 1868 (Document
follov.·inE
to be pointing
Rrnn,errlr Meiji and his
Building a
modern economy
1868-85
In 1868, Japan was anon-industrialised country, Three
quarters of the workforce was employed in agriculture
or farming and related handicrafts (such as cotton and
raw silk) produced nearly 65 per cent of the national
income, Most industries still used traditional methods
of production with very little emphasis on
manufacturing even in large scale enterprises let alone
factories. As the old financial and administrative
system associated with feudalism disappeared, the
great effort to catch up with the West began.
Shokusan [(oygo
Industria,lisation became a key aim of the Meiji
period. Between 1868 and 1881, the foundations of
modern industry were laid in Japan. Central to this
development was the government policy of
sponsoring industry and promoting enterprise known
as shokusan koygo. It became a major cornerstone of
the restoration program and gave Japan a new
economic outlook. This in turn encouraged economic
freedom at the expense of the old feudal restraints
that had prevailed in Tokugawa Japan.
The importance of strategic
industries
The Meiji leaders realised that if Japan was to
become a 'rich country:_ with a 'strong military' it
must develop strategic industries on which modern
military power depended:"'heavy industry,
engineering, mining and shipbuilding. This had
begun before the end of the shogunate.
Western military industries were first introduced
into Japan by some of the stronger clans for defence
purposes. Tbe Hizen clan built the first successful
reverberatory furnace in 1850 and began producing
iron guns in considerable number after 1852. The
shogunate soon followed suit. By 1865 it had two
modern shipyards in operation at Nagasaki and
Yokosuka.
With the fall of the shogun, the Meiji government
gave priority to developing defence 'industries which
could withstand the Western menace. Foreign instructors
were employed to give technical training to Japanese
workers in munitions plants and shipyards. Various
institutions were created for training in the manufacture
of guns. Engineering, technical and naval schools were
also founded using foreign instructors while the best
Japanese students were often sent abroad to master the
techniques required in these key industries.
Mining was developed on the same lines. The Meiji
government took over all of the mines formerly operated
by the Bakufu and employed the best foreign experts to
increase mineral production. By the end of the Meiji
period, Japan ranked as one of the world's largest
producers of coal and exporters of copper.
Early financial problems
With the defeat of the shogun, the Meiji government
faced a number of financial problems. The cost involved
in crushing the clans hostile to the imperial regime had
led to heavy public spending at a time when revenue was
very difficult to obtain. In 1868, national government
expenditure amounted to thirty million yen while the
rnoneygained from land taxes and other sources of
income was only three million. This imbalance had a
severe effect on the economy, Inflation ran high, internal
revenue dropped and the CUlTency lay in a state of chaos
as there was no one standard by which to trade. One
historian made the following comment.
The currency situation was indeed alarming; the
monetary circulation comprised not merely of new
issues of inconvertible notes, but also gold and
silver coins in .varying degrees of value-an
inheritance of the shogunate-and about 1500
varieties of clan notes.
In order to overcome the early financial problems of
the Meiji period, the yen was officially adopted as the
basic unit of currency in 1871. In that year, the government
suspended the exchange of clan notes or paper money
that had been issued by the daimyo ever since the late
sixteenth century. By 1879, the replacement of clan notes
had been completed.
Banking
The new land tax
At the end of the Tokugawa period, Japan had a higher
level of potential savings than most under-developed
countries in Asia today. However, it lacked a modern
bauking system to collect its untapped wealth and make
it available for investment on a large scale.
In 1872, the American system of national banking was
taken as tbe model for Japan and four national banks were
established under pressure from tbe government. By
1875, all were in serious financial trouble due largely to
poor management, lack of co-operation and failure to
compete with foreign banks and local institutions.
In 1882, a centralised, European-style system of banking
took the place of the earlier American system. In that year,
the Bank of Japan, the nation's first central bank, was
formed. It controlled the nation's banking system as a
whole and encouraged the development of specialised
banks to finance industry, agriculture and foreign trade. The
most important of these was the Yokohama Specie Bank
which wasfounded in 1880.
In 1873, the government needed to reform taxation in
order to ease the burden of heavy public spending on new
capital for industry. A land tax was introduced. Farmers
had to pay 3 per cent of their annual crop to the government.
The land tax became Japan's largest source of revenue
during the Meiji period and financed its transition to a
modern economy. But, although reduced to 2.5 per cent
of the annual crop in ] 876, it remained a heavy burden on
Japan's farmers.
