DRAFT
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY OF TANZANIA
INSTITUTE OF CONTINUING EDUCATION
DIPLOMA IN PRIMARY TEACHER EDUCATION
ODC 042
INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS
CORNELIA K. MUGANDA
JUMA MABASA KANUWA
THADEI T. MWEREKE
NOVEMBER 2008
DRAFT
i
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Foundations of Education………………………………………………………
vi
General Introduction………………………………………………………………vii
SECTION 1
HISTORY OF EDUCATION
Introduction………………………………………………………………………..1
LECTURE ONE: THE MEANING AND RATIONALE OF STUDYING
HISTORY OF EDUCATION……………………………………………………..3
What is Education?...................................................................................................3
What is History?.......................................................................................................3
What is History of Education?..................................................................................4
Why should Teachers concern themselves with History of Education? …………..4
LECTURE TWO: HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION
IN AFRICA………………………………………………………………………...8
Introduction………………………………………………………………………...8
Education in Pre-Colonial Africa…………………………………………………..8
Education in Colonial Africa……………………………………………………….10
Purpose and Types of Education in Colonial Africa………………………………..10
Education in Post Colonial Africa…………………………………………………..12
LECTURE THREE: COLONIALISM AND FORMAL EDUCATION
IN TANZANIA…………………………………………………………………….16
Introduction…………………………………………………………………………16
Religion and Formal Education in Tanzania……………………………………….16
Colonial Education in Tanzania…………………………………………………….20
Education for African Communities……………………………………………… 25
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LECTURE FOUR: FORMAL EDUCATION IN POST-COLONIAL
TANZANIA…………………………………………………………………… . 28
Introduction………………………………………………………………………28
Education Immediately After Independence (1961 – 1966)……………………..30
Education System and the Arusha Declaration…………………………………..34
Education in the 1980s and 1990s………………………………………………..40
SECTION 2
PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
General Introduction…………………………………………………………….48
LECTURE FIVE: THE NATURE OF PHILOSOPHY……………………….. 50
Introduction…………………………………………………………………….. 50
Branches of Philosophy…………………………………………………………51
Logic…………………………………………………………………………….52
Epistemology……………………………………………………………………54
Metaphysics……………………………………………………………………. 55
Axiology……………………………………………………………………….. 59
LECTURE SIX: PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION….. 63
Introduction……………………………………………………………………. 63
Epistemological Sources of Knowledge………………………………………. 64
Central positions about Epistemology………………………………………… 67
LECTURE SEVEN: SELECTED PHILOSOPHIES OF EDUCATION…….. 70
Introduction…………………………………………………………………….70
Philosophies of Education…………………………………………………… 70
Naturalism…………………………………………………………………….. 71
Pragmatism…………………………………………………………………… 73
Existentialism………………………………………………………………….74
Theories of Knowledge………………………………………………………..75
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Determinism and Free Will……………………………………………………76
LECTURE EIGHT: ETHICAL THEORIES…………………………………80
Introduction…………………………………………………………………...80
The Concept Morality/Ethics…………………………………………………80
Classical and Modern Ethical Theories……………………………………….81
Classical Theories……………………………………………………………..81
Modern Ethical Theories………………………………………………………83
LECTURE NINE: GREAT AFRICAN EDUCATIONAL
PHILOSOPHERS……………………………………………………………..86
Introduction……………………………………………………………………86
Educational ideas of Julius Nyerere………………………………………… 87
Educational ideas of James Aggrey………………………………………….. 91
SECTION 3
COMPARATIVE EDUCATION
Introduction…………………………………………………………………..94
LECTURE TEN: MEANING AND RATIONALE OF STUDYING
COMPARATIVE EDUCATION…………………………………………….96
Introduction……………………………………………………………….... 96
Aims and Importance of Comparative Education…………………………… 96
The Relevance of Studying Comparative Education to the Teacher
Trainees……………………………………………………………………… 97
LECTURE ELEVEN: FACTORS INFLUENCING EDUCATION
SYSTEM……………………………………………………………………..100
Introduction…………………………………………………………………..100
The Influence of Natural Factors Education System……………………… 100
The Influence of Religions Factors to the Education System……………… 103
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Political and Secular Factors……………………………………………….. 104
LECTURE TWELVE: EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN DEVELOPED
AND DEVELOPING WORLD……………………………………………106
Introduction……………………………………………………………… 106
Education System in the USA…………………………………………….. 106
Education System in Tanzania……………………………………………. 111
Comparison of USA Education System and that of Tanzania…………….. 114
SECTION 4
SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
Introduction…………………………………………………………………117
LECTURE THIRTEEN: MEANING AND SCOPE OF SOCIOLOGY
OF EDUCATION…………………………………………………………. 118
Aims and Objectives of Studying Sociology of Education………………. 119
Historical Development and Theory of Sociology of Education………….. 119
LECTURE FOURTEEN: SOCIETY, EDUCATION AND
AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION…………………………………………..122
The Society………………………………………………………………… 122
The Relationship between Society and Education…………………………. 123
Agents of Socialization…………………………………………………… 125
Education as a Social Institution………………………………………….. 127
Education as a Discipline………………………………………………….. 127
Socialization………………………………………………………………
128
REFERENCES………………………………………………………………131
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ODC 042: FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Dear Learner,
Welcome to Module 1(ODC) on foundations of education. This is the first Module in the
series of professional studies modules you will receive during the diploma in primary
teacher education programme.
In this module you will be introduced to four areas of educational foundations including:

History of education

Philosophy of Education

Sociology of Education

Comparative Education
Each area will be studied under on section.
Section 1: You will learn the meaning of education, the importance of education and the
development of education in Africa in general and Tanzania in particular
Section 2: You will be introduced to various philosophies of education and how they
relate to the development of education in Tanzania.
Section 3: Is on the sociology of education and the role of education in the society
Section 4; Introduces you to education systems in different societies and what we can
learn from these for the betterment of our own practices.
GENERAL OBJECTIVES
At the end of this course you will be able to:

Define and explain the concepts History of education, Philosophy of
Education, Sociology of Education, Comparative Education

Explain the importance of studying these areas of Foundations of
education.

Identify different philosophies and philosophers that have influenced the
education of Tanzania over time
vi

Explain the role of education in the society

Identify the good practices in other people’s education systems and the
strategies to improve your own practice as a teacher
ASSESSMENT
The course consists of continuous assessment of two written assignments, one test. and
one written examination at the end of the course. Written assignments account for 20% of
the Marks (10 % each); 20% marks for the timed tests and the end of the year written
examination account for 60% of the total marks.
HOW TO USE THIS MANUAL
As it is stated in the general introduction this course focuses on four major areas of
educational foundations each area presented in one section. The sections are organized in
lectures.
You are advised to carefully study each lecture. Pay special attention to activities
provided in the text and at the end of the lecture. If you find the activity difficult or you
are not able to tackle it to your satisfaction, do not hesitate to consult other students or the
Course tutor in your area. You can also present any problems to your course lecturers
during face-to-face sessions for assistance.
Please note that although we encourage you to cultivate the habit of working closely with
other learners we caution you to resist the temptation of copying other students’
assignments. Such a habit will undermine your potential of developing into an
independent, confident, critical and creative learner.
Procedures for organizing face-to-face are provided in the course guidelines that are
given to you during the orientation session. Make a point of reading course guidelines
carefully. You are also advised to read materials relevant to the topics of this course in
books, journals and websites where possible. You may now start to study the first section
in this module.
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viii
SECTION 1
HISTORY OF EDUCATION
INTRODUCTION
You are welcome to the first Section of the course material ODC 042 which is intended
to introduce you to the History of education.
The Section is divided into 4 lectures each lecture focusing on at least one topic
Lecture one is devoted on the discussion of the meaning of History of Education as an
educational discipline and the rationale why teachers should study History of Education.
Lecture two Focuses on the foundations of education in ancient societies of Africa. It
deals with the origins and main characteristics of indigenous/traditional African
Education including content, instructions and mode of delivery. It also highlights on the
main features of Western Education and the influences of Western Education on modern
educational systems in Africa. It deals with formal and Colonial Education in Africa.
Lecture three Discuses the influences of Western and colonial education on Tanzania's
formal education during the colonial rule.
Finally, in Lecture four developments in education in Post-Colonial Tanzania are
presented. This includes discussion of the changes that were implemented immediately
after Tanzania obtained its independence in 1961 and the background and philosophical
direction and impact of “Education for Self-reliance”. In this lecture, the background to
restructuring of Tanzania’s education system since the 1980s is also outlined. You will
also briefly explore the developments in provision of Universal Primary Education and
Teacher Education in Tanzania.
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OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lecture you should be able to

Describe the role and importance of studying History of Education
by the teacher

A brief explanation of the relationship between Education and
development

Explain the existence and importance of African indigenous
education and its relevance and application to modern educational
systems

Explain the development of colonial education in Tanzania

Explain post-colonial education developments in Tanzania
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LECTURE ONE
THE MEANING AND RATIONALE OF STUDYING
HISTORY OF EDUCATION
To clearly understand Tanzania’s education systems today we need to know how
educational thoughts and practices have developed and progressed from the past to the
present. In other words we need to underscore the history of education. Here we are faced
with the question of what history of education is all about? What should be regarded as
history of education? Immediately we realize that there are two major concepts embedded
in the discipline. These concepts are history and education. We therefore need to
establish the meaning of terms: education and history.
What is Education?
Varied definitions of education have been presented by various philosopher and
educators including Arther, et al. (1966), Nyerere (1967) Bongoko, et. al. (1886)
(Encator 1997), at different times and places. You will note however, that the
definitions indicate that education is a life long process through which one achieves
social competence and individual growth. It is the transmission of the values and
accumulated knowledge of a society. In this regard, education may be equated to
socialization or acculturation. Also the processes of education involve teaching and
learning. The leaner is an individual being educated. The learner develops physically,
mentally, emotionally, morally, and socially. Schooling is just a part of education. A
school is an agency that employs men and women who are professionally trained for
the task of teaching usually to carry out formal education. Most importantly the
definitions designate education as a social process embedded in developments and
changes in a particular society and individuals. Development of education therefore is
inseparable from the history of individuals and their societies.
What is History?
History is an interaction between the past, the present and the future.
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It concerns itself with events that have shaped human beings and their societies. It is the
totality of the known past events and experiences of human lives and societies in the
areas of political, social, economic, science and technology and how historians have
attempted to understand them for the benefit of the present and future societies.
What is History of Education?
After establishing what we understand by education and history it
is now easier to underscore the meaning of history of education. History of education is
an exploration of factors that have influenced the development of various types of
educational systems over the centuries. It therefore, explores the evolution of education
as an institution. It examines the purpose that education has served through out the
history of human beings and their societies. History of education also entails the
exploration of the significance of developments in education to the present and future
societies.
Why Should Teachers concern themselves with history of Education?
ACTIVITY
Before continuing reading write down the reasons why do you
?
think it is important for you as a primary school teacher to study
this course. How many reasons have you jotted down?
The following reading from ODC 020 study material will give you an understanding of
the reason why should the teachers concern themselves with history of Education?
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READING 1
RATIONALE FOR STUDYING HISTORY OF EDUCATION
Sometimes the study of history of education has been challenged as irrelevant to the
educators and developments in education today. Now that you know what history of
education is all about do you think it is an important educational discipline?
There are several reasons why educationist and those who are preparing to become
teachers to understand the history of education. Some of the reasons are presented
below:
a) It contributes to the quality of education: Understanding history of Education
helps in strengthening the educators’ professional competence hence improving
the quality of education. History of education enables the educators to
understand the roots of contemporary educational ideas and practices. This
understanding makes it possible for the educators to choose which appropriate
ideas and /or practices to apply given their particular context.
b) Expands possibility for personal and professional action: History of Education
provides opportunity to make comparison of educational ideas and practice
within historical context, which may encourage the educator to introduce
appropriate innovations. Knowledge obtained through studying History of
Education exposes the educators to the good practices and mistakes done by
others before them. This in turn enriches their professional initiatives and
encourages them to pursue constructive educational innovations
c) Encourages critical thinking: Understanding History of Education encourages
the educator to take a critical look at contemporary educational theories and
practices, assess, analyse and be able to predict possible future trends. It enables
educators to act as informed critiques of their educational practices. Thus it
enhances the educator’s capacity to act as change agent.
d) Illuminates the present educational theory and practices: History of Education
5
explores the relationship between educational initiatives and socio-economic,
political and technological developments. Knowledge obtained through studying
history of education, therefore, enables the educator to evaluate educational ideas
and practices so as to be able to reject, accept or modify them.
e) Developing powers of thinking: Exploration of various ideas in different
societies during different points in time enables educators to develop their
powers of thinking by strengthening their curiosity and enquiring abilities. This
encourages educators to seek for more knowledge and understanding of their
environment, society and the world in which the y live.
Understanding History of Education therefore is important for the development of
individual educators, the education system and the society.
Source: Muganda C.K. (2006) ODC 020: Development, Achievements and Limitations of
Education, OUT, Dar Es Salaam.
SUMMARY
In this lecture you have explored the meaning of education and
history. You have also learned that history of education explores
trends in education from ancient times to present and examines the
purpose that education has served through out the history of human
beings and their societies. You have also noted that studying History
of education has many advantages to the teacher including that:
1. It contributes to the quality of education
2. Expands possibility for personal and professional
action
3. Encourages critical thinking:
6
4. Illuminates the present educational theory and
practices:
5. Developing powers of thinking:
EXERCISE
1. In your own words, briefly write what you understand
by Education
2. Add at least three more advantages of studying history
of Education.
Further Readings
Muganda (2006) Muganda C.K. (2006) ODC 020: Development, Achievements
and Limitations of Education, OUT, Dar Es Salaam.
Nyerere (1967) Education ad Developmant, DUP, Dar Es Salaam
Bongoko, et. al. (1886) History of Education, University of Nairobi,
Nairobi
Microsoft® Encarta® 97 Encyclopedia. © 1993-1996 Microsoft
Corporation. All rights reserved.
Hinzen, H. and Hundsdorfer, V.H. (Eds.). (1982). Education for Liberation
and Development: The Tanzania Experience, Hamburg, UNESCO Institute
of Education (76 – 87).
Mwanahewa, S. A. (1999) Philosophy of Education. Makerere, Makerere
University.
7
LECTURE TWO
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION IN AFRICA
INTRODUCTION
As we have seen in Lecture 1, the role of education is connected to the history of
individuals and society hence the purpose of education in each society has been growing
and changing over time. I this lecture you will learn about the development and purposes
of education in Africa overtime. You will explore the different purposes allocated to
education during ancient, pre-capitalist time, during colonial and post-colonial times.
You will note that Pre-capitalist African traditional societies were similar to other
traditional societies of the world mainly referred to as ancient societies. Also that changes
in the socio-economic formations has also affected purposes of education and the systems
of delivery of education in Africa.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lecture you should be able to
:

Identify the main features of education in ancient African societies

Establish the contribution of African societies in the development of
modern education systems