Figure 10,1 Tokyo railway station in 1872
The land tax as a source of Japanese revenue,
1868-97
Years
1868-81
1890
1897
Land tax as a percentage of ordinary revenue
78%
50%
30%
Figure 10.2 Thefirst Japanese steam train, built in 1895
Modern communications
The Meiji Restoration brought ecouomic changes to
Japan quite quickly. The most visible were modern
communications such as the telegraph and railway. In
1872, the first railway line was laid between Tokyo and
Yokohama, and within a short time was carrying almost
2 million people a year. A similar liue was built from
Kobe to Osaka in 1874 and later extended to Kyoto in
1877. Telegraph lines, which were cheaper to construct
and operated at first only within Japan, linked all the
major Japanese cities by 1880.
The rise of the Zaibatsu
In the early years of the Restoration, the Meiji government
was the key player in Japan's industrial modernisation.
Using foreign instructors, it established the major mines,
factories and shipyards. But by the 1880s it needed a new
direction to ensure continued economic growth. On
5 November 1880, it published the Regulations on the
Transfer of Factories, abandoning the policy of
government control of industry.
The government began selling off certain industries to
private companies, often on very generous telIDS. These
favoured companies grew into large business combines
called Zaibatsu.
Some of the outstauding names among the Zaibat~u .
included Mitsui, '{asuda, Furukawa, Kawasaki,
Mitsubishi and Sumitomo. Although not all industries
were sold off to private interests, the Zaibatsu provided a
strong financial base for industry and promoted rapid
economic growth when it was most neede?
Activities
1 Refer to the illustration of Tokyo railway station
.in 1872 and answer the following questions.
a What type of scene is depicted?
b To What e)<.tent had Japan modernised by
1872?Give examples.
C Why (.10 you think this illustration was
produced?
2 Why do you think the creation of Japan's first
~team train in 1895 was a major achievement of
th~Meiji Restoration?
Japan1s cultural revolution
The world in thc late nineteenth century was dominated
by Western countries such as Britain, France, Germany
and the United States of America. Many in Japan felt that
in order to be accepted as equals it was necessary to adopt
not only Western science and technology, but all aspects
of Western culture.
During the first two decades of the Meiji Restoration,
a fascination for all things Western pervaded society.
'Civilisation and enlightenment' (bummei leailea) became
the popular catch-cry as Western liberlli thought was
introduccd into Japan in a very short space of time.
Many Japauese writers and intellectu~lsrejected their
traditional institutions and the learning that underlay them
for the path of 'universlli progress' that the West seemed
to represent. Fuknzawa Yukichi, perhaps the most
a
The Japanese living in towns and cities were keen to
adopt Western ideas and fashions. Food, clothing and
education changed in the attempt to imitate all
aspects of Western culture. But Westernisation
brought problems for the samurai.
.
Problems with the sarrru.rai
The changes of the Meiji period dramatically affected
the lives of the samurai~ as thegovernlIlel1tst~a<iilY
removed the privileges they enjoyed.
influential writer of the period, was critical of his
country's achievements when compared to the West. He
believed that Japau could only become strong if it had a
revolution in values and ideas.
If we compare the knowledge of;the Japanese and
the Westerners ... there is not one thing in which
we excel ... Who could compare our carts with
their locomotives, our swords with their pistols? ...
We think that our country is the most sacred, divine
1869
The old feudal hierarchy wasr~pl~ce~
with new social classes. Court officials
and daimyo became nobles (kdzdkLt).
Samurai were classed as landowners
(shizoku) or soldiers (sotsuzoku), and all
the remaining classes, inc1udingollfeasts,
were gronped together as commoners
1871
The government made the wearing of
swords optional and allowed men t6 cut
off their topknots. Many samurai refused
to do this.
Conscription was ir,trodw,ed
year-old cOllSCriplts
army for three
was clear
being taken over bYG~~;;;ri;~ed ";."""C.~
In March, the Hatori Ediictjprohibited
wearing of swords
ceremonial occasions.
Saigo Takamori, the ll1.UUm,y
Satsuma forces
overthrow the 8"i)!?','"
30 000 ex-"amurai
government
bitter fighting,
defeat, and his wuuwc» pelislled
hands of the
®l)§rilli
anIly. This became kJ"ovvn
Rebellion.
(heime11).
1872
1876
1877
land; they travel about the world, opening lands and
establishiug couutries ... All that Japau has to be
prond of ... is its scenery.
Fashion and food
Under the Tokugawas, the dress of the social classes was
strictly ruled. While the upper classes could wear sillcs
Figure 11,1 The enlightened, half-enlightened and unenlightened
Japanese man
Figure 11.2 A scene in a Japanese classroom
after the turn of the century
and satins, peasants were limited to hemp and cotton.
This changed in 1872. The Meiji government decided
that Western dress should be woru for all court aud
official ceremonies. Later, the cutaway or 'morning coat'
(moningu) became the standard dress for formal
occasions. Westem-style haircuts became a major symbol
of Westeruisation in Japan and as early as 1870 had
largely replaced the traditional samurai topknot. Meat
eating was encouraged at the expense of traditional
Buddhist beliefs wbich considered it immoral. The beef
dishes, Sukiyaki and Teriyaki, proved most popular.
Bread, beer and dairy products also appeared.
Ballroom dancing emerged as a particularly popular
pastime in the early Meiji period. An elaborate, twostorey social halI in Tokyo, calIed the Rokumeiken
opened in 1883 to hold dances every Sunday night for
wealthy husiness people, politicians and foreign
diplomats. Its closure in 1889 marked the end of the
Japanese craze for Westernisation, as many came to
favour a 'return to being Japanese'.
Changes in education
The Meiji government believed that a modetnised society
needed an organised system of education. Under the
Tokugawas, ordinary people were taught reading, writing
and the abacus (a device of beads strung ou rods used for
calculating) in terakoya-smalI makeshift classrooms in
people's houses. In 1868 there were nearly 13 000
terakoya in Japan with a total of 837 000 students.
Education under Emperor Meiji owed much of its
rapid progress to the traditional terakoya system. In 1871,
a Ministry of Education Was established to provide
education to alI people, regardless of their social class or
gender. In 1872, it was decreed that all Japanese children
must have at least four years of primary schooling. By
1910, 98 per cent of Japanese students were receiving
compulsory education.
As schools spread across the country, Japan's first
tertiary institution, Tokyo University, was founded in
1877. Nine years later, it was reorganised into a genuine
multi-faculty university and became the principal training
centre for future government leaders. Other universities
were later established in Kyoto (1897), Fukuoka (l9lO)
and Sapporo (1918).
The Rescript on Education
In 1890, Emperor Meiji introduced his famous, 'Rescript
on Education', which stressed the importance of harmony
and loyalty to the throne. It was given great reverence
throughout the land and a copy was display~d in every
school and read aloud on special days. The 'Rescript on
Education' formed the basis of Japan's philosophy on
education until 1945. Part of it read as folIows.
, Ye, our subjects, be filial to your parents,
affectionate to your brothers and sisters; as
husbands and wives be harmonious, as friends true
... pursue leaming and cultivate arts, and thereby
develop your intellectual faculties and perfect your
moral powers ... always respect the Constitution
and observe the laws ... and thus guard and
maintain the prosperity of Our Imperial throne.
Activities
1 'Y!'ydid Fu1cazawa Yukichi helieve that Japan
needed a revolution in values and ideas
(Document A)?
2 Study Figure 11.1 and explain how the artist saw
the major differences hetween the enlightened,
half-enlightened and unenlightened Japanese
manofthe Mdji Restoration?
3 What do you uotice about the photograph of a
Jap,mese classroom in the early twentieth century
(Figure I I.2)? What evidence is there to suggest
(hallapan's system of compulsory education had
been a success?
Consisting mainly of ex-samurai and commoners
(heimin), The Freedom and People's Rights Movement
demanded a popular assembly or government so that
decisions would retlect the will of the people and thus
preserve national unity. Itagaki later reorganised this
movement into a major political party which took the new
name of Liberal Party (Ii)'uta).
Ito Hirobumi and
the Constitution
of 1889
Towards the end of the nineteenth century, it was
widely believed that constitutions (systems of
fundamental laws and principles of a government)
provided the unity that gave Western powers their
strength. The Japanese leaders were keen to set up a
system of constitutional governrnent
Problems with the
Constitution of 1868
Under Japan's first constitution kno\Vn;asth"
Seitaisho or the 'Constitution of 1868' the Dajdkan,
a Grand Council of State consisting ofseyen
departments, held all political power. Althoughtlie
Dajokan was effective in the early years of rapid
economic and social change, it was opposed by
different groups because it failed to deal with two
basic problems: it did not provide Japan with a
modern constitution and a national parliament· that
would earn Western respect and popular support.
The Freedom and People's
Rights Movement
During the Restoration, a small group of men known
as oligarchs, ruled Japan in the name of Emperor
Meiji. These men tolerated little opposition until a
number of them left the government over the
question of invading Korea (Seikanron) in 1873. This
division promoted an important.de~()SFaJis
movement which was led by Itagaki Taisuke and
called The Freedom and People's Rights Movement
(Ii)'u Minken Undo).
Towards a new constitution
By 1875, the oligarchs recognised the problems with
Japan's first constitution in the Osaka Agreement. It
called for the creation of a constitutional government in
gradual stages and a new body of officials called the
Senate (Genroin) was appointed by the emperor to draft
a second constitution.