Identify the main features of colonial education

Identify the global influences on education in post-colonial
EDUCATION IN PRE-COLONIAL AFRICA
Pre-colonial societies in Africa, like other pre-capitalist societies, had educational
systems that were deemed appropriate for their needs. In the ancient societies the purpose
of education was mainly to ensure transmission of knowledge, skills, culture and values
of the society from one generation to the other. Thus it has been noted (Encarta 2000)
8
that the common characteristics of the early education systems were that they promoted
the traditions of the society and taught religion. Important to note however, is that the
training was closely related to the environment. Due to the importance of the Nile to the
production of food in Egypt for example, the Egyptians developed skills in irrigation.
Based on the understanding that education has a role of transmitting the accumulated
wisdom and knowledge necessary for maintenance and development of the society from
one generation to the other, indigenous education was free and compulsory, relevant and
applicable into the local environment. The learned knowledge, skills and attitudes
acquired, were used to perform the roles and duties expected of a member in the
community (Nyerere 1967). The education was acquired through living and doing. They
learned from each other's experiences and in that regard the elders were teachers to the
young.
While the bulk of the learning was achieved through active engagement in doing what
people were learning about, most societies, however, also had formal education
institutions set up separately for boys and girls at the time of puberty to initiate them into
the adult roles of their society (Mbilinyi 1982). The “Omuteko regiment” of the Bahaya
in North-West Tanzania; the “Jando” and Unyago of the coastal people, in Tanzania; as
well as the Circumcision ceremonies practiced by some ethnic groups in Africa are some
examples of the traditional formalized settings of education.
Africa also had an influence on educational development in other parts of the globe .
From the 6th to the 9th century, Persia and Arabia had institutions for research and the
study of science and language; and centres of Muslim learning were established in 859
at Al-Qarawiyin University in Morocco. In 970 at Cairo, Al-Azhar University was
founded. The Jews and Muslims promoted education within their own societies and
served as translators and as intermediaries who brought ancient Greek thought and
science to the attention of European scholars (Encarta 2000)
9
ACTIVITY
Find out about other examples of the contribution of African
?
societies to the development of education in the world
EDUCATION IN COLONIAL AFRICA
Through trade and colonialism Africa became integrated in the global development
processes. Likewise education in Africa became more influenced by what was
happening elsewhere especially Europe and the middle east. The expansion of the
educational systems of the industrial nations, in the 20th Century for example was
followed by the emergence of school systems among developing nations in Asia and
Africa. In order to improve education at all levels, in mid 20th Century the United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) inaugurated
literacy campaigns and other educational projects. The aim of these campaigns and
projects
was to put every child everywhere into school and to eliminate illiteracy.
Some progress has been noted, but it has become obvious that considerable time and
effort are needed in order to produce universal literacy (Encarter, 2000). We will
discuss this in more details in the next lecture on the development of Education in
Tanzania.
Purpose and Types of Education in Colonial Africa
Through social institutions, such as schooling and religion, imperial powers
systematically eroded the socio-cultural base of the colonized people. Thus, under
colonialism, pre-colonial social institutions which aimed at preserving indigenous
cultural, values and socio-economic relations were deliberately replaced by colonial
social institution
You may note that before the advent of formal colonialism in the late 19th century
foreign
religious organizations established educational activities in the prospective
colonies. This education was basically aimed at socializing the indigenous people through
the evangelical work, to the prevailing dominant colonial cultures of the time. In
Tanzania for example, the 'madrasa' were established to teach the Africans literacy in
10
Arabic so that they could read the Koran. These madrasa produced Akidas who were later
used in the colonial administration. Likewise the Christian missionaries established
literacy classes and later schools where they taught the indigenous people to read the
bible and other religious literature. However, the fact that in Colonial Tanzania Arabtrained "Akidas"1 were used as interpreters and tax collectors by the Germans, while the
areas with greater missionary activities were easily assimilated into the colonial system
verify the significant contribution of education in easing the transition into colonialism.
After establishment of formal colonialism the religious and state education systems coexisted forming the colonial education system. The colonial education was reflective of
industrial capitalist socio-economic relations. The prime purpose of German colonial
education in Tanzania , for example, was stated in the official circular issued in 1903 as:
To enable the native to be used in government administration; to inculcate
a liking for order, diligence and dutifulness; and sound knowledge in
German customs and patriotism (Cameron and Dodd 1970:56).
Consequently, under the German colonial government, schools were related to specific
needs of human resources by the German colonial government. Educational institutions
therefore aimed at producing semi-skilled labourers, teachers, clerks, etc., with courses
mounted for specific vocational needs. The schools had a pyramidal structure to inculcate
and emphasise the hierarchical nature of the capitalist relations. The central schools were
mainly for sons of chiefs and or wealthy Africans (Mbilinyi 1982)
A similar system of providing education according to the expected roles in the colonial
establishment was also developed by the British colonial government. One of the main
characteristics of the British colonial education was the separate racial school systems.
The form and content of these education systems corresponding to the different positions
the racial groups had in the colonial economy. The Africans were expected to produce
Akidas were coastal people who had acquired literacy skills and could speak Kiswahili, a language
that many indigenous people could understand. They were employed by colonial administration as
interpreters and tax collectors
1
11
raw materials. Since low technology was needed for the production of raw materials, it
was envisaged that a bare minimum of skills and knowledge were needed to develop a
productive worker (Muganda 1999). Thus in Colonial Tanzania for example, secondary
and higher education was considered unnecessary for Africans. It has been noted
(Mbilinyi 1982) that in 1956, only 2,409 of the African population were participating in
secondary education, and among those, there were only 204 girls.
It is also important to note that the approach to provision of education was also based on
the colonial administration system. Since the French colonial system was assimilation
hence aiming at making the colonies part of France the education system followed the
characteristics of assimilation. Those who received education were expected to act and
live like French people. The British on the other hand had an Adaptation system whereby
the colonized people could participate in administration at lower level based on their
traditional social political systems. The British colonial education system followed the
similar pattern of adaptation.
ACTIVITY
Write brief notes on 'Assimilation' and 'Adaptation' systems of
?
colonial administration
Education in Post Colonial Africa
After obtaining independence the African post-colonial states also needed human
resources with skills required for self-government. Most of the states embarked on
expansion of secondary education and establishment of tertiary institutions.
To adhere to the egalitarian principles of state welfarism and a belief in the role of
education in national development the post colonial states embraced state provision of
education at all levels and declared their commitment to Universal Primary Education
and adult literacy campaigns.
12
A number of students were sent abroad to pursue higher education. A few participated in
some courses through correspondence. This was the early type of distance education.
due to a number of fiscal crises that faced the states in the 1970s funds were not available
to continue the education expansion through to the post-primary level to cope with the
UPE graduates. In Tanzania for example, while primary school enrollment had nearly
quintupled from 1965 to 1981, the percentage of the primary school graduates selected
for government secondary schools, had fallen to one-tenth by 1970 and two percent by
1982 (URT 1986).
Thus, in the 1980s private provision of education at all levels was encouraged. Another
strategy to expand provision of education was the establishment and strengthening the
distance education and open learning system of education.
SUMMARY
In this lesson you have learned about education and how it has been
offered in different periods in the history of the African societies.
Under each period, you have been able to study the type and purpose
of education offered. For example, in ancient society informal as well
as formal education was developed in order to transmit knowledge,
skills, culture and values of the society from one generation to
another. While some African societies had influenced education of
other parts of that world between the 6th and 9th centuries; with
industrial revolution and expansion of colonialism, education in the
African societies was more influenced by the colonizers and became
more formalized. You have also learned the purpose of colonial
education and the struggles of post-colonial states to provide
appropriate and adequate education. You have noted that while basic
education is universal in the industrial nations, it remains an ideal to
be realized in the developing countries.
13
Focusing on Tanzania, in lectures three and four we will discuss in
details the development of education in colonial and post colonial
Africa.
EXERCISE
Identify any type of educational institution that was established
during colonial period.
Do you think it is still serving the same purpose? Why?
Further Reading
Muganda (2006)Muganda C.K. (2006) ODC 020: Development,
Achievements and Limitations of Education, OUT, Dar Es
Salaam.
Nyerere (1967) Education ad Developmant, DUP, Dar Es
Salaam
Bongoko, et. al. (1886) History of Education, University of
Nairobi, Nairobi
Microsoft® Encarta® 97 Encyclopedia. © 1993-1996
Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
Hinzen, H. and Hundsdorfer, V.H. (Eds.). (1982). Education
for
Liberation
and
Development:
The
Tanzania
Experience, Hamburg, UNESCO Institute of Education (76 –
87).
Mwanahewa, S. A. (1999) Philosophy of Education. Makerere,
Makerere University.
14
15
LECTURE THREE
COLONIALISM AND FORMAL EDUCATION IN TANZANIA
INTRODUCTION
As was explained in lecture two traditional African education was mainly informal.
While some communities organized formal education separately for boys and girls
mainly at puberty.
You may have also noted in the examples that similar education
system existed in the traditional/indigenous societies in Tanzania. Likewise the Western
formal education system in a form of schooling was introduced in Tanzania by
foreigners. Foreigners came to Tanzania as missionaries or religious leaders, traders as
well as colonial administrators. In this lecture we will discuss the contribution of each
group to the development of formal education in Tanzania.
OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this lecture is to enable you to
1. Understand the background to formal education in
Tanzania.
2. Identify influences of religion as well as political and
economic developments on education in Tanzania
Religion and Formal Education in Tanzania:
The foreign religious groups that had major influences on education in Tanzania were
Arab Moslems and European Christians.
The Influences of Islam
The Arabs were the first to introduce schooling in Tanzania. The Arab influence existed
along the coast. Koranic schools operated in Zanzibar and Pemba and along the coast.
From the seventeenth century Koranic schools spread to Tanzania mainland especially
along the coast. However, these schools confined themselves to religious teaching and
Arabic literacy.
16
When Germans colonized Tanganyika after the Berlin conference in 19885, they
observed the importance of Koranic education, and encouraged Koranic education in
schools opened by the Germans. That is why the coastal regions had more schools during
the German rule than the interior. This pattern existed until the fall of the German
colonial rule in 1918.
Christianity and the Introduction of Western Schooling:
Although East Africa hadcontact with Europe before, their interest at that time was
trading. When Britain lost power in America, they sought to abandon slave trade and
make Africans labourers in their own countries. Therefore western education was taken
as a weapon to change culture, values and beliefs. That is why Christianity, trade and
western education started at the same time.
Western education in Tanzania was marked by the introduction of Roman Script in the
second half of the 19th Century by the Christian missionaries.
The beginning of Christian Missionary Activities:
Reveland Dr. L. Krapf was the first missionary to start a formal school using Roman
script. Together with Rebman, Krapf entered in Zanzibar in 1844 and moved to Rabai in
Kenya where they found a school in which they enrolled slave children. Together with a
school they introduced the growing of cotton and rice. From Rabai, they moved into the
interior to Mpapwa, Mwanza and Uganda. At all these stations, they started Schools.
Rebman and Krapf were members of Church Missionary Society (CMS).
In 1861 the Roman Catholic Holy Ghost Fathers arrived in Zanzibar. Their aim was to
make a link with centres of French traders in Central Africa. However, they were in
conflict with the British in Zanzibar, so they moved to Bagamoyo in 1864. a number of
24 missionaries (brothers, sisters and father) started a school at Bagamoyo in the same
year. The school taught both academic and vocational subjects.
In the same year (1864), Bishop Tozer of the University Mission to Central Africa
(UMCa) started a school at Kiungani in Zanzibar. This School was called St. Andrews
College and it was later shifted to Minani in the mainland. A branch of a UMCA school
17
was also opened at Korogwe. Minaki was both a school and a Teacher Training College.
Bagamoyo, Minaki and Korogwe are regarded as the oldest school in Tanzania mainland.
In the same period the London Missionary Scoiety (L.M.S.) and the Moravian
missionaries started mission centres in Ujiji and Urambo. At the same time, white fathers
opened mission centres at Kalema and Bukumbi in Mwanza and Kashozi in Bukoba.
The German rulers came with the Berlin and Bethel Lutheran and Moravian missionaries
who opened mission centres in Lushoto, Bukoba and Urambo areas. One important point
to underscore is that a school accompanied every mission centre.
Objectives of Missionary Education were:

To gain Christian Converts

To make converts read the bible (especially the protestant missionaries)

To train local human resource. , i.e.; catechists, mason, carpenter

The church to gain local roots – i.e.’ change culture’.

To provide skills in basic trades and crafts by believing that work develop moral
and good behaviour.

To check the spread of Islam and opposition to Christian denominations.

To train government Christian human resource.
ACTIVITY
Using examples explain whether the aims of missionary education
?
were achieved.
Types of Schools Established
Missionaries established four types of schools, namely;
18
1. Bush Schools – these were outer-schools in a ramshackle accommodation.
These schools were manned with poor and semi- illiterate teachers. The
schools operated in some days because teachers were to run more than one
school. They provided two to three year basic education on 3 Rs and hygiene.
2.Village schools – These were few and established in mission stations. They
were under trained teachers both Africans and missionaries. They enrolled
pupils from bush schools and used vernacular and Kiswahili medium of
instructions. They were a four-year cycle schools.
3.Main station schools – They were run by Europeans and well-trained
Africans. They were responsible to train skilled manpower and they were
both academic and vocational.
4. Seminaries – These produced future teachers and priests.
They were
institution for church manpower and model schools. For Roman Catholic
Schools they followed the French Model while the Protestant schools
followed the British Model.
Curriculum Followed;
The curriculum followed intended to promote the 3 Rs – reading writing and arithmetic.
They followed the industrial and agriculture syllabus.
They had an Industrial and
vocational bias for manpower. They also incorporated the teaching of hygiene, European
sports and literature, music and the brass band. The academic component included
history, geography and mathematics, Roman, Greek, English and French.
Aspect of Enrolment:
By 1914 there were 142 mission stations with 792 schools and 60925 pupils. The
distribution of enrolments was as follows:
Bethel Lutheran: 12 mission stations with 56 schools and 300 pupils.
Berlin Lutheran: 17 mission stations with 100 schools and 3700 pupils with 154 African
teachers and 52 missionary teachers.
Moravian Mission: 15 stations with 75 schools and 16128 pupils and 32 African teachers.
19
Other Protestant Missions: 13 stations, 81 schools with 8116 pupils, 108 African teachers
and 32 Missionary teachers.
Roman Catholics: had 85 mission stations with 480 schools and 32681 pupils; African
teachers and 406 missionaries.
It is important to note that each group of missionaries reflected policies of their respective
nations.
Colonial Education in Tanzania
Although the major aims and objectives of colonial education in Tanzania and Africa in
general were similar there were some observable differences depending on the colonial
power.
Thus the colonial education system under the German rule exhibited some
differences from the British colonial education system.
Education under the German Rule:
Unification of Germany in 1891 speeded up industrial revolution and the need for raw
material and market for manufactured goods.
Therefore, the German government
supported traders and adventurers to compete for colonies.
German Education Policy:
Tanganyika (Tanzania Mainland) was the last German colony; as such experience gained
in South West Africa and the Cameroon was used. Based on their experiences they
decided that the German colonial government trains its own assistants. They therefore
started state secular schools. However, they encouraged the existence of two parallel
education systems; the state secular schools using Kiswahili medium and the mission
schools following policies of the nation of respective missionaries.
In 1903 the German colonial government asked missionaries to follow the government
policy and curricula. They did not encourage racial discrimination in schools save few
European schools for the Boers from South Africa. There was official elevation of
Kiswahili at all levels and there was a close link with local communities, such were
involved in planning, organization, financing, administration and the curriculum.
20
Education policy originated in the colony and was sent to Germany for approval. In
general German education promoted decentralized system with minimum control from
the centre. One important point to note was that financing education was also local.
Aims of German Education were:

To train local manpower that is competent and loyal to the colonial government.
These were trained in German law, how to collect duty and during training hey
attended Akidas and Jumbe court.