Between 1876 and 1878, the Senate prepared four
draft constitutions which were too liberal for the powerful
oligarchs such as 1wakura Tomomi and Okubo
Toshimichi. As a result, Iwakura asked the chief
members of the oligarchy to submit their own views on
constitutional government in 1879. All complied with
fairly cautious statements, except Okuma Shigenobu,
who astounded his colleagues with the radical nature of
his proposal. He suggested that elections be called
immediately and that Japan adopt the full parliamentary
system of Britain. As a result, Okuma was forced out of
the government, although the constitution movement
continued.
ln 1881, Emperor Meiji promised the Japanese people
that a new parliament would be convened in 1890.
We therefore hereby declare that We shall in the
23rd y£ar oLMeiji,. establish a Parliament in order
to carry into full effect the determination We have
announced, and We charge' Ourfaithful subjects
bearing Our commissions to make, in mean time,
all necessary preparations to that end.
Ito Hiroburni, an ex-samurai who had worked to
restore the emperor to power and who was a member of
the new government, was the architect of Japan's second
constitution, The Constitution of the Empire of Japan
(Dai Nilum Teikoku Kempa).'
Ito and the Prussian model
The son of a peasant farmer, Ito was born in Choshll
province in 1841. His long political career spanned nearly
the entire Meiji period from his involvement in the
struggle to overthrow the Tokugawa shogunate to his
assassination by a Korean nationalist in Manchuria in
1909. Apart from becoming prime minister on four
occasions, Ito's greatest achievement remains the
creation of the Constitution of the Empire of Japan
,
between 1881 and 1889.
When Okuma left the government in 1881, Ito moved
into a position of unchallenged power, having favoured a
gradualist approach in drawing up a second constitution.
Determined to base it on the best possible practices of the
West, adapted to Japan's special needs, Ito and his
colleagues travelled to Europe on a study mission in
1882. On their return in August 1883, Ito decided that a
constitutional system that operated under alLabs61ute
monarch or emperor was best suited to Japan. The model
he adopted was based on the Prussian (German)
parliamentary system.
Meanwhile, Okuma and his followers, who opposed
all constitutional models except the BI'itish, founded a
political party called the Progressive Party (Rikken
Kaishinto) in an attempt to influence political decisions.
Divided into factions, the Progressive Party soon fell
apart and Okuma had little choice b)"t to return to the
government. In February 1888, he was appointed Foreign
Minister of Japan.
~-
Figure 12.1 The opening afthefirst session afthe Japanese Die! in
the presence ofEmperor Mei;t, 1890
The Meiji Constitution
Under Ito's direction, a German, Hermann Roesler,
helped to complete the new constitution. On 11 February
1889, Emperor Meiji handed down, as a gift, the written
constitution to Prime Minister Count Kuroda. The main
points of the constitution were;
• The emperor was the absolute ruler or head of state. He
was sacred and inviolable and had complete control of
the armed forces and the nation's foreign policy.
The emperor could dissolve the parliament (known as
tbe Diet), create his own legislation, or veto (dismiss)
any legislation which carne from the Diet itself.
• Individual ministers who belonged to the cabinet (the
decision making body of the ruling government) were
responsible to the emperor, and not to the Diet.
The Diet was comprised of two Houses (a bicameral
system):
- the House of Peers was the upper house of
• The House of Representatives was not a truly
representative body for two reasons:
- Japanese women could neither vote nor become
political representatives of the Diet at this time.
- About only 1 per cent of the population had the
right to vote due to tax qualifications.
Although it appeared that the emperor had far
reaching powers under the new constitution, he remained
essentially a symbol or figurehead of the nation. The
powelful group of oligarchs (genm) often acted in his
name. Ito was among these and it is not surprising that
there was no mention of their powers in the Constitution
of 1889.
parliament and acted as a 'House of Review'. Its
members were largely former daimyo who were
given life appointments.
- The House ofRepresentatives was the lower house
of parliament which consisted of a group of 300
men who were elected every four years.
the
he
sylnhol or figurehead of
In 1876, Japau forced the openi~gbfK6fea; using the
same gunboat diplomacy (bullying tactics) that Perry had
nsed against itself in 1853, The resulting Treaty of
Kanghwa opened three Koreau ports for trade, but more
importantly Japau recognised Korea as au independent
state in order to detacb it from China's control,
Sino-Japanese
Wa'r
1
Yamagata Aritomo
The Japanese army, under the leadership of Yamagata
Aritomo, had decided that for its own security Japan
needed some measure of control over Korea, even if it
meaut war with China, In 1883 Yamagata saw conflict
over Korea as inevitable and stated: ',,, the high-handed
attitude of the Chinese toward Korea, which was
antagonistic to the interests of Japan, showed OUT officers
that a great war was to be expected sooner or later on the
continent, and made them eager to acqnire knowledge,
for they were as yet quite unfitted for a continental war.'
Prelude to war
In 1894, a rebellion against the corrupt government of the
King of Korea by a popular religious group, the Tong Hak
Society, broke out in southern Korea. The Tong Hak
Society wished to preserve 'EasternLearning' aud to rid
the country of all foreign influence, iucluding Japanese.
At the king's request, Chiua aud Japan sent troops to
help quash the rebellion. Japan's forces outnumbered the
small body of Chinese troops. By the time they arrived in
Korea, the rebellion had already been put down by loyal
Korean forces.
government to inten/erle
were eagel' for a mi'litary ~,dlli!"U/',U, eSIJecially
Korea's refusal
Meiji government.
Both countries refused to withdraw their troops. This
led to a stalemate, until Ito Hirobumi, the Japaues~ prime
minister, demanded sweeping changes to the Korean
government, which China refused. On 23 July 1894,
Japanese troops seized the king's palace and ordered him
to declare Korea's independence from Chiua.
As a captive of the Japanese, the King of Korea signed
an order expelling the Chinese. Two days later a Chinese
troopship, the Kowshing, was sunk by the Imperial
Japanese Navy after it had attempted to bring reinforceme.TIts into Korea. A state of war now existed
between China aud Japan.
The Sino-Japanese War
The war with China lasted less than a year and, on both
land and sea, the Japanese won decisive victories. News
of this success caught the world by surprise aud showed
the Western powers the extent to which Japan had
quickly mastered the art of modem warfare. One British
lieutenant made the following evaluation.
"
,
'%
fll!2lYJ(Pili//lflfk@1j11J. ~
- 0f ,,"
~~ -
"
I came to Japan expecting to see some miserable
parody of a third-rate European soldier; instead, I
find an army in every sense of the word admirably
organised, splendidly equipped, thoroughly drilled,
aud the strangest thing of all in an Oriental people,
cheaply and honestly administered ...
Timeline: Sino-Japanese War, 1894-95
1894
Events
1 August
16 September
17 September
21 November
Declaration of war
Quick Japanese victories at P'yongyang
Chinese warships defeated Yalu River
Port Artbur, Manchuria falls to the
Japanese
1895
Events
12 February
Final collapse of Chinese fleet at
Weihaiwei
Treaty of Shimonoseki ends war
17 April
The Japanese soldiers' loss of control at Port Arthur
threatened Japan's international reputation, especially
with nations such as Britain. As a result of their arWY's
actions, Japanese diplomats were forced on the defensive
as news of the atrocities was publicised worldwide.
The Treaty ofShimonoseki
On 17 April 1895, China and Japan signed the Treaty of
Shimonoseki, officially ending the war. The main
provisions of the treaty were:
China had to recognise Korea as an independent state
• the Liaotung Peninsula, Formosa (Taiwan) and the
Pescadores Islands were given to Japan
• 4 new Chinese ports opened to Japanese trades
Japan gained most-favoured nation rights on China, a
privilege long desired
China had to pay an indemnity of 200 million taels.
The Massacre at Port Arthur
The Manchurian fortress of Port Arthur was considered
oue of the strongest in Asia. Before the war, a French
Admiral declared it would take a mighty force from both
land and sea to break into it. His estimate was not far
wrong.
The Japanese siege of Port Arthur was a bloody,
drawn out affair lasting nearly three months. When the
fortress finally fell on 21 November 1894, total Japanese
losses surprisingly amounted to no more than 300. The
same could not be said for the Chinese. According to the
rep~)ft of James Creelman, a Western war correspondent,
Japanese soldiers, over several days, had massacred up to
60000 Chinese. The full extent of the massacre was later
revealed in the diary accounts of a number of Japanese
soldiers. Okabe Malao, a trooper in the Ist Division of the
Japanese army, recalled the following.
As we entered the town of Port Arthur, we saw the
head of a Japanese soldier displayed on a wooden
stake. This filled us with rage and a desire to clUsh
any Chinese soldier. Anyone we saw in the town
was killed. The streets were filled with corpses, so
many they blocked our way. We killed people in
their homes ... We shot some, hacked others ...
Firing and slashing, it was unbounded joy. At this
time, our artillery troops were at the rear, giving
three cheers [banzai] for the emperor.
Figure 13.2 'lap the Giant Killer'; a British cartoonist's view of
Japan's victory in 1895
infamous Triple Intervention, Russia forced China to
Russo-Japanese
War
1904--1905
grant it a twenty-five year lease on the Liaotung
Peninsula. In doing so, it was also given the right to
connect the Chinese Eastern Railway, which ran across
Manchuria to the Russian port of Vladivostok, with an
extension line south to the major ports of Darren and Port
Arthur. This new development, known as the South
Manchmian Railway, greatly alarmed Japan.