To inculcate the liking of order.

To introduce Africans into money economy

To teach German culture, sports and dances.

To inculcate respect for work, punctuality, dutifulness, and cleanliness

To impart necessary skills important for international economic system

To teach independent thinking, originality, data collection and logical
presentations.
Structure of German Education Systems:
Education was to meet the needs of economic institutions and was organized to fulfill
this purpose. The structure comprised of Outer Schools, Station/Central School,
Main station schools, Industrial schools and High schools.
Outer Schools: These were essentially agricultural in nature. A school had to have a
school shamba (farm) of 200 – 300 coconut trees or 3 – 4 hectors of cotton, or 1 – 2
hectors of coffee. The aim was to get finance to run the school. The government
supplied facilities to run these shambas. Outer schools were for Africans. They were
elementary. The emphasis was on 3 Rs (Reading, Writing and Arithmetic).
Main stations schools: These schools were mainly along the coast and provided both
academic and vocational training. These were also headed by the German Head
teacher.
21
Industrial schools: They were under the German Headmaster with trained Africans
and Asians. They were located in towns and attached to economic activities and
different workshop. i.e. railway workshops, printing and telegraph workshops and
constructions.
Common Features to German Schools:

Kiswahili was used as a medium of instructions.

The alternative language was Germany.

Practical application of academic work and concrete practical work according
to environment.

Introduction of accounts in mathematics.

Composition, summary, translation in language learning was insisted.

Agriculture – growing of crops and animal husbandry was the centre of
natural studies.

Local Geography and history was taught and given priority.

Sports and gymnastics were taught at all levels of education
State Secular School
The German state secular schools taught Swahili – 3 Rs, dictation and paraphrasing;
Foreign Languages – German, Gujarat and Hindu; Arithmetic and Accountancy; Natural
History; Natural Science; Report Writing; Geography; Gymnastics and Sports; Drawing;
Music and Brass band.
The first state secular school was Tanga which was established by Paul Blank in 1882.
He was a German who learned Kiswahili before coming to Tanga. He employed a
Koranic teacher in order to train ruling class children – children of Jumbes and Liwalis.
Sewa Hadji donated 4000 rupees to build similar schools in Dar es Salaam and
Bagamoyo in 1901. A special tax was introduced in 1898 to establish and run state
Secular schools especially along the coast. In 1902 there were 19 state schools and by
1914, 99 state secular schools were scattered all over the country, among them ten were
high schools.
22
In Zanzibar, Roman scripts were limited to free slave children and mainlanders who live
in Zanzibar. In 1900, the Sultan of Zanzibar requested Egypt to give Zanzibar teachers
for Roman Script. Abdel Bari was sent to Zanzibar to introduce western state secular
schools. However, he was not successful. In 1907 a British, Stanley Rivers Smith laid a
foundation of state secular schools. He trained Koranic teachers in Roman alphabet and
this increased the popularity of western education in Zanzibar. Kiswahili was used as a
medium of instructions. At the break of World War I, there existed in Zanzibar Koran
school system, Mission schools system with free slave children, settler schools system
which trained aristocracy and urban business children, and few state secular schools.
Education under the British Rule:
With the defeat of Germany in the First World War, Tanganyika became a British
Mandate Territory under the auspices of the League of Nations. The British colonial
state had little interest in any development that did not promise profit in simple terms. To
the British, Tanganyika was more important strategically and in terms of transportation as
it was part of the continuous stretch of land from Sudan to Rhodesia, than in economic
terms (O’Neill 1990). Thus, although the British continued to expropriate cash crops
such as sisal, coffee, tea and sugar, compared to Kenya, capitalist expansion in
Tanganyika was limited.
There was no formal education policy in British colonies until after the First World War.
During the mandate period (1919-2925), education remained formative and followed
German approach except the abandoning of German state schools and Germany
language. Standard one to three was known as elementary education and four to six as
primary education.
English language came in gradually.
Elementary and primary
schools were agricultural bias because of peasant cash crop growing.
There were
vocational training school catering for industries and Teacher Training Schools in which
English language was insisted.
23
The British colonial education policy was formulated after the United States of America
impelled Britain to have a well-known education system in their colonies. Basing on
Phelps Stokes commission report, the British government laid down basis for colonial
education. This was done in 1927. The following were the recommendations:

Cooperation with religious institutions.

Promote the status of education services by establishing the directorate of
education.

Promote the use of vernacular languages

Create adequate African staff by establishing more Teacher Training Colleges.

Establish school inspectorate team

Vocational education to be attached to different departments

Promote girls and women education for social change.
Implementation of the Recommendations:
In 1927 the Education Act was passed and this brought a close cooperation with
missionaries.
Most of Mission Schools received a grant from the government
missionaries. Most of Mission Schools received a grant from the government and
Education Secretaries were appointed to become the link between the government
and the mission agencies.
The act demanded schools to be registered and the
registration of African teachers into two categories.
The first category was for
Vernacular Teacher Grade Two and the second category was English Teacher Grade
One.
The act also introduced the primary school leaving examination and the
inspectorate division.
However after the depression period in 1934, a number of vocational schools were
closed and all of grade one Teacher Training Colleges (TTCs) were closed except
Minaki. English teachers were expected to come from Makerere in Uganda. This
period experienced the decline in education and Africans complained of being
forgotten in education. The colonial government appointed a commission to suggest
some improvement.
24
Education for African Communities:
In 1935 attention was given to rural area in education. It was insisted that educations
should depict factors affecting life in rural communities, and this was agriculture and
health. Schools were to spearhead social progress by integrating new (foreign) and
local culture. In 1944 mass education of African Society was emphasized. Villagers
were encouraged to help themselves in voluntary work to establish social services. In
1948 there was a call for education for citizenship in Africa. Education was to be
lined with training the young Africans to become responsible to their nations.
Education policy in Trusteeship Period:

Introduction of central planned education

Increase of education support services

Increase in political consciousness to Africans
The policy, which was followed, can be deducted from the 10 years education
development plan from 1945 to 1955.

Expansion of the education stages/levels

Greater Swahili publications to stimulate permanent literacy.

Close supervision of village schools.

Africans to participate in planning their education

Improve the quality of teachers by making grade II teachers learn English.

Expansion of junior secondary schools to include standard IX and X

To start standard X examination.
Structure of British Education System:

Village schools from standard I – IV

District Schools from standard V – VIII

Junior Secondary Schools from standard IX – X

Senior Secondary Schools from standard XI – XII
Two important features characterized the British colonial education system:
25

Highly examination oriented vs. German education system, which was workoriented.

Racial discrimination with three separate systems.
European education system
Indian/Asian education system
African education system
Up to 1959 there was no higher secondary school in Tanganyika.
SUMMARY
In this lecture we have learnt that Christianity and Islam spearheaded the
establishment of formal education in a form of schooling.
We have also observed that while the education under the German rule was
work oriented. British colonial education system was highly examination
oriented.
British colonial education system also insisted on racial segregation, thus
developing three separate systems for the Europeans, Indians and Africans
EXERCISE
1.
Write short notes on:
(i)
Islam and the development of western education in Tanzania
(ii)
Christianity and the development of western education in
Tanzania
2. Assess the role of colonial governments in the development of education
in Tanzania.
FURTHER READINGS
Cameron, J. and Dodd, W.A. (1970), Society, Schools and Progress in
Tanzania, Oxford: Pergamon Press.
26
Mbilinyi, M.J. (1982), “The History of Formal schooling in Tanzania, “In H.
Hinzen and V. H. Hundsdorfer (Eds.). (1982), Education for Liberation and
development: The Tanzania Experience, Hamburg, UNESCO Institute of
education (76 – 87).
Mbilinyi, M.J. (1970), “Education and Culture” in the Open University
Course Guide (1983), Education and Society: The Tanzania Case Study,
Grimsby: Castle Press. (pp. 14 – 28).
Kimambo, I.N. and Temu, A.J. (Eds.) A History of Tanzania Nairobi: East
African Publishing House (pp. 123 – 160).
Hinzen, H. and Hundsdorder, V.H. (Eds.) (1982), Education for Liberation
and development; The Tanzania Experience, Hamburg: UNESCO Institute
of Education.
Illife, J.A. (1979), Modern History of Tanganyika, Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Muganda C.K. (1999) Education Privatisation Policy in Tanzania and New
Zealand since the 1980’s. A Comparative critical Policy Analysis Study,
Unpublished Thesis Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Degree of Doctor
of Philosophy in Education, Massey University, New Zealand. (Chapter 4, 5
& 6).
27
LECTURE FOUR
FORMAL EDUCATION IN POST-COLONIAL TANZANIA
INTRODUCTION
In this lecture we will discuss the development of education in Tanzania after
Tanzania obtained its independence in 1961. This includes the changes that were
implemented immediately after independence; the background and philosophical
direction of ‘Education for self reliance’ (ESR) and its impact on education as well as
the restructuring of education in the 1980s.
OBJECTIVES
The Objectives of this lecture is to enable you to:
1. Identify influences of political and economic developments on
education.
2. Understand the contributions of the philosophy of “Education
for Self-reliance” on the development of education in Tanzania.
3. Understand the contributions of “privatization” process on the
development of education in Tanzania
The Five Years Development Plans and Education in Tanzania:
In Tanzania education has been considered as part and parcel of social economic and
political development. In fact, it has been seen as a main vehicle for development.
Hence the aims and objectives of education were stipulated in every national
development plan.
The 1964 – 69 First Five Years Plan and Education in Tanzania:

To meet the requirement of national economy for high-level manpower.
28

To ensure that quality in primary education was maintained and to lay a
permanent foundation of literacy.

Continue producing an adequate number of school teachers throughout the
country.

Restructure primary education from 4:4 to 4:3 and phase out standard VIII
gradually between 1965 to 1967 and to be compensated by full day standard
III and IV.

Primary education to continue to be under the local authorities. The central
government has to be responsible to secondary and higher education.
The 1969 – 74 Second Five Years Plan and Education in Tanzania:

To carry on the aim of sufficient high manpower by 1980.

To achieve basic education and Universal Primary Education by 1989.

To emphasize technical and science subjects education in order to meet industrial
requirements.

To abolish standard IV examination in order to ensure full primary cycle of seven
years by 1974.

To train more grade A and C teachers.

Abolish Primary School Fees in 1973.
The 1976 – 81 Third Five years Plan:

Drastic change in achieving UPE from 1989 to 1977.

Emphasis on technical and commercial education in secondary schools in order to
provide learners with work skills.

To teach “Malezi” so that every student leaving Form IV could teach.

Implement accurately Education for self-reliance (ESC).

To introduce universal adult education with emphasis on functional literacy.
The Long Term Plan – 1981 – 2000:

To achieve and maintain UPE. IN Zanzibar Universal Education was extended
from 11 years to 12 years.
29

Emphasis for full implementation of ESR and making education full work
oriented (Education is Work).

Achieve full literacy.

More emphasis on higher technical education.

By year 2000 to have four universities; one for multipurpose, one for technical,
one for agriculture, and the fourth for mining.

To emphasise pre-primary education.

Women education review.
To have a two years of post primary education teaching agriculture, “ufundi” and
animal husbandry.
ACTIVITY
As we discuss the history of education in post-colonial Tanzania
?
you will note the relationship between these plans and the
education developments.
Education Immediately After Independence (1961 -1966)
When Tanganyika got her independence, in 1961, very few Africans completed full
primary education and only a few were in secondary schools and in higher institutions of
learning.
The following data shows the percentage of the eligible age group of
Tanganyikans who were schooling at different levels.
Year
Lower Primary Upper Primary Forms I – IV
Forms V – VI
School
Schools
1957
40.7
5.2
0.8
0.008
1962
45.5
8.8
1/7
0.1
30
In 1962 a human resource survey revealed that non-Africans occupied over 85% of jobs
requiring a degree holder. The government had to reshape the education system to get
the needed human resource.
The government established the Education Ordinance,
which came into effect in 1962. The law required the following:
A single education system of all races with the common syllabus.

Admissions into religious schools were to be on merit and not on faith.

Devolution of education system by making the local government responsible to
primary schools.

Introduction of self-help schemes in building primary schools.

Plan to change the structure of primary education from 4:4 to 4:2:2
From 1961 – 1964 emphasis was on expansion of secondary and tertiary education. This
was a requirement of filling the high positions in government posts and replacement of
the living expatriates. Education was to contribute in the achievement of national targets
of raising per capita income from TShs.400 to TShs.900/=’ to be self-sufficient in trained
human resource by 1980 and to raise the life expectancy from 35 to 50 years.
Challenged to the Education System in Pre-Arusha declaration period:
A number of problems emerged after independence especially in the way of introducing
educational changes. The implementation of education Act of 1961, for example, raised
two pronounced obstacles.
First, schools belonged to racial communities and were
allocated within the residence of racial communities, i.e. “Uhindini”, “Uzunguni” and
“Uswahilini”. This problem was noticed in urban areas. The second obstacle was how to
integrate different religious schools.
It was not until 1967 when the government
integrated all primary schools.
Primary Education Development 1961 – 1966:
As noted earlier, primary education was left in the hands of local authorities. As a result,
affluent regions/districts mobilized resources through fees and self-help schemes and
religious agencies to expand their primary education systems. Thus, there was inequality
in education provision. While well to do regions/districts had more schools, less affluent
31
regions/districts laggard behind in terms of school enrolment. Nevertheless, there was a
general and well-marked expansion in school enrolment as the following table shows:
Class
1956
1961
1966
%
Increase %
Increase
1956 – 1961
1961 – 1966
Std. I
111514
121386
154512
9
27
Std V
13368
19721
58653
47
200
Std VIII
8084
14649
46816
69
225
All Stds
382141
482121
740991
26
81
Why this expansion?

Because of the importance attached to education. The competition to white collar
jobs in urban areas where socio-economic conditions were better than in rural
areas. The higher the credentials one had the higher the status, power and wealth
of material and luxuries.

Government effort to expand secondary education stimulated further the need for
primary education.
What was the outcome of this situation?

In 1965 signs of unemployment for primary VIII leavers were observed.

Primary enrolment outstripped secondary education enrolment and from 1966
many primary school leavers were left with nothing to do.

The government tried to accommodate primary school leavers in TANU Youth
League groups started communal farms, workshops, and the alike.

Parents thought that the educated were useless in agriculture;

Parents complained about the process of form one selection and accused this
process as full of nepotism, favoritism and tribalism.

Development of private secondary schools emerged in some regions/districts;\

Illegal repetition became rampant;

Birth of Education for Self-reliance.
32
Secondary and Higher Education Development 1961 – 1966:
The number of students joining secondary schools increased every year. However, the
transition rate from primary to secondary education decreased from year to year.
Decrease in primary to secondary transition rates lead to the development and expansion
of private secondary schools. The intake of private secondary schools rose from 458
students in 1965 to 2360 in 1966.
In Zanzibar the enrolment rose from 19106 in 1963 to 34547 in 1966 and this was an
increase of 181 percent at primary school level. At secondary school level the enrolment
increased from 743 in 1963 to 1681 in 1966 which was 226% increase.
Between 1963 and 1966 development in university education was noticed. In 1961 the
University of Dar es Salaam started with fourteen students in the Faculty of Law at
Lumumba in TANU building. The faculty of Arts and Social Sciences was opened in
1964 and the University moved to its new promises at Mlimani in the outskirts of Dar es
Salaam. In 1965 another Faculty was opened and this was the Faculty of Science. The
enrolment increased to 1239 students in 1966.
Elitism was intensified by politicians who stressed for local human resource development
and the Africanisation of all sectors in terms of manpower. Two issues were raised to
those received government bursary in schooling:

Five years contract in government service after the completion of education

National service was made compulsory by law to all post secondary education
trainees.
This was initiated in 1966.
demonstrate to the state house.
The same year students decided to
As a result 80% of law and social science
students, and a small number of science and medicine students were expelled.
This decision was changed and students resumed studies later.
What were the effects?