By 1900, Russia had gained considerable control over
Mancl;mria through its railway concessions. However, the
Russians soon felt their position in the Far East threatened
by events in China.
Problems in China
Ever since its humiliating defeat at the hands ofJapan in
1895, China's political and economic sitnation had
deteriorated and anti-foreign feeling had grown. In 1898,
a few enlightened Chinese leaders had persuaded their
The Triple Intervention
Japan's tliumph in the Sino-Japanese War was soon
soured by the way the major European powers
reacted to its success. In a Triple Interventi()n ",hich
shocked the Meiji government;RJIssiael1li~te~t~e
diplomatic support of France andGerlIlatlyt()f()rce
Japan to give up its claim on the Liaotung 1'9~il1s~Ia..
This action took place on 23 April 1895'.9111ysix
days after China's signing of the Treaty of
Shimonoseld.
Having little choice but to comply to the
collective force of three major European powers,
Japan gave JIp the Liaotung PeninsJIla in exchange
for an additional sum of thirty million taels. One
historian later described the impact of the Triple
Intervention on Japan.
new emperor to adopt far-reaching reforms to prepare
China to modernise and meet the challenge of the West.
The so-called Hundred Days Reform was crushed by the
Empres·s Dowager, Tzu Hsi, who seized power and ruled
in the name of the emperor.
The Boxer Rebellion
The Empress Dowager decided to adopt a strong policy
against foreign powers in China. She decreed that China
would resist with force any future, unacceptable demands
made by the West. Her actions gave rise to a widespread
anti-Christian, anti-foreign revolutionary movement in
the north of China known as the Boxers or Society of
Righteous and Harmonious Fists. The name was probably
derived from their practice of body streugthening
vx.~1;J;i~_~s whichresembl~dboxing.
For more than two months in 1900, the Boxers lay
siege to the Chinese capital, Peking. During the rebellion,
regular Chinese forces were ordered to attack Manchuria.
In reply, Russia sent troops stationed in Siberia to crush
the Chinese. By October, they had been successful;
Japan's emotions had gone full cycle: from
cool determination before tak~ng on the
Chinese in war; through euphoria O\~er victories
Manchuria, an established province of China, was now in
in all aspects of the war; to a sense of
Westerners in China and on Chinese converts to
humiliation that she could not withstand the
pressure of the three world bullies. This led to
a popular mood of determination to lie low and
malce sure by preparedness that this weakness
would not be manifested again.
Christianity, was finally crushed by an international army
that included a Japanese force.
Russian designs on
Manchuria
Russia's designs on Manchmia would
by the Japanese. In 1898, three years
Russian hands.
The Boxer Rebellion, which was really an attack on
Anglo-Japanese Alliance
Russia's advance iu the Far East worried both Britain and
Japan. Less than a year after Boxer rebels had laid siege
to Peking, Britain and Japan decided to renew
negotiatious towards a formal alliance. Femful of Russian
moves in the East and its own diplomatic isolation in the
West, Britain saw the benefits of a defensive alliance with
Japan. Not all Japanese leaders favoured such an alliance.
Many believed an alliance with Rnssia wonld best protect
Japan's interests in Korea. Aware of such views in Japan,
Francis Bertie, Asian Chief of the British Foreign Office,
made the following observation.
Unless we attach Japan to ns by something more
substantial than general expressions of goodwill, we
shall run the risk of her making some arrangements
which might be injnrious to our interests.
Britain sncceeded. On 30 Jannary 1902, the AngloJapanese Alliance was signed. Its main features were:
both countries agreed to recognise the special interests
of Britain in China and of Japan in Korea
each nation could take necessary measures to protect
its special interests if they were threatened by the
aggressive action of another power, or by disturbances
within China or Korea
• both countries promised to remain neutral if either
became involved in a war to protect those interests
• hoth agreed to aid the other if a third power entered
into ky such 'wulon the enemy side
• the agreement was to remain in force for five years.
Russia and Japan
With Blitain, the strongest power in the Far East, as an
.ally, Japan was inarnuch stronger position to oppose
Rnssian expansion. Most of all the Japanese leaders
wanted to get Russia to recognise and respe~t its special
position in Korea. One Japanese official provided the
following explanation in 1871.
At an Imperial Conference in 1903, Japan offered to
recognise Russia's rights in Manchuria if Russia would
recognise its interests in Korea.
Despite lengthy negotiations, Russia wonld
only partially agree to Japan's reqnest. It would not
agree to Japan's proposal to use Korea for 'strategic
purposes' as it might threaten Russia's exclusive line of
communication, its railway from Darren and Port Arthur
to Vladivostok. When Rnssia refnsed to bndge on the
qnestion of Korea, the choice left open to Japan was clear.
The Russo-Japanese War
Japan decided to win control of Korea at all costs.
Withont warning, on 8 Febrnary 1904, Japanese naval
forces torpedoed the Russian naval fleet anchored at Port
Arthur, causing severe damage. Two days later, war was
declared.
Within three months, Russian troops had been driven
out of Korea. Although snffering heavy losses, the
Japanese alwy pushed north into Manchuda, crossing the
Yalu River and capturing Port Arthur (after a five month
siege) and then the city of Mukden. At sea, the Japanese
navy under Admiral Togo routed the Rnssian fleet in the
Straits of Tsushima (it had just arrived after spending
seven months sailing ronnd the world from the Baltic Sea
in Europe).
Territory gained
in Japanese victories
against Russian
troops
CHINA
In naval warfare, Japan is easy for the enemy to
attack but hard for ns to defend. Therefore, if we
waut to preserve [our] independence permanently,
we must possess territory on the continent. There are
only two countries ... Japan can seize, China and
Korea. Stndents with little expelience iu the world
eugage in foolish talk about how harharic and
nnprincipled this would be ... To strengthen Japan
by war is to show loyalty to our country and to our
sovereign. That should he our gniding principle.
Figure 14.1 The areas offighting during Ihe Russo-Japanese
War. 1904-1905
-I
i
Figure 14.2 The movement ofRussian troops during the
Russo-Japanese War, 1904-1905
Timeline: Russo-Japanese War, 1904-1905
1904
Events
10 February
May
Japan declares war on Russia
Japan's victory in a bloody battle on the
Yaln River gave it control of all of
Korea
Japanese troops moved into the south of
Manchnria
September
1905
Events
2 Jannary
General Nogi, the Japanese Army
Commander, captnred Port Arthnr after
a five-month siege
After a two month land battle, the city
of Mukden fell to the Japanese
The Russian fleet was destroyed by the
Japanese in the battIe of Tsushima.
The Treaty of Portsmouth ended the
war.
March
27-28 May
5 September
The Treaty ofPortsmouth
The Anglo-Japanese alliance was an important milestone
for Japan, but its defeat of Russia was uuprecedented. It
was the first time any Asian power had beaten an
established European nation. Although this was a
remarkable victory, the Japanese forces had incurred
serious casualties. As a result both Russia and Japan
accepted the offer made by Theodore Roosevelt,
President of the United States of America, to act as
peacemaker. The signing of the Treaty of Portsmouth (at
New Hampshire in the United States of America), on
5 September 1905, finally brought the war to an end. Its
main provisions were:
Russia recognised Japan's interests in Korea
the lease of the Liaotung Peninsula was transferred to
Japan
Russia surrendered its coutrol of the South
Manchurian Railway to the Japanese
Japan acquired the southern half of the island of
Sakhalin
both nations agreed not to interfere with any decision
China might malce in the fntnre to develop Manchuria.
Figure 14.3 'Chincl'appears slightly in the way.'
An American cartoonist's view of the
Russo-Japanese War
Activities
1 Using Docnment A, explain the emotional impact
of the Triple Intervention on Japan, What popular
mood emerged from this crisis?
2 Refer to the map of the Russo-Japauese War,
1904-1905 and answer the following questions:
a Why might railways have become au
importaut target during the conflict?
b Suggest reasons why China may have feared a
Japanese victory?
3 Examiue Figure 14,3.
a Provide a brief historical backgrouud of the
events shown in the cartoon.
b Describe the main elements of the cartoon,
including the metaphors and symbols.
c Describe the overall message that the
cartoonist is attempting to convey.
d What is the main purpose of the cartoon? Is it
biased, accurate or effective?
This attitude did little to provide a clear impression of
Japanese progress during the Meiji Restoration. In 1881
a leading English newspaper in Japan commented on this
idea of progress.
Effects of the
Meiji Restoration
Meiji imperialism
The Meiji Restoration marked a major turning point
in Japanese history. Japan expanded from a closed
feudal state into an empire reaching into East Asia.
By 1910, Japan had acquired Formosa (Taiwan) as a
colony, obtained extensive· economiccpntrol in
southern Manchuria, won the southern half of the
island of Sakhaliu and annexed Korea. This rapid
expansion provided the security for Japaritti pteseIye
its independence aud meet the challenge oftheWest..
By the time of Emperor Meiji'sdeath 1
Japan had strengthened itself through war and
11 1,,12,
industry, becoming a modern nation and an
imperialist power.
-Differing views
Not everyone was enthused by the neW possibilities.
The yatoi, foreign experts, who came to supervise
factories and mines and train Japanese techniciaris,
often complained ahout their existence, mainly
because they could not or would not try to understand
the ways of the Japanese, so different from their own.