It was realized that class distinctions have emerged and this lead to the Arusha
declaration and education for self-reliance.
33
EDUCATION SYSTEM AND THE ARUSHA DECLARATION:
After 1967, the education system was to confirm with the national philosophy of
socialism and self-reliance. In other words education has to be in line with the Arusha
Declaration. As a result, Mwalimu Julius Nyerere formulated education for self-reliance
philosophy. The government and the ruling party, TANU by then, issued a document
titled “Education for Self-reliance”.
Objectives of Education for Self-reliance:

Schools to inculcate the ideals of living together, working together, sharing
equally what is produced and a sense of total commitment to the society. The aim
was to make students appreciate communalism way of living.

Discourage elitism and arrogance.

Respect of work and dignify manual labour.

Schools to meet 25 percent of their running costs.

Integrate schools with community.

Involve students in deciding their own affairs.
The Implementation of ESR: 1969/1974”

Primary education was declared the right of every school-aged child. This for
achieving universal primary education (UPE) from 1989 to 1977.

Primary schools were taken by the central government after local government
failed to run them.

1970 was declared a year for Adult Education.

In 1971 TANU declared full adult literacy y 1975. Enrolment in literacy classes
increased from 0.91 million in 1971 to 5.18 million in 1975 and 8.82 million in
1977. In 1961 75% of the population was illiterate. This decreased to 39% in
1975, 25% in 1977, 21% in 1981 and 15% in 1984. Women enrolment was
higher than men because women illiteracy rate was higher than that of men. In
1967 it is estimated that 80 percent of women were illiterate.

Primary school teachers, volunteers and secondary school pupils all joined in the
literacy campaign.

Rural library services and adult education radio programmes were started.
34

Focal Development Colleges were created in 1975 for post adult literacy classes.

Production of local news papers, like, “Elimu Haina Mwisho”, “Elimu ni Bahari”.

The President of the United Republic of Tanzania cut down by 20 percent of his
salary and ministers and Senior Officials followed this.

At the primary level, the number has increased from 0.47 million in 1971 to 2.2
million in 1979, 3.3 million in 1980 and 3.54 in 1981. In 1984 out of 100 school
age children, 75 were enrolled.
The Short Comings:

Education for the handicapped was not well taken care of. The blind, deaf and
physically handicapped have few school and the mentally retarded were almost
completely forgotten.

Shortage of teachers (especially Grade A teachers) who could manage well the
primary school curriculum.

Shortage of classrooms, furniture, textbooks, teachers, houses, latrines and other
important teaching learning materials.

Increasingly the spirit of self-help and self-reliance was killed. Parents were not
willing to pay the UPE contribution partly because they don’t see the results of their
contributions.

There was an increase in dropout rate of more than 5.4 percent in Primary Schools.
Out of 60,005 pupils who joined standard I in 1978 in Kilimanjaro, 12,016 did not
complete standard seven in 1984.

The curriculum remained academic biased, managed by poorly academic Grade C
teachers. Moreover, the curriculum did not take into consideration environmental
differences.

Teachers, Parents and Pupils were aspiring for secondary schools and the concept of
each level to be self-sufficient did not sink in society’s thinking.

Only 5 percent of the school running coast could be realized instead of the expected
25%.

Selection to Form one was still problematic and the public alleged that influential
people had a big chance to make their children be selected.
35

Proportion of those selected to join secondary education continued to decrease – from
13.8% in 1967 to 2.2% in 1983.

More than 15% of Form four leavers were not placed for further studies or
employment.
The Musoma Resolution:
In 1974 another resolution was issued by TANU – The Musoma Resolution. The aim of
this resolution was to carry further the implementation of ESR and to rectify some
problems, which emerged in the first years of implementing ESR.
Four issues were raised by the Musoma resolution.
f) It called for Universal Primary Education in 1977.
g) No direct entry to university studies.
h) Combination of manual and mental labour.
i) A shift from dependence on examinations.
Why change UPE plans from 1989 to 1977?

It was realized that adult education movement and full literacy couldn’t be
achieved if there is a continuation of children who never went to school.

Social demand of schools after villagization.
Regarding implementation of UPE the following was recommended:

Use of double sessions.

Use of pupils in higher grades to teach lower grade pupils.

Use of secondary school pupils to teach in primary schools.

Intensification of the use of Grade C teachers.
At primary education

Each level of schooling to be complete by itself, especially, primary education
that had to prepare the majority for village life.

Develop critical thinking and enquiring mind of learners.
36
Diversification of Secondary Education:
According to the Musoma Resolution, all secondary schools were to provide working
skills. To fulfill this, they were diversified into agricultural, technical, commercial and
home economics biases. All rural secondary schools were made agricultural and most of
urban schools, either commercial or home economics schools. Some of the schools were
made military secondary schools (the case of Tabora Boys and Girls Secondary Schools).
However, save technical schools, the rest bias schools were not impacting relevant work
skills and became more expensive in terms of running costs and less cost-effective. At
present there is an idea of re-diversification of secondary schools.
Community Development Centres and Folk Development Colleges
Community Development Centres (CDCs):
Community Development Centres were supposed to be meeting places for various groups
of people responsible for cultural and recreational activities.
There wee institutionally congregational centres set up for jointly approved activities, e.g.
education, carried out by local communities. The purpose was to create the sense of
belongingness and social identity to all members of a community. These centres were to
address community needs, aspirations and problem, and to bring about changes,
prosperity and self-improvement. They wee supposed to be democratically organized
and involve the majority if not all members of the community.
The notion of Community development centres was not new. Community development
centres wee superimposed from above during the colonial time and they did nto emerge
from the indigenous communities. Government officers known as change agents and
consultants, social workers, and community developers managed them.
Colonial
government took it for granted that through the CDC, change will be brought in areas
concerned.
However, they were few with unclear roles and they actually acted as
alienation centres. Moreover, they were managed by officers with lack of training, skills
and unmotivated. Nevertheless, CDC was used for adult literacy training, home craft
37
education and social and political gathering places. But the most popular activities in
these centres were dances and drinking. Attendance to other activities was poor.
If these centres were to be maintained, there was a need to examine their roles. They
could be effectively used to improve agriculture, education and health of the community.
They were to be managed by well-trained social workers in order to meet the community
needs. However, even after independence, this did not happen. Eventually most of the
CDCs collapsed. The few that continued to exist are involved in drinking and dancing,
and attached to specific organizations.
Folk Development Colleges (FDCs):
FDCs started with the assistance received from the Sweedish Government. The main
objective of these centres was to consolidate literacy. That is to prevent relapse into
illiteracy for those who have reached stages three and four in adult education literacy
campaign. It was anticipated that adults who have reached stages three and four could go
to these colleges to further their education. Furthermore, these colleges were to offer
training to village leaders and some training to primary school graduates and prepare
them for different roles in the society.
Subjects that taught in these colleges are political education, economics, agriculture,
domestic science, technical education, accountancy and adult education. By 1990, there
were 52 FDCs with the capacity of 3200 students. Practice showed that primary school
leavers filled 90% of the vacancies and few stage three and four adult education
graduates. Indeed, primary school leavers who passed through FDCs never returned to
villages but migrated to urban centres.
Why FDCs were not filled with adults of stages III and IV?

Villagers and village leaders were not satisfied with those adults who passed
stages III and IV of adult education.

Married adults were not willing to stay in FDCs.

Lack of concrete plans and shortage of training equipments and materials.
38

Inconsistence and destabilization of these colleges by changing mother ministries
from time to time. Ministries differ in priority and policies, the factors, which
have made these colleges to suffer in terms of planning, objectives and target
groups.

Underutilization of their capacities is a common feature
EDUCATION IN ZANZIBAR UP TO 1982
In 1964 Zanzibar and Tanganyika United and formed the United Republic of Tanzania.
However education u to secondary level did not become one of the union matters. Thus
Zanzibar has its own education system, which in some aspects is different from hat of
Tanzania Mainland.
Education in Zanzibar became free since 1964.
Education in
Zanzibar is arranged in a 3:8:3:1:2 structures. The first three years is for nursery school
followed by 8 years of primary education, 3 years of the first cycle of secondary
education up to form three, one year of form four and two years of advanced secondary
education.
Enrollment in primary schools increased from 19,026 in 1961 to 81,168 in 1982. In
secondary schools enrolment rose from 1,913 to 19,088 in the same period. On the side
of the teaching staff, the number increased from 546 in 1962 to 3,256 in 1982. However,
50 percent of the teaching staff was under-qualified (untrained teachers). Number of
schools also increased from 62 to 129 in the same period. The teacher student ratio was
1:34 in 1977 and 1:30 in 1982 at primary school level. Adult Education was also
emphasized and the literacy rate was 68% in 1982.
The Gender Issue:
The participation of girls in education was decreasing from primary to tertiary level.
By 1982, girls’ participation at various levels of education in Zanzibar comprised the
following percentages:
Primary
1–8
48.6% of the enrolment
Form
I – III
43.6% of the enrolment
39
Form
IV
33%
of the enrolment
Form
V – VI
32%
of the enrolment
University Level
10%
10%
of the enrolment
The Curriculum:
The curriculum followed was the same as that followed in the Mainland except for preprimary and primary levels. Education was compulsory up to form III but only 69
percent of children between 7 and 16 years received this education.
The Quality of Education:
Whenever there is expansion of enrolment without comparable expansion of resources
quality is bound to suffer. Shortage of laboratories, equipments, and boards was very
acute especially in secondary schools. There was a problem of large class size (overcrowded), the use of untrained teachers and a relatively high drop out rate and truancy
ACTIVITY
Make a list of the main features of education for self reliance
?
Education in the 1980s and 1990s:
While in the 1980s education in Tanzania was characterized by fiscal and legitimation
crises the 1990s witnessed the restructuring that signified as shift from the egalitarianbased principles to the privatisationa agenda. It is important to note, however, that
Tanzania’s educational privatization process is more connected to the general economic
Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs) advocated by the International Monetary
Funds (IMF) and the World Bank as well as internal factors.
Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs):
40
By the late 1970s the advances in technology, had made it possible for goods, capital and
ideas to move with ease around the world and grawing numbers of cross-border alliances;
transnational enterprises became not only common but also more powerful.
Thus,
capitalism was transforming into transnational/global capitalism.
The Globalisation, however, led to tensions between the world integrated transnational
corporations and the nation-states structures. With the oil crises of the 1970s and the
economic recession of the 1980s the tension intensified. The existence of state-run
economies and states ownership of the key industrial sectors in many countries including
Tanzania, were seen as hindering the integration of world capitalism. Likewise public
interest obligations imposed by state regulations were perceived as hampering cost
cutting in an economy as well as interfering with payment of “national” debt which had
reached alarming levels. Efforts were made by the multinational corporations to ensure
that states are made to put debt servicing ahead of public services (Martin 1993,
Muganda 1999). National states were urged to restructure their economies in line with
the demands of multinational corporations; the developing nations such as Tanzania were
presented with structural adjustment policies as conditionality for receiving aid or loans.
Privatization featured strongly in the SAPs agenda.
SAPs urged the developing countries to follow the global trend and “liberalise” their
economy, and to privatize their public enterprises and social services.
The SAPs
conditions included: privatization of public firms through joint ventures or outright sales;
making cuts in social expenditure; removal of food subsidies; workers retrenchment;
currency devaluation. And introduction of user fees for education, health and other social
services.
Tanzania’s Post-colonial state, under President Julius K. Nyerere, at first resisted the
pressure to adopt the SAPs. Asserting that Tanzania had no knowledge of or experience
in privatization, Nyerere (Kilimwiko 1994, Muganda 1999) argued that privatization is
the same as looting public resources and might even put the control of Tanzania’s
institutions in foreign hands.
41
Tanzania was induced to adopt the Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs) through
suspension of many of the bilateral agreements including foreign aid and loans. In he
early 1980s, most bilateral and multilateral donors began to reduce financial support for
Tanzania. This had a toll on the country’s economy, especially as it combined with the
falling crop prices in global markets controlled multinational corporations; rising oil
prices; drought and famine in the early 1980s; war against Idd Amin of Uganda in the late
1970s; as well as debt servicing.
There was a drastic drop in the real incomes and a drop in the standard of living of most
Tanzanians (Jones 1992). Thus, the external pressures, combined with other internal
factors, developed into fiscal crisis.
With the looming crises the Tanzania Government spent less and less on education. The
central government budget allocated to the Ministry of Education and Culture dropped
from 205 immediately after independence (Nyerere 1967) to 11.7% in 1980/81, to 5.8 1i
1985/86, 4% in 1991/92 and down to 3.3% in 1993/4 fiscal years (URT 1995:41).
The budget constraints had a toll on the basic recourses needed for the implementation of
policies developed within the philosophy of Education for Self-Reliance (ESR). For
example, the UPE that was declared in 1974 faced severe human, fiscal, plant and
material constraints. UPE problems were associated with qualitative and quantitative
lack of school facilities, teaching materials and equipment, shortage of teachers,
classrooms, latrines, teacher houses exercise books, chalk and pencils.
As the situation of schools deteriorated, there was also a steady drop in the relative
opportunities of primary school leavers to obtain either employment or places in
secondary schools3.
42
The Makweta Report:
The Tanzania Government took steps to address the problems and undertake reforms. A
presidential commission was formed, headed by Jackson Makweta, an MP who later
became the Education Minister. The task of the commission was:
b) To examine the existing system of education in the country;
c) To study the problems facing the system;
d) To make suggestions for viable solutions.
In 1982 the commission produced a report titled: Education System in Tanzania Towards
the year 2000 (URT 1984), commonly referred to as the “Makweta Report”. Although
the recommendations contained in the “Makweta Report” report aimed at making the
existing system offer more and better services, rather than overhauling the system
altogether, the “Makweta Report” exposed the need for changes in Tanzania’s education
system.
3
Although the numbers were increasing in normal terms, the percentage of primary school leavers selected
for secondary education was dropping (URT 1995:11).
The “Makweta Report” gave more emphasis to the technical and budgetary aspects of
education. Thus, recommendations were presented in terms of the (academic) quality of
education, its cost and its training role rather than socialist reconstruction, redistribution
or equality (Sammof and Sumra 1994:13).
The “Makweta Report” was accessible to many Tanzanians and there were public debates
on its recommendations. A Kiswahili version of the recommendation “Mapendekezo ya
Tume ya Makweta” was produced.
Two years later, in 1984, the government set
strategies for implementation of the recommendations contained in the “Makweta
Report”.
The recommendations that were implemented by the government included:

The establishment of the Teacher Commission (TSC);

The establishment of the Tanzania Teachers professional association;
43

The introduction of new Curriculum packages of primary, secondary and teacher
education levels;

The establishment of Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA) the Muhimbili
University College of Health Science (MUCHS) and the open University of
Tanzania (OUT);

The establishment of the Faculty of Education at the University of Dar es Salaam;

The Formulation of the Policy of Science and Technology;