One histo~ian commented on these attitudes~
Under the unequal treaties and extraterritoriality, wherebyeach foreign subject was
governed by his own consulate and was outside
the laws of Japan, they tried to exploit their
privileges aud regarded their Japanese hosts as
merely an awkward set of people with customs
that did not conform to their own ideas of
'civilisation', but had to be tolerated because
they were a means to riches for themselves.
Jap,m for many of them was like a gold-mine.
They had to go down into the darkness, remain
there for a period, and having grabbed their
nuggets, escape back from whence they came.
Wealthy we do not think [Japan] will ever become:
the advantages conferred by nature, with the
exception of climate, and the love of indolence and
pleasure of the people themselves, forbid it. The
Japanese are a happy race, and being content with
little, are not likely to achieve much.
At the outbreak of the Russo-Japanese War, a more
realistic appraisal of Japan was voiced. Noting the failure
of the West to take Japan seriously, the London Times
wrote the following on 11 February 1904.
The story of the last ten days must have fallen upon
the western world with the rapidity of a tropical
thunderstorm ... That is the trouhle at the root of
the present situation-the past inability of the West
to take Japan seriously ... All this is due to the
superficial study of Japan which has characterised
Western contact with it. We as a nation alone
appear to have formed a shrewder estimate ... But
for the rest, they ... thought of the nation as a
people of pretty dolls dressed in flowered silks and
dwelling in paper houses of the capacity of
matchboxes.
In less than fifty years, Japan had changed from a
feudal society to become a world power that could hold
a major industrial exhibition in London and defeat an
estabiished European power in a full-scale modern war.
This was a unique achievement.
The plight ofJapanese
women
Improving the status of women was not one the reforms
of the Meiji Restoration. Social customs, economic
realities and political and legal systems combined to
prevent women from asserting themselves, compelling
them to playa subordinate role to men. Fukuzawa
Yukichi, an advocate of liberal reform, wrote about the
status of women.
I
l
At home she has no personll1property, outside the
house she has no status. The house she lives in
belongs to male members of the household, and the
children sne rears belong to her husbaud. She has
no property, no rights, and no children. It is as if
she is a parasite in a male household.
In 1889, mauy women hoped that they would be given
political rights under the new constitution (Dai Nihon
Teikoku Kempa). This was not to be. In fact the political
situation for women grew more restrictive as the
following chart shows.
1882
1889
1898
The Meiji government forbade women from
making political speeches.
Women were banned from participating in
any political activities, even listening to
political speeches.
The Civil Code gave the head of the
extended Japanese family absolute authority.
He now had the right to control family
property, fix the place of residence of every
member of the household and approve or
disapprove offarnily marriages and divorces.
Wives could not undertake legal action aud
under one provision were considered to have
the same rights as cripples and disabled
At the turn of the twentieth century, Singapore
replaced Hong Kong as the centre of brothel prostitution
in South East Asia. Japanese prostitutes, brought to
Singapore to sustain its sexual economy, soon re31ised
that pride or family shame would preveut them ever
returning home. Thousauds of Japauese girls, bought or
abducted from their parents by procurers (zeegen), found
themselves trapped into working in foreign brothels by
the threat of violence and the obligation of debts. In his
study of prostitution in Singapore between 1870 aud 1940
James Warren described the tragic existence of the
karayuki-san (overseas prostitutes).
Procurers either used force or deception to lure
young ... girls away who, once in tbeir hauds, were
held there by money and the brothel owner's power
over them. Transported, tbey found themselves at
the end of a journey to au allegedly easier way of
life in the grip of the brothel-keeper, indebted and
with no prospect of regaining their liberty except
by repaying the sum advanced to their parents in
contract. Invariably they were powerless to protest,
with neither knowledge of the local language,
money nor clothes, and faced with constant
intimidation and encouragement from everybody
. ,. to become ~n inmate.
persons.
The flesh trade
Brothels were sanctioned by the Meiji government.
Impoverished peasant families, mainly in Kyushu, were
often forced to sell their daughters into a life of
prostitution either in Japan, bnt more often abroad.
For many women, the Restoration years· were a
disappointment. Their status in society saw little change
despite their contributions to the success and speed of
Japan's industrial revolution. The traditional ideal of
women as 'good wives and wise mothers' (ryosai kembo)
was so ingrained that mauy were simply forced to submit
and endure.
Activities
Figure 15.1 Two karayuki-san posing for the camera in
Singapore after the tum of the centwT
1 What do Documents A and B reveal
about Western attitudes to Japan
during the first two decades of the
Meiji Restoration?
2 What effect did Japau's victory in the
Russo~Japanese War of 1904-1905
have on Western opinion? Refer to
Document C.
3 What restrictions were placed
on women during the Meiji
Restoration? How did this affect
their status in Japanese society?