The introduction of the (Pre-Primary Teacher Education Programme; and

The expansion of Secondary Education (URT 1995:vi).
The implementation of these recommendations however did not satisfy the global winds
of change; thus the external pressure on the education system in Tanzania still persisted.
When Tanzania agreed to implement SAPs in 1986, the external pressure for more radical
changes in the educations system (especially from IMF and World Bank), became more
prominent and the fiscal situation became worse. Tanzania began to suffer the pinches of
debt servicing and the government’s education budget was further constrained. The
situation of schools deteriorated and the teachers’ morale continued to drop. By 1990,
there was a general feeling that the standards of education were falling; hence
disenchantment with the existing (public) education system was enhanced.
Meanwhile, in the context of the Economic Recovery Plan (ERP) and on the advice of the
World Bank and IMF, Secondary School fees were reintroduced. More day Secondary
Schools were opened, especially in urban areas so as to make families responsible for the
cost associated with housing and feeding their children, as well as supervising their
leisure time. The state encouraged the establishment of private secondary schools and a
large number of these began operations. By 1990 there were more students in the private
secondary schools than their government counterparts.
In 1990, the Tanzania government appointed a Task Force, led by the Dean of the Faculty
of Education at the University of Dar es Salaam, with the mandate to review the existing
44
education system and come up with the blue print to guide Tanzania’s education for the
future. The final Report Tanzania Education for the 21st Century was produced in 1993
(URT 1993).
The findings and recommendations of the Task Force Report evolve around the existing
problems 1 the education system and the reduction of the role of the state in the provision
of education.
Although the Task Force Report is written in English and no public debate has been
organized to discuss the report it was been a valuable government working document in
Tanzania’s education reforms.
Most of the recommendations in the report were
implemented, including:

Students shouldering their transport cost;

Payment of tuition fees in public secondary schools;

Substantial contribution of parents in primary education;

Cost sharing at institutions of Higher Learning.
More importantly, the Tanzania Education and Training Policy (URT 1995) is based on
the Task Force Report. The Tanzania Education and Training Policy (URT 1995) IS a
significant document because it has been presented as a blue print to guide the provision
of education in Tanzania.
SUMMARY
In this lecture we have learnt the development of education in PostColonial Tanzania. We have examined the central position of education
in Tanzania’s development plans. We have also explained the changes
that were implemented immediately after independence and the
background to the philosophy of ‘Education for self-reliance’ (ESR) and
its impact on education.
We have also observed that the restructuring of education in the 1980s
45
was geared towards Privatization of Education. We note that Tanzania’s
educational privatization process is more connected to the general
economic structural adjustment Programmes (SAPs) advocated by the
International Monetary Funds (IMF) and the World Bank.
That is,
consequences of both the resistance to the implementation of the SAPs in
the early 1980s, and the subsequent succumbing to the pressure to
implement them in the mid-1980s culminated in the deterioration of
social services including education. Thus, by the 1990s, the privatization
agenda that had started as an external pressure had been gradually
localized through fiscal and legitimation crises. Hence it is within this
context that the Tanzania Education and Training Policy were produced
to guide the educational reforms in Tanzania.
EXERCISE
List the changes that were effected in the education system immediately
after Tanzania obtained its independence in 1961.
Outline the merits and demerits of major changes that have occurred in
Tanzania’s education in the 1990.
Further Readings
Castle, E.B. (1972) Education for Self-reliance: New Strategies for
Developing Countries. Oxford University Press, London.
Grovers, C.P. (1964), Planting Christianity in Africa Vol.4 19141954. Luther-Worth Press, London.
Hornaby, G. (1964), “German Education Achievements in East
Africa” in Tanganyika Notes and Records No. 62.
Ishumi, A.G.M. (1976), Education and Development
Eastern African Publications Ltd.; Arusha.
United Republic of Tanzania (1965) The Tanzania First Five Year
Development Plan 1964 – 1969. Government Printer, DSM.
----------(1970) The Tanzania Second Five Year Development Plan
1970 – 1974, Government Printer, DSM
---------- (1976) The Tanzania Third Five Year Development Plan
1976 – 1979. Government Printer, DSM
Cameron, J. and Dodd, W.A. (1970), Society, Schools & Progress in
46
Tanzania, Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Mbilinyi, M.J. (1982), “The History of Formal Schooling in Tanzania,
“In H. Hinzen and V.H. Hundsdorfer (Eds.). (1982). Education for
Liberation and Development: The Tanzania Experience, Hamburg,
UNESCO Institute of Education (76 – 87).
Illife, J.A. (1979), Modern History of Tanganyika, Cambridge:
Cambridge University press.
Muganda C.K. 91999) Education Privatisation Policy in Tanzania and
New Zealand Since the 1980s: A Comparative Critical Policy Analysis
Study, Unpublished Thesis Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the
Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Education, Massey University, New
Zealand. (Chapter 4, 5 & 6).
UNESCO (1989) Education in Tanzania, Vol. I 1989, Paris: Author.
United Republic of Tanzania (URT) (1984), “Education System in
Tanzania Towards the Year 2000”, Report of the Presidential
Commission on Education in Tanzania, Dar es Salaam: Ministry of
Education.
United Republic of Tanzania (URT) (1984a). The Implementation of
Universal Primary Education 1974 – 1986, Dar es Salaam: Ministry
of Education.
United Republic of Tanzania (URT) (1990), Twenty Years of Adult
Education in Tanzania 1970 – 1990, Dar es Salaam: Ministry of
Education, Adult Education Press.
United Republic of Tanzania (URT) (1995), Education and Training
Policy, Dare es Salaam: Ministry of Education and Culture.
Nyerere, J.K. (1967), “Education for Self-Reliance’ in
Nyerere, J.K. (1968) Ujamaa: Essays on Socialism, Dar es Salaam:
OUP (pp. 44 – 75).
47
SECTION TWO
PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
The subject of philosophy of education can be approached in many different ways. One
person may restrict oneself to studying a single philosophy of education, while another
person may use a survey of the various philosophies that have been presented, with an
eye to discovering their similarities and differences. This means that philosophy of
education is trans-disciplinary and it is due to this fact that philosophy undertakes the
conceptual and synthetic task necessary to the construction of a trans-disciplinary
practical theory. Philosophy engages itself in rigorous normative inquiry and is concerned
with the nature and the structure of different theories. Philosophy has become a
worthwhile enterprise largely because it is rested on educative functions.
Philosophy of education grapples with normative features and developments in the world
of education. The study of Educational Foundations relies heavily on the disciplines and
methodologies of the humanities, particularly history and philosophy, and the social
sciences, such as sociology and political science. The purpose of foundations study is to
bring these disciplinary resources to bear in developing interpretive, normative, and
critical perspectives on education, both inside and outside of schools. The general
objectives of these foundational studies are to introduce students to interpretive uses of
knowledge germane to education and to establish a basis for life-long learning through
normative and critical reflection on education within its historical, philosophical, cultural,
and social context. The academic discipline known as philosophy of education deals with
metaphysical and epistemological questions and lays the foundation for the development
of a deep understanding of the acquisition of knowledge in human life.
This topic is organized into 5 lectures:

The nature of philosophy

Philosophical foundations of Education
48

Selected philosophies of Education

Ethical Theories

Great African Educational Philosophers
49
LECTURE 5
THE NATURE OF PHILOSOPHY
INTRODUCTION
This lecture provides some concrete nuances of philosophy and its quiddity, and the four
main branches of philosophy (Logic, Epistemology, Metaphysics and Axiology). In this
Lecture, logic is thoroughly discussed in order to enable the learner to build skills which
will help one to make correct and relevant arguments. Logic is practical and due to this
very nature of logic which states that any argument is valid provided that the truth of its
premises guarantees the truth of its conclusion it is important that the learner gets a grip
on how to argue and make correct judgments of different issues.
OBJECTIVE
By the end of this lecture, you should be able to: define philosophy, illustrate its
importance in educational issues and name the different sources and theories of
knowledge.
The definition of philosophy is notoriously difficult. Indeed, it is customary to begin
lectures such as this by saying that the definition is notoriously difficult. The word
philosophia is a combination of two distinct words: philo which means love and sophia
which is wisdom. Etymologically the word philosophy comes from the ancient Greek
word philo-sophia, which means love of wisdom.
The word philosophy has many different definitions. In the Oxford Advanced Learner’s
Dictionary (2000) one reads that philosophy is the study of nature and meaning of the
universe and of human life. According to Seneca philosophy is the art and law of life and
it teaches us what to do in all cases and like good marksmen, to hit the white at any time
(Schlick & Vaughn, 1998). Russell (1979) was not left behind as to giving the definition
of philosophy. For him philosophy is something between theology and science. Like
theology it consists of speculations on matters as to which definite knowledge has so far
50
been unascertainable but like science it appeals to human reason rather than to authority
whether that of tradition or that of revelation. Generally speaking one could correctly say
that philosophy is one’s general outlook of life (Warburton 1999).
Generally speaking, a definition of philosophy is taken as a complete view of reality and
it seeks the ultimate reason for things and it functions as a body of natural knowledge
methodically acquired and ordered which undertakes to give the fundamental explanation
of all things (De Raeymaeker, 1948). Philosophy is important for the knowledge
especially when we know that knowledge does bring wisdom and wisdom is important
due to the fact that it makes people understand themselves in terms of their essence and
actions. It is the desire for freedom and wisdom which has brought philosophy into
existence.
Philosophers have persistently continued to deal with the ultimate problems that human
beings ask:

What is, in the end good?

What is beauty in itself?

What is truth?

What is the ultimate basic nature of the world in which we live?

What are we? Etc.
In short one could say that to philosophize is to seek wisdom.
BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY
Generally speaking, there is no universal agreement about which subjects are the main
branches of philosophy. For Aristotle Metaphysics, Cosmology and Psychology were
regarded as the main branches of philosophy. However, in the modern classification we
have four branches of philosophy, namely:

Logic

Epistemology

Metaphysics
51

Axiology (Ethics and Aesthetics)
LOGIC
Logic is the study of the principles of valid demonstration and inference. The word
derives from Greek (logike), which means possessed of reason, intellectual, dialectical, or
argumentative and from logos, which means word, thought, idea, argument, account,
reason, or principle. As a formal science, logic investigates and classifies the structure of
statements and arguments, both through the study of formal systems of inference and
through the study of arguments in natural language. The field of logic ranges from core
topics such as the study of validity, fallacies and paradoxes, to specialized analysis of
reasoning using probability and to arguments involving causality. Logic is also
commonly used today in argumentation theory.
In the Concise Oxford English Dictionary logic is being defined as "the science of
reasoning, proof, thinking, or inference." Logic will let you analyze an argument or a
piece of reasoning, and work out whether it is likely to be correct or not. You don't need
to know logic to argue, of course; but if you know even a little, you'll find it easier to spot
invalid arguments.
Among the valuable properties that logical systems can have are:

Consistency, which means that none of the theorems of the system
contradict one another.

Soundness, which means that the system's rules of proof will never allow a
false inference from a true premise. If a system is sound and its axioms are
true then its theorems are also guaranteed to be true.

Completeness, which means that there are no true sentences in the system
that cannot, at least in principle, be proved in the system.
What is truth? How or why do we identify a statement as true or false? And, how do we
reason?
52
IMPLICATION IN DETAIL
Clearly you can build a valid argument from true premises, and arrive at a true
conclusion. You can also build a valid argument from false premises, and arrive at a false
conclusion.
The tricky part is that you can start with false premises, proceed via valid inference, and
reach a true conclusion. For example:

Premise: All fish live in the ocean

Premise: Sea otters are fish

Conclusion: Therefore sea otters live in the ocean
There's one thing you can't do, though: start from true premises, proceed via valid
deductive inference, and reach a false conclusion.
We can summarize these results as a "truth table" for implication. The symbol "=>"
denotes implication; "A" is the premise, "B" the conclusion. "T" and "F" represent true
and false respectively.
Truth Table for Implication
Premise Conclusion Inference

A
B
A => B
false
False
True
false
True
True
true
False
False
true
True
True
If the premises are false and the inference valid, the conclusion
can be true or false. (Lines 1 and 2.)

If the premises are true and the conclusion false, the inference
must be invalid. (Line 3.)
53

If the premises are true and the inference valid, the conclusion
must be true. (Line 4.) Source: http:/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/logic
Retrieved on 14/10/2008.
If the truth table is not adhered to, fallacies may affect one’s arguments. Here under are
some of the common fallacies that are encountered in our day to day arguments.
Common Fallacies
There are a number of common pitfalls to avoid when constructing a deductive argument;
they're known as fallacies. In everyday English, we refer to many kinds of mistaken
beliefs as fallacies; but in logic, the term has a more specific meaning: a fallacy is a
technical flaw which makes an argument unsound or invalid.
Arguments which contain fallacies are described as fallacious. They often appear valid
and convincing; sometimes only close inspection reveals the logical flaw.
EPISTEMOLOGY
The word epistemology is made up of two simple Greek words: episteme and logos.
Episteme stands for knowledge and logos stands for the study of. Therefore,
epistemology means the study of knowledge. Knowledge could be general, specialized or
professional. The core issue of epistemology is the truth: how does one know that what
one knows is true? This constitutes the most fundamental question in epistemology.
Epistemology validates knowledge in the sense that the nature of knowledge be it
analytical (things that equal to the same things are equal to each other) or synthetic
(based on empirical verification) culminates into the central position of knowing.
Epistemology advocates for the validation of knowledge in that it makes knowledge
capture its true meaning.
Validation of knowledge
The mind: Philosophers have the opinion that all individuals have a mind. This mind is
abstract and it contains intelligence. Intelligence is that which produces and sieves ideas.
Here the notion of Intelligence Quotient (IQ) crops in due to the fact that despite the fact
that each individual has a mind, there are degrees in the acquisition of intelligence. There
54
are some who are more intelligent than others. When there is fault in intelligence the
perception of an idea will also be false. When there is no fault in intelligence the
perception of an idea will be clearer.
The means: The truth may be distorted depending on the theory put in place. Take
authoritative theory as an example: does it mean that when a religious leader tells the
flock that the knowledge that one possesses comes from God, does this represent the
truth? Can’t it come from man/woman? The means is what directs us to the truth of the
matter.
Reality itself: The reality perceived may bring some problems in that what is said to be
the reality may be presented in a deceptive manner. Take advertisements as an example:
one finds that most of them are deceptive in a way that they are only used to attract
customers. If one seriously reflects on what is really being said about an item will find a
lot of deceits.
METAPHYSICS
Metaphysics deals with questions that deal with what lies beyond the world of sense
experience.
Metaphysics and the pursuit of knowledge
Greek views on Change
Pre-Socratic philosophers who lived in the period between 700 BC and 400 BC raised
(some) questions concerning the nature of things. It should be noted that the period
preceded the rise to glory of Plato’s great teacher Socrates. In Miletus there existed quite
a great number of thinkers. One of them was Thales (600 BC). Thales started his own
school and his followers sought to know the nature of things with regard to their
origins(s). What Thales wanted to know was how things originated. The Milesians are
called monists because they attempted to explain the various appearances of things in
55
terms of one basic stuff. They believed that there is but one basic stuff (urstoff: in
German) out of which all physical beings are made.
What Are Things Made Out Of?
According to Thales (624-546 BC) the urstoff (German) is water. For him everything
originates from water. For Anaximander (610-546 BC) the origin of life is a boundless
matrix (apeiron) (the infinite). According to him the cosmos as we know it originated
from an eternal and eternally moving qualitatively and quantitatively indefinite primary
stuff.
Anaximenes (546-526 BC) concluded that the origin of things is air. The following is the
way he defended his points: When air is dilated so as to be rare it becomes fire while
winds are condensed air. Cloud is formed from air by compression and water results
when cloud is compressed further and earth and finally stones result from more
condensation. We have to note that in Anaximenes’ thinking there are 2 important factors
in view of the origin of things and these factors are compression and condensation.
For Heracleitus (Heraclitus) everything is in the state of flux. Changes are always and
everywhere. Nothing is static. Plato accepted this notion –in a process of constantly
becoming other than what they are.
According to Parmenides all that is, is being. Non being cannot be known nor thought.
Here we can say that for Parmenides one cannot think of non-being for it is not thinkable.
There can be no change. With this notion in mind we see Parmenides opposing
Heracleitus with his ex nihilo nihil fit (From nothing, nothing comes to be). Therefore
there is no coming to be and thus no change. Being has no beginning, it is universal,
existing alone, immovable and without end. It has no past nor has it got a future, it is
outside of time and exists only in the now.
56
Democritus (460-360 BC) set down a theory of atomism. For him non-being is part of the
universe. Atoms and empty space are his 2 basic elements. Some times he called the full
and the void – or being and non-being respectively.
The term atom refers to the indivisibility of the full. What is full cannot in any way be
divided. However, one cannot speak of the full in the absence of the void. The void is the
place with nothing occupying it. However, like other thinkers Empedocles (492-432 BC)
believed in the four basic elements. For him the origin of things is the interaction between
air, water, earth and fire.
Anaxagoras and Empedocles introduced what Aristotle called moving causes that is
mind, love and strife. Democritus reduced them to substantial and qualitative change.
Aristotle believed that water, air the boundless can of its own accord change into cosmos.
The earth remains in position but there is a sufficient reason to move. In De Anima,
Aristotle says that the soul of the living thing is its capacity to engage itself in the
activities that are characteristic of living. In this sense the soul is the vital force.
Pythagoreans and Mathematics
Pythagoras (570-490 BC) seems to have given the sacred tetractys. A tetractys looks the
same from different angles, and all sides are equal. A tetractys is made up of number 10.
The sum of 1, 2, 3 and 4 is 10 and 10 is taken to be the perfect number.
Aristotle tells us that the Pythagorean thought that the first principle of numbers was the
first principle of all things.
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Plato and Mathematics
For Plato the word Mathematics means a number or geometric figure considered a part
from things which are numbered and have shape. He later abandoned this idea and came
up with the maker and the probable account of the world.
Plato appeals to the good as a supreme intelligence which desires that all things should
become as near as possible to being like himself. In the Timaeus he calls this being the
maker. The desire to make what is best is the supreme principle of the coming into
existence and of the order of the world. In this equation there are two basic things, id est,
the maker and the chaotic matrix which are component part of the primary stuff.
There is an intelligent order which manifests itself in the cosmos as a whole. Here Plato
adds the motion of the soul. This soul is within the body of the world making the world a
living creature possessing soul and reason. The soul can be explained in terms of motion.
The soul moves things.
Some thinkers like St. Thomas Aquinas could not but this idea. For him God is the author
of creation. St. Thomas Aquinas speaks of creatio ex nihil and Darwin speaks about the
survival for the fittest.
Charles Darwin putting the ideas of Malthus thought of natural selection as the basis of
existences. According to Darwin evolution takes place by means of natural selection.
Natural selection – evolutionary change is brought about by the selection of individuals
with variations that give them an advantage for survival and hence a better chance to
produce descendents. In the Origins we see that life starts with a lifeless Earth and ending
up with the appearance of today’s species.
However, creationists differ with Darwin in that for them creation is the work of the All
powerful merciful God on whom the world depended for its creation and its continued
existence. Most creationists take their ideas from the story of creation which is found in
the Holy Bible. God created heaven and Earth (Gen 1:1) creatio ex nihil. Moreover in
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the Bible we are told that God created Man in His own image and gave him power over
the world. Genesis 1:28ff). Therefore, human kind has been made in God’s image. The
idea is that goodness shows itself. For thinkers like Descartes and Spinoza the realm of
nature was a unitary whole an aspect of God. Like St. Thomas they coin the existence of
material things with the work of God.
Generally speaking, metaphysics has its own big questions such as: What is reality, and
what exists? What is the nature of those things? Do some things exist independently of
our perception? What is the nature of space and time? What is the nature of thought and
thinking? What is it to be a person?
AXIOLOGY
Axiology is a melange of ethics and aesthetics. Ethics deals with the rules of human
conduct and values. Aesthetics deals with tastes; that beautiful and ugly depend on
principles of taste. Axiology too, has some big questions, such as: Is there a difference
between morally right and wrong actions (or values, or institutions)? If so, what is that
difference? Which actions are right and which wrong? Are values absolute, or relative? In
general or particular terms, how should I live? How is right and wrong defined? Is there
an ultimate "ought"? Is there a normative value or objective that supersedes all others?
Are values 'in' the world like tables and chairs and if not how should we understand their
ontological status? What is beauty? How do beautiful things differ from the ugly ones?
What is Art? Does true beauty exist?
HOW TO STUDY PHILOSOPHY?
Philosophy is a rather difficult subject to cultivate. It needs seriousness and a critical
mind in order to understand it well. This is due to the fact that philosophy is speculative
and that it touches all spheres of understanding that the human mind can think of. It is
generally agreed that the method of philosophy is enquiry of a systematic nature, guided
by the canons of rationality, and that its most distinctive feature is the use of logical
argument.
59
Most philosophers (Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Wittgenstein, just to mention a few) believe
that philosophy is not experimental. It does not employ the methods of empirical science,
and its questions are not to be answered by observation or experiment, although
observation and experiment may prompt those questions.
Philosophy is entirely intellectual. It does not invoke revelation, reference to sacred texts,
myth or religious knowledge of any kind to answer its questions.
It has a generally critical nature. Philosophers try wherever possible to examine and
criticize beliefs that we commonly take for granted. Philosophy students are taught not to
take anything on trust, 'particularly if it seems obvious and undeniable' (Hodges).
Philosophy is characterized by a certain method, subject matter and objectives. The
subject matter of philosophy involves the most fundamental or general questions
sometimes called 'the big questions' :

What is the meaning of life?

How did the world begin?

Do I have a soul?

Will it survive my death?

What things really exist?

Could nothing have existed?
ACTIVITY
Attempt at least Two out of the following activities
?
1. Obtain a copy of the Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy (1994)
and find definitions of philosophy, logic, epistemology,
metaphysics and axiology.
2. Make some short notes on the importance of philosophy in
educational matters.
3. Make some brief notes on the subject matter of philosophy i.e
60
the big questions
4. Identify the big questions in the context of your country.
Philosophy also has a 'second order' nature. That is, rather than using the concepts we
employ in everyday life in thinking about the world, which is 'first order' thinking,
philosophy makes those concepts themselves the object of study. Philosophy is 'thinking
about thinking'.
Philosophers vary on the goal of philosophical enquiry. Those attracted to the 'big
questions' say it is to discover the absolutely fundamental reason of everything, or to
unify and transcend the insights given by science and religion. Others say that, at most,
the goal of philosophy is to make explicit, or to clarify, the nature and significance of
ordinary and scientific beliefs.
SUMMARY
In this lecture we have seen that philosophy has four main branches
which are very important in the acquisition of knowledge. These
branches taken together can help a learner to know how better what is
needed in the understanding of the philosophy of education.
EXERCISE
Attempt at least THREE of the following questions

Why do you think that consistency, soundness and completeness
are valuable properties of logic?

How can you relate the above in educational issues?
61

What is do you understand by axiology? With vivid examples
mention some characteristics of axiology.

Why would you regard critical thinking as purely philosophical?
Give reasons.

To what extent do the mind, the means and the reality validate
knowledge?

Mention the main branches of philosophy. Take any one of them
for a brief discussion.

Philosophy is the art and law of life. Explain.

Philosophy is entirely intellectual and it has nothing to do with
experiments. Elaborate.

The Philosophy is based on big questions. Discuss.

Why is philosophy of education considered to be an applied
philosophy?
Suggestions for Further Reading
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy (1994), Oxford, Oxford
University Press.
Zeyl, D. (1997) Encyclopedia of Classical Philosophy. Westport, CT.
Greenwood.
Mwanahewa, S. A. (1999) Philosophy of Education. Makerere,
Makerere University.
Ewing, A. C. (1989) The Fundamental Questions of Philosophy. New
York, Routledge.
De Raeymaeker, L. (1948) Introduction to Philosophy, N.Y. N.Y
City, Joseph F. Wagner, Inc.
T
62
LECTURE 6
PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION
INTRODUCTION
This lecture covers the philosophical foundations of education. In this lecture we enter
into the interpretive, critical and normative perspectives of foundational studies.
Foundational studies promote analysis of the intent, meaning, and effects of educational
institutions. Normative perspectives assist students in examining and explaining
education in light of value orientations and employ normative interpretations to assist
students to develop inquiry skills, to question educational assumptions and arrangements,
and to identify contradictions and inconsistencies among social and educational values,
policies and practices.
Though often seen as a wholly abstract field, philosophy is not without practical
applications. This is to say that philosophy of education is an applied philosophy. It is an
applied philosophy because it is solely based on educational matters. In the field of the
philosophy of education, John Dewey, Pestallozi, Paulo Freire, Maria Montessori,
Charles Sanders Pierce, William James, Soren Kierkegaard have had a profound impact
on educational practices worldwide.
OBJECTIVES:
By the end of this lecture, you should be able to

discuss in details the philosophical foundations of
education,

know how to differentiate sources and types of knowledge
so as to increase one’s knowledge and skills in educational
undertakings.
63
EPISTEMOLOGICAL SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE
In order to understand the philosophy of education in its depth, there is an ample need to
study some philosophical foundations of education. Philosophical foundation of
education encompasses different subject matters. We confine a few of them:

Idealism

Rationalism

Empiricism

Intuition

Authority

Scientific method
Visit any library near you and search for relevant materials on
?
epistemological sources of knowledge. Study carefully the
epistemological sources of knowledge. Identify their importance
in educational issues in your own country.
Idealism: This school of thought contends that the universe is in the mind of the
individual at the time of birth. The idea is the abstract internal presentation of the
universe in reality. The role of the teacher is similar to that of the mid-wife; help others to
give birth to ideas. In idealism importance is being put on the idea and not on the actual
thing. The reason is that the actual thing is a product of an idea.
Rationalism: The mind through a process of reasoning can extract reliable knowledge
The central part of this source of knowledge is rationality.
64
Empiricism: The central concept in the philosophy of science is empiricism or
dependence on evidence. Empiricism tells us that knowledge comes from experience
throughout our lives. We get our knowledge from what we see, smell, hear, taste and
touch. Scientific statements come from experience and/or observation. Scientific
hypotheses are derived from empiric methods consisting observation and experiments.
Observation involves perception and so are themselves cognitive acts. That is observation
is embedded in our understanding and if this understanding changes the observation may
change also. Here, we see a relationship between observation and understanding.
Empiricism is a view that our knowledge of the world is anchored in our sensory
interactions with the world. This is because our theories have to answer to our pretheoretical everyday observations and experience. We base on science in what is
primitively observable for us as human beings.
Empiricists believe in practical or empirical proofs. This school of thought believe that
knowledge finds its origin or basis on the five senses: touching, smelling, tasting, hearing
and seeing. Without the use of the five senses there can be no knowledge at all.
Intuition: Intuitionists uphold that knowledge can be directly apprehended without the
use of senses. This is to say that an individual has the power to apprehend the universe
and everything that therein only because has the mind.
Authority: Authoritative source of knowledge comes from research work and authorship.
This type of knowledge is derived from religious authorities (the Bible, the Koran,
Sheikhs, Bishops etc), scholarly work and the like. Revelation is part of source of
knowledge.
Scientific Method: There is no institution in the modern world more prestigious than
science. Nor is there an institution which as a whole is less controversial (the making of
clones, abortion, euthanasia and the like).
65
The scientific method stresses that for knowledge to be acceptable it should go through
seven steps:

Identification of the problem (what is the problem?)

Setting preliminary hypothesis (find possible solutions)

Collecting facts which are related to the problem (investigate and analyze facts)

Formulating the hypothesis (identify at least one possible solution to the problem)

Gathering the details about the collected facts (deduce further inferences about the
hypothesis)

Testing these consequences (establish a consistence among the problem, the data
and the hypothesis)

The application of the solution (if the solution works then the knowledge is
acceptable).
However, some scientists are cautious about scientific theories. In the Novarum organum
(1620) Bacon speaks about positive and negative doctrines that could be traced in
scientific theories. The negative doctrine speaks of the four idols which have dominated
and distorted men’s/women’s minds delaying the true acquisition of knowledge. These
idols hinder our capacity to think properly.

Idols of the tribe – see things in relation to others, Man is not the measure of all
things.

Idols of the cave-individual approach to fact rather than seeing them as they really
are.

Idols of the market – use words which stand for nothing (e.g. Fortune, prime
mover) are like fiction.

Idols of theatre – the malign influence of philosophical systems in our minds.
According to Bacon, we should not accept Aristotle’s idea of experimentation and
observation. For Bacon science has to begin from and be controlled by observation
untainted by the presupposition of the idols. Start afresh at all times and be vigilant The
process of excluding the incidental accompaniments is for Bacon the crucial activity of
the scientists far in this way we come to see that only some features are present in every
positive instance and absent in every negative instance. Bacon’s search for negative
66
instances is designed to rule out any generalization. In science sweeping generalizations
may prove to be dangerous.
Popper’s vision of the scientist is of one who uses his imagination freely and creatively in
order to produce bold and far ranging theories. There are no attachments or conditions in
making scientific theories except that boldness is necessary. According to Popper we
cannot positively prove or confirm a scientific theory, we can sometimes speak of a
theory as being well corroborated. A theory is well corroborated if is highly testable and
if it survives serve testing.
Reductionism states that all fields of study are ultimately amenable to scientific
explanation. The source of scientific principles is as Wittgenstein said a craving for
generality. In generalizing about things we reduce differences. It is by this means that
science is able to produce theories of wide scope and application and so to extend our
power over the world.
Central positions about Epistemology
There are two positions which are being harboured by two different groups of
epistemologists: One group is called essentialists and the other group – instrumentalists.
Essentialism: In essentialism a teacher is at the centre of learning. This demands that a
teacher be a professional. This is to say that a teacher should be well versed in all matters
concerning learning and teaching. In this school of thought knowledge does not show
signs of being individualistic. No teacher can individualize knowledge for it is universal.
Instrumentalism: In opposition to essentialism, instrumentalism puts the student at the
centre of learning. For instrumentalists knowledge is neither absolute nor universal. Each
student is taken as an entity signifying the differences that exist between different
students. Students should be given the strategies on how to deal with the day to day
problems.
67
ACTIVITY

?
Discuss with other teachers their central position about
epistemology
Other important applications can be found in epistemology, which might help one to
regulate one's notions of what knowledge, evidence, and justified belief are. In general,
philosophy of education can provide stakeholders in education with a deeper
understanding of the theoretical or conceptual underpinnings of issues dealing with
education.
SUMMARY
In this lecture we have studied among other things the
epistemological sources of knowledge. We have dealt with idealism,
rationalism, empiricism, intuition, authority and scientific method.
This means that one acquires knowledge through these sources. Some
questions such as: is knowledge possible? How do we know what we
know? How do we take what is "known" to extrapolate what is
"unknown"? have been dealt with.
EXERCISE
Attempt at least THREE of the following Questions

Empiricism takes sense organs as the basis of knowledge.
Discuss
68

Discuss the central position about epistemology

The core issue of epistemology is the truth. Elaborate.

Rationalism opposes idealism. Elaborate.

The scientific method stresses that in order for knowledge to
be accepted it should go through seven steps. Which are those
steps? Choose one step for a brief discussion.
Suggestions for Further Reading
Callahan, J. F. & Clark, L. H. (1977), Foundations of Education.
USA: Macmillan, P. H. Inc.
Peterson, M. C. (1986) Philosophy of Education, USA: Intervarsity
Press.
Njoroge, R. J. & Bennaars, C. A. (1986) Philosophy of Education in
Africa: Nairobi, Transafrica Press.
Curren, R. (Ed.) (2003) A Companion to the Philosophy of Education,
Blackwell,
Blackwell Publishing.
69
LECTURE 7
SELECTED PHILOSOPHIES OF EDUCATION
INTRODUCTION
Lecture seven deals with some philosophical foundations of Education. In this lecture
idealism, naturalism, pragmatism and existentialism will be discussed. This is called an
interpretative perspective for it uses concepts and theories to assist learners in examining,
understanding and explaining education within different contexts. The purpose of this
lecture is to bring different resources to bear in developing interpretative, normative and
critical perspectives on education both inside and outside the schools.
OBJECTIVE
By the end of this lecture you should be able to
1. define idealism, naturalism, pragmatism, existentialism
2. Identify
and explain the differences between idealism,
naturalism, pragmatism, existentialism
3. Identify
and explain the similarities between idealism,
naturalism, pragmatism, existentialism
PHILOSOPHIES OF EDUCATION
Idealism: Idealism is a philosophy which contends that the entire universe exists but in
the mind. In ethos (Greek word for ethics) idealism takes a conservative view in that
ethical value are never changing, are absolute. Since the human mind is rational therefore
it goes without saying that through the mind values are reached. Idealism upholds that a
teacher must always be exemplary in front of his/her students. This is to say that (s) he
must be a mirror. A teacher must do away with inordinate attachments such as
alcoholism, prostitution, corruption and the like. A teacher should show intellectual
superiority to his/her students and to those around the school. In front of the students a
70
teacher must be taken as a hero or heroine. Pedagogically, idealism stresses the
importance of the classroom activities, the library and field work.
Classroom activities: The pedagogy of idealism believes that in order for a lesson to be
well accepted, the teacher should engage oneself in lecturing and the students should
participate in class discussion. In idealism intellectual subjects such as History, Religious
studies, Literature, Mathematics, Art and Philosophy are highly emphasized. For idealism
the world is not accidental for it is purposeful. Self-mastery (Greek: enkrateia) is
important in idealism for it fosters strong will.
The Library: In the pedagogy of idealism we are told that the teacher is supposed to make
a thorough survey about the contents that are in the library in order to know exactly the
volumes that are contained in it. This will facilitate reference making to the students.
Reading and research work are also part of idealism.
Field work: The pedagogy of idealism upholds that without field work then education
cannot be fully acquired. Therefore field trips are necessary in order to impart impartial
knowledge to the students.
Generally speaking the pedagogy of idealism stipulates that knowledge should be
developed in the intellects of the students by cultivating three things: instruction, recall
and reason. However, Idealistic pedagogy is being criticized for being too bookish,
classroom and library centred with the teacher being the controller of the class.
Naturalism
For thinkers like Descartes and Spinoza the realm of nature was the unitary whole aspect
of God. Like St. Thomas Aquinas they coin the existence of the material things with the
work of God. However, naturalism places nature at the helm of everything. Naturalists
contend that everything is composed of natural entities. Nature is the only thing which is
real. For naturalism non-material things do not exist. Naturalism denies the existence of
God. There is no life after death in naturalism and that all things revolve around nature.
71
Naturalism and education
Naturalism views that knowledge comes only through the five senses. The sense of sight,
feeling, smelling, hearing and tasting are what matters in educational issues. Naturalism
favours scientific knowledge. Natural sciences are superior to all other types of
knowledge because they are based on empirical testing. Dogma has no place in
naturalism.

Emphasis or verification and / or falsification

Sensory observation founds all genuine knowledge. Traditionally
positivism has often been associated with attacks on religion and
metaphysics.

Talk of causation amounts to no more than talk of constant conjunctions
between types of event.

Hostility to causes. It is a suspicion of the role and even of the possibility
of deep explanation in science.

No to unobservable or theoretical entities.

No to metaphysics.
In ethical matters naturalism believes in:

The truth

Respect for rules and others

Courage

Perseverance

Volition (strong will)

The sense of justice and fairness
Pedagogy of naturalism: Teaching should aim at producing persons who are adjusted to
the realities of the material world. Economics, sociology and psychology should only be
tolerated and not valued as such.
72
Pragmatism
Pragmatism takes its origin from America. The name was coined by Charles Sanders
Pierce (1839-1914) who was convinced that the central role of philosophy should be to
clarify thought and was later developed by William James (1842-1910) who was later
followed up by John Dewey (1859-1952) who believed that thinking should be regarded
as an instrument fort solving problems. Pragmatism comes from a Greek work pragma
which means a thing done or a business. This theory upholds thinking about solving
problems in a practical and sensible way rather than by having parochial tendencies.
Pragmatism puts emphasis on the relation between theory and praxis. Therefore, it is
based on ortho-praxis. In pragmatism knowledge is instrumental. Pragmatism believes
that:

The universe should be explained scientifically and practically

The truth cannot be static or stagnant

The truth can only be realized in an idea

Theological and religious doctrines are irrelevant simply because they are not
practical

Morality can only be judged in terms of the practical world

Morality and ethics are neither eternal nor absolute

Good should be looked at in terms of consequences

Ethics is pluralistic, developmental and experimental
Pragmatism and educational issues

Students should be taught that truth is not eternal or absolute

Approach educational issues as social phenomena

A teacher should not impose himself/herself to students

Train students to cope with the complex and changing world

Pedagogy of pragmatism

The curriculum is science based

Pragmatism recommends child-centred educational approach
73

Values including the truth should have a cash value i. e they should only valued
when they are empirically verified. According to pragmatism what works today
should be accepted and if it tumbles tomorrow it should be avoided. This is
similar to what is called ethica situationis (situation ethics).
Existentialism
Existentialism was founded by a Danish philosopher by the name of Soren Kierkeegard
(1813-1855). Existentialism focuses on the uniqueness of each human being as a
distinguished from abstract universal human qualities. Existentialism believes that
existence comes before essence. Another concept of existentialism is that the universe
has no purpose. Metaphysics and theological doctrines have no place in existentialism.
Moreover, in existentialism:

Life is absurd

There are no deterministic tendencies in existentialism

There is no such thing as absolute truth which is determined by the supernatural
powers.
Existentialism and education
Basic principles of Existentialism:

A teacher is supposed to serve individual students

A teacher must understand each individual students

Teach self awareness to students

Each individual has to make choices in moral issues
Curriculum of Existentialism
For existentialism the end justifies the means (what matters is the end result and not the
means)
Existentialism favours the humanity-based subjects (the social science subjects).
74
THEORIES OF KNOWLEDGE
In the epistemology one could say that there cannot be any truth without showing theories
which truly verify the presence of true knowledge. Theories of knowledge are indicators
towards the truth in knowledge. The following are some of the theories of knowledge.
The theory of correspondence: The word correspondence comes from the word to
correspond. To correspond means to be the same as. The theory of correspondence tells
us that knowledge becomes true when the reality which one is trying to perceive
corresponds with the idea which is already present in one’s mind.
The theory of coherence: This theory tells us that an idea to be true must be coherent with
a body of ideas which supports it. For instance if one says:
All women are mortal, Rose is a woman, Therefore, Rose is mortal then we enter into the
realm of the theory of coherence for the conclusion is being supported by the two
premises one being major and the other minor respectively. This theory is the other name
for coheretism. Coheretism is based on a regress argument (Look back….) Coheretism
offers another approach that statements can be justified by their being part of a coherent
system.
Pragmatism: Pragmatism is another contemporary theory of knowledge. It stipulates that
the truth of every reality is based on its consequences.
Optimism: Optimism contends that truth is probable. What is true today may be false
tomorrow and vice versa. Truth should not be taken for granted. The sun may rise today
and never rise again tomorrow.
Pessimism: Pessimists contend that truth is associated with evil. This is due to the fact
that for them every human being is inherently evil. Every one feels jealous against the
success of another person. Human beings are necessarily full of id and self-centredness.
75
ACTIVITY
Visit an internet café and/or a library and search for more information
?
about theories of
knowledge.
DETERMINISM AND FREE WILL
Free will
The question of free will is whether, and in what sense, rational agents exercise control
over their actions and decisions. Addressing this question requires understanding the
relationship between freedom and cause, and determining whether the laws of nature are
causally deterministic. The various philosophical positions taken differ on whether all
events are determined or not — determinism versus indeterminism — and also on
whether freedom can coexist with determinism or not.
The principle of free will has religious, ethical, and scientific implications. For example,
in the religious realm, free will may imply that an omnipotent divinity does not assert its
power over individual will and choices. In ethics, it may imply that individuals can be
held morally accountable for their actions. In the scientific realm, it may imply that the
actions of the body, including the brain and the mind, are not wholly determined by
physical causality. The question of free will has been a central issue since the beginning
of philosophical thought.
The basic philosophical positions on the problem of free will can be divided in
accordance with the answers they provide to two questions:
1. Is determinism true? and
2. Does free will exist?
76
Determinism is roughly defined as the view that all current and future events are causally
necessitated by past events combined with the laws of nature.
Determinism
Determinism is a broad term with a variety of meanings. Corresponding to each of these
different meanings, there arises a different problem of free will. Theological determinism
is the thesis that there is a God who determines all that humans will do, either by
knowing their actions in advance, via some form of omniscience or by decreeing their
actions in advance. Determinists contend that there is only one possible history of the
world. The problem of free will, in this context, is the problem of how our actions can be
free, if there is a being who has determined them for us ahead of time.
SUMMARY
In this lecture we have dealt with the making of idealism, naturalism,
pragmatism and existentialism.
EXERCISE
Attempt at least THREE of the following questions

In idealism, a teacher has to be exemplary. How and Why?

Pragmatists contend that the truth cannot be static. Discuss.

Discuss the main tenets of idealism.

Elaborate the curriculum of existentialism

Naturalism contends that knowledge comes only through the
five senses. Do you agree? If yes why? If no why?

Why does naturalism place nature at the helm of (above)
77
everything?

Pragmatism recommends child-centred educational approach.
Discuss.
Suggestions for Further Reading
.Fischer, John Martin (1989) God, Foreknowledge and Freedom.
Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Hobbes, T. (1651) Leviathan (1968 edition). London:Penguin Books
Hume, D. (1740) A Treatise of Human Nature (1967 edition). Oxford
University Press, Oxford.
Kane, R. The Oxford Handbook to Free Will. Oxford University
Press.
van Invagen, P. (1983) An Essay on Free Will. Clarendon: Clarendon
Press.
Kane, R. (1996) The Significance of Free Will, Oxford:Oxford
University Press.
Campbell, C.A. (1957) On Selfhood and Godhood, London: George
Allen and Unwin.
Bok, H. (1998) Freedom and Responsibility, Princeton:Princeton
University Press.
Hume, D. (1765) An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding,
78
Indianaplolis: Hacket Publishing Co. Second Edition. 1993.
Sartre, J.P. (1943) Being and Nothingness, reprint 1993. New
York:Washington Square Press.
Williams, Clifford (1980). Free Will and Determinism: A Dialogue.
Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Co.
Callahan, J. F. & Clark, L. H. (1977), Foundations of Education.
USA: Macmillan, P. H. Inc.
Peterson, M. C. (1986) Philosophy of Education, USA: Intervarsity
Press.
Njoroge, R. J. & Bennaars, C. A. (1986) Philosophy of Education in
Africa: Nairobi, Transafrica Press.
Curren, R. (Ed) (2003) A Companion to the Philosophy of Education,
Blackwell, Blackwell Publishing.
79
LECTURE 8
ETHICAL THEORIES
INTRODUCTION
Lecture eight dwells on the normative perspectives to assist students in examining and
explaining education in the light of value orientations. Foundational studies promote
understanding of normative and ethical behavior in educational development and
recognition of the inevitable presence of normative influences in educational thought and
practice. Foundational studies probe the nature of assumptions about education and
schooling. They examine the relation of policy analysis to values and the extent to which
educational policymaking reflects values.
OBJECTIVE
By the end of this lecture the learner will be in a position to name and describe all ethical
theories. Moreover, the learner will be able to differentiate classical ethical theories from
modern ethical theories.
THE CONCEPT MORALITY/ETHICS
In human terms the word morality has many implications and nuances. Sometimes the
word morality is taken as a synonym of ethics. In the Encyclopedia Britannica morality is
taken as something which deals with good and evil and it is derived from behaviour.
Morality is a standard of human behaviour determined either subjectively or objectively
and based on what is considered ethically right or wrong. In short, one can conclude that
in any given society/community or environment, morality is that quality which is
attributed to human action by reason of its conformity or lack of conformity to standards,
norms, laws or rules according to which it should be regulated. Ethical theories can be
classified into two groups: Classical and Modern theories.
80
CLASSICAL AND MODERN ETHICAL THEORIES
Classical Theories
Classical ethical theories go back to period of the Ancient Greek philosophers. We have
the Platonic theory, the theory of mean, the hedonistic theory and the theory of utility.
The Platonic Theory
This theory is named after Plato. Plato believed that the intellectual life is the only good
life. Here Plato construed that the good can only come from the intellectual life. Good
and evil can only be distinguished if one has knowledge. Ignorance is the other of evil.
The main task of the teacher is to make his/her students cultivate their intellectual
capacities. Without training no one can discover the good things. Goodness is above the
human understanding.
The Theory of Mean
Unlike Plato, Aristotle believed that goodness can be set by man/woman. What
men/women called goodness was what brought happiness into their lives. Men/women
sought happiness through marriage, good life, beverages, intellectual activities, good
friends and work. However, he came to realize that the same things which brought
happiness were the same things that brought unhappiness. Marriage could lead to divorce,
beverages could lead to hangovers and other related diseases, friends may become traitors
and the like.
Aristotle came up with the theory of mean or sometimes called the Golden Mean in order
to sensitize people to live in moderation. One should drink moderately, eat moderately
and avoid bad company. The teacher should train students on the art of self-control and
self-discipline.
The Hedonistic Theory
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Epicurus is the founder of the hedonistic theory. Epicurus and the epicureans contend that
pleasure is what matters in life. Each person should seek pleasure. Epicurus has the
famous saying, eat, drink today for tomorrow you die.
Epicurus distinguished dynamic pleasure from passive pleasure. Dynamic pleasure is the
type of pleasure which produces pain such as, fatigue, remorse and depression. Passive
pleasure is the type of pleasure which does not produce pain i.e. the intellectual activities,
discussions and making good friends. Epicurus also distinguished psychological pleasure
from ethical pleasure. The psychological pleasure is that type of pleasure which is
invested in the psyche of man/woman or in his/her emotions. The ethical pleasure is the
pleasure in itself.
Utilitarianism
The word utilitarianism comes from the English word: utility or usefulness. Jeremy
Bentham and John Stuart Mill are the exponents of utilitarianism. Whether the action is
either right or wrong depend on the consequences. The consequence is taken as a
measure which would determine whether the action was right or wrong. The basic
principle of utilitarianism is that the action or the behaviour is right when it produces the
greatest happiness (eudaimonia) to the greatest number of people. If an action satisfies
the minority group then it cannot be right at all. Jeremy Bentham came up with a formula
with which to measure the action or behaviour as right or wrong. In this formula seven
elements are in place:

The intensity of pleasure (degree or depth of pleasure)

Duration (how does this pleasure last: for a long or short time)

Its certainty or uncertainty (real or farce)

Its propinquity or remoteness (is it within reach?)

Its fecundity (does it produce other pleasures?)

Its purity (is it pure?)

Extent (who benefits? The majority or the minority?)
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Modern Ethical Theories
There are at least five modern ethical theories namely: Naturalistic, non-naturalistic,
motivist, teleological and deontological theories.
ACTIVITY
Study carefully the different ethical theories. Separate those which
?
belong to classical ethical theories from modern ethical theories.
Naturalistic Theory
The naturalistic theory contends that when one commits wrong the judgment should not
be made until an expert examines the accused to discover whether one is normal or
abnormal. If it is discovered that the action was committed due to some unavoidable
circumstances then the action cannot be judged to be either right or wrong. A teacher
should only punish the students when he/she has understood the student well.
Non-naturalistic Theory
In this theory an action can only be judged as right or wrong if it is viewed against an
established norm. When an established norm is violated then the action will be viewed as
wrong and when there is no violation of that norm then the action is right.
Motivist Theory.
The motivist theory contends that an action or behaviour should be judged as right or
wrong in view of the motives of the one who is making that action.
Teleological Theory
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The teleological theory contends that as action or behaviour is right or wrong depending
on its consequences. When an action produces pleasure then it is right and when it
produces pain it is wrong.
Deontological Theory
The deontological theory puts the stress on the action or behaviour itself. The judgment
should be based on the action itself and not on either the consequence or the motive A
student who does the right action should be rewarded and the students who has
unbecoming behaviour should be punished.
SUMMARY
In this lecture we have dealt with ethical theories. Classical ethical
theories such as the platonic theory, the theory of mean, the
hedonistic theory and utilitarianism and modern ethical theories such
as
naturalistic,
non-naturalistic,
motivist,
teleological
and
deontological theories.
EXERCISE
Attempt at least THREE of the following questions
1. Aristotle spoke of the Golden mean. How can it be applied in
the teaching profession?
2. Utilitarianism is sometimes called principle of the greatest
happiness. Discuss.
3. What is the importance of the code of conduct in the teaching
profession?
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4. What is the difference between the dynamic pleasure and the
passive pleasure? Under what category of pleasure are
intellectual discussions?
5. What theories would be ideally suited to teaching classical
ethical theories?
6. What theories would be ideally suited to teaching modern
ethical theories? Mention all modern ethical theories and
explain what they stand for.
Suggestions for Further Reading
Columbia Encyclopedia. Sixth Edition Copyright © 2003, Columbia
University Press. Li
The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. (1994), Oxford, Oxford
University Press
Callahan, J. F. & Clark, L. H. (1977), Foundations of Education.
USA: Macmillan, P. H. Inc.
Peterson, M. C. (1986) Philosophy of Education, USA: Intervarsity
Press.
Njoroge, R. J. & Bennaars, C. A. (1986) Philosophy of Education in
Africa: Nairobi, Transafrica Press.
Curren, R. (Ed) (2003) A Companion to the Philosophy of Education,
Blackwell, Blackwell Publishing.
85
LECTURE 9
GREAT AFRICAN EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHERS
INTRODUCTION
Lecture nine discusses the African educational settings. It envisages the way prominent
African educationists such as Julius Nyerere and James Aggrey have come to underscore
African values and aspirations in educational issues. At this juncture we enter into the
normative perspective of educational foundation. The normative perspectives assist
students in examining and explaining education in light of value orientations.
Foundational studies promote understanding of normative and ethical behavior in
educational development and recognition of the inevitable presence of normative
influences in educational thought and practice. Foundational studies probe the nature of
assumptions about education and schooling. They examine the relation of policy analysis
to values and the extent to which educational policymaking reflects values
OBJECTIVE
By the end of this lecture the learner will be able to
1. Identify great African educational philosophers
2.
Know respective educational philosophies of great African
educational philosophers
The modern period in philosophy, beginning in the late nineteenth century to the 1950's,
was marked by a developing schism in philosophy between 'Continental' tradition, which
is mainly Franco-German, and the English and American 'Analytic' tradition. Other
philosophical traditions, such as African, are rarely considered by foreign academia.
However, Africa is proud of having its sons and daughters who are well versed in
philosophy of education. The main protagonists of philosophy of education in Africa are
Dr. Julius Kambarage Nyerere (a Tanzanian) and Dr. James Aggrey (a Ghanaian).
86
ACTIVITY
1. Visit an internet café and/or a library and search for more
?
information about the concept education.
.
In the early epoch of Africa, education was transmitted orally. There was informal
education. People could not read or write. Stories, proverbs, laws and the like were
transmitted by word of mouth. They kept everything in memory. With foreign
intervention that is to say with the coming of Arabs, Islam, Colonialism and Christianity
changed begun to take place. What was African changed its nature or lost its nature
completely. The African way of life was changed and the way of thinking changed too.
That has a great impact on the education systems of the people. And that may be said to
be the beginning of the search for an African identity.
ACTIVITY
Visit an internet café and/or a library and search for more
information about the concept education in Africa. Then
?
narrow it down to the concept education in your own country.
EDUCATIONAL IDEAS OF JULIUS NYERERE
Generally speaking, independent sub-Saharan Africa including Tanzania has inherited
European and American models of education (Mwanahewa, 1997). However, these
models could not suit the needs of the indigenous people. This prompted Mwalimu
Nyerere to introduce Education for Self-reliance (ESR) in order to sensitize people to live
according to their assumptions and expectations. The basis of this idea is Ujamaa (family
87
hood) which is opposed to a philosophy of inevitable conflict between man and man and
this is what pragmatism is all about – it tells us to situate ourselves according to the
environment we live in. Ujamaa maintains that values can only be meaningful when
related to a particular society (Bwatwa et al., 1991, Nyirenda and Ishumi, 2002).
In Tanzania, education has been championed to a great degree. Despite the changes that
have taken place with the shift from one party politics under Ujamaa policy and the
introduction of education for self-reliance (ESR) up to the present whereby Tanzania has
opted for multi-party politics and liberal economy, education is still being regarded as a
pillar of development. People have been encouraged to opt for education.
Since we are talking about development, it is important to understand its essence.
Forojalla (1993) presents development as an alternative to the modernization approach.
For him this approach includes access to essential services such as health, clean water,
communication and the like. For Rogers (1992) development is seen as a process of
empowering people who are educationally marginalized. Gran (1986) defines
development as a combination of different issues such as empowerment, capacity
building, growth and equity.
Rodney (1976) defines development as increased skills and capacity in all levels that can
enable one to regulate both internal and external relationships in order to improve
standards of life. According to Ishumi (1976) development is a movement from the
lower, less satisfying, less peaceful stages of human life to higher, satisfying and
emancipating conditions. For Fagerlind and Saha (1983) development implies the upward
movement of the entire social system. Mgaywa (1996) considers development as the
improvement of quality of life of all people in those people’s living standards.
According to Nyerere (1967) development is a capacity for self-sustaining growth.
Education and development taken together form a unity in that what all adult education
training develops is skills, knowledge and understanding through a whole range of
educational programs such as reading and writing which are designed to have
88
development goals such as improving the agricultural output, raising health care
standards.

Equal access for women to education

Training of middle and higher level personnel for development

Democratization of secondary and higher education

Adaptation of education to the needs of the modern world, particularly in rural areas
(Hinzen, 2000).
During colonialism and in the period just after attaining independence, education was a
luxury in that just a small percentage of the population had access to it. Those few were
meant to help colonialists consolidate their power over the indigenous people. During the
colonial period, the type of education that was provided was what Nyerere used to call
education for underdevelopment (Nyerere, 1967, Rodney, 1981, Achebe, 1960).
Mwanahewa (1997) argued that colonial education encouraged colonial based values that
were foreign to the indigenous people and that degraded the dignity of the black person.
Education being the process of training and developing knowledge, skill, mind and
character seems to be one of the most important things in human life (Webster’s
Dictionary, 1975). According to Aristotle, the question of how one becomes good is
synonymous with the question of education (Lord, 1982). Watkin (2000) says that
education is important for human development and that without education there can be no
prosperity nor will there be a capacity for self-sustaining growth.
It is plausible to say that, without education there can be no life, nor can there be
development for education is essential to every person. From what has been said
above, adult education in Tanzania has always been based on the realization that
development, in any form is of the people especially adults who are engaged daily
in productive activities and who urgently need education as an awareness raiser
and a catalyst for self- development and community development in general.
89
ACTIVITY
Obtain a copy of Commemorations of Mwalimu Julius K. Nyerere of
?
79th and 80th Birth Dates by Mpangala et als. (2004). Study Nyerere’s
ideas on Education for Self-Reliance
Nyerere’s Concept of Education
In Tanzania education proper is always associated with Mwalimu J. K. Nyerere who saw
in adult education the emancipation of Tanzanians from the three major enemies of
development: disease, ignorance and poverty. At independence, most Tanzanians were
still lagging behind in health care services, in educational and economic matters. Adult
education has been taken as an agent of progress, self improvement, value development
and social transformation (Bwatwa et al, 1989). In short education has always been
viewed as a tool towards the actualization of development.
Community Development
It is assumed that adult education is paramount in the development of both the learner
and the community to which the learner belongs. This means that an educated society
results into a holistic development of both the human person and the society in which one
lives. In this context, education is seen as a conditio sine qua non (must) in development,
for lack of education leads to utter underdevelopment and hence abject poverty.
Nyerere’s main educational ideas
Before he embarked on pragmatism he started by embracing existentialism. He believed
that mature children learn faster than younger ones. For Nyerere secondary school
curriculum should reflect societal needs. Communities are the guarantor of school funds.
Here Nyerere seems to propagate for a type of education which is based on self-reliance.
During the colonial time education was theory based. Examinations have to be theory and
community based. The community has to make sure that the type of examination given
90
reflects the needs of a given community. Education was aimed at producing people who
were ready to serve the nation. Nyerere introduced a type of education which was based
on ortho-praxis.
EDUCATIONAL IDEAS OF JAMES AGGREY
Like Julius K. Nyerere, Dr. Aggrey’s ideas on education were to make Africans acquire
the type of education which was to serve their needs and purposes. Seeing that most
Africans are agriculturalists, Dr.Aggrey proposed that the educational curriculum should
emphasize rural health. This was due to the fact that at that time education system did not
reflect on the immediate problems affecting communities. He recognized that the content
of most books on agriculture were irrelevant and not applicable to the situation in which
people were living. For Dr. Aggrey a balance between non-formal education and formal
education was crucial. This was a reaction against the demeaning of informal education
which was practiced by most African societies. For him informal education was as good
as formal education and for this matter both of them have to be valued.
SUMMARY
In this lecture we have dealt with the teachings of great African
educational philosophers. We have seen that these great philosophers
wanted to educate people in view of their needs and aspirations.
EXERCISE
Attempt at least THREE out of the following questions
91

Nyerere was not comfortable with the colonial system of
education. In view of the Nyerere’s ideas on education discuss
the misgivings of colonial system of education.

Nyerere and Aggrey were philosophical in their approaches.
Discuss.

There can be no development without education. Elaborate.

For Nyerere, education and development were put in the same
basket. With vivid examples show the relationship between
education and development.

What do you understand by education for underdevelopment?

James Aggrey wanted to harmonize formal education with
informal education. Why did he think of doing this?

Why do we study the great African educational philosophers?
Suggestions for Further Reading
Mbilinyi, M, Lema, E. & Rajani, R. (2004) Nyerere on
Education/Nyerere Kuhusu Elimu, DSM, Hakielimu Ltd.
Mpangala, G. P. Mwansasu, B. & Maundi, M. O. (Eds) (2004)
Commemorations of Mwalimu Julius K. Nyerere, 79th & 80th
Birth dates, DSM, Mwalimu Nyerere Foundation.
Mwanahewa, S. A (1999) Philosophy of Education, Dept. of Distance
Education, Institute of Adult and Continuing Education,
Makerere University
Njoroge R. J. and Bennaars G. A (1986) Philosophy of Education in
92
Africa, Nairobi: Transafrica Press.
Nyerere, J. K. (1966) Freedom and Unity/Uhuru na Umoja, DSM,
Oxford University Press.
Callahan, J. F. & Clark, L. H. (1977), Foundations of Education.
USA: Macmillan, P. H. Inc.
Peterson, M. C. (1986) Philosophy of Education, USA: Intervarsity
Press.
Njoroge, R. J. & Bennaars, C. A. (1986) Philosophy of Education in
Africa: Nairobi, Transafrica Press.
Curren, R. (Ed) (2003) A Companion to the Philosophy of Education,
Blackwell, Blackwell Publishing
93
SECTION 3
COMPARATIVE EDUCATION
INTRODUCTION
Dear Students, I am now introducing you to the meaning of Comparative Education.
Various education scholars have defined comparative education differently. Comparative
education is a field of study that examines education in one country (or group of
countries) by using data and insights drawn from the practices and situation in another
country, or countries. According to Pestle Warle: comparative education is discipline
which concerns it self with cross national and cross cultural viabilities in domain of
education Michael Saddle approaches comparative education or passive comparative
education as tangible force that moves any system of education to success. He argues that
in the study of comparative education we should address the following.
(i)
In the study foreign systems of education we should not forget that things
outside the school matter even more than things inside the school.
(ii)
He further maintains that each country has specific factors which constitutes
its national life and characters these makes each country unique in its way.
Generally in general terms comparative education is a careful and systematic analysis of
different education systems issues and problems in two or more countries. We do these in
consideration of factors that influence the system of education.
Comparative education therefore deals with fundamental problems and forces that treat
system of education. It is stimulating thinking about problems of education in the long
run it sharpens the educationist to competitively deal with the problems confronting the
education. That why we study other system of education analysis why and how they
develop and where possible borrow what may better our system of the education.
94
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lecture you should be able to
:
(a)
Define the meaning of comparative education:
(b)
Describe the aims and importance of comparative education;
(c)
Mention the relevance of teaching the comparative education
to the teacher’s trainees.
95
LECTURE 10
MEANING AND RATIONALE OF STUDYING
COMPARATIVE EDUCATION
INTRODUCTION
Comparative Education may be viewed as a field of applied studies with the aim of
understanding better one's education system through r exploring other societies education
systems. It specifically looks at the practices of education using history pragmatically and
selectively. The idea is finding various ways of improving education by identifying
issues and trying to find solution to challenges. In this lecture therefore we will explore
the importance of undertaking studies in the field of comparative education.
AIMS AND IMPORTANCE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION
(i)
Comparative education helps us in understanding other system of education. It
focuses specifically on the process in other countries.
It addresses issues like what is it that make education system in other countries
operate. What are the process underneath make that this systems function
efficiency. What are principles and factors that led to this system of education
operate and why. Therefore comparative education seeks to look at totally of the
process of education. Identify why one system is differing from the other or why
one level of education is differ from the other.
(ii)
The area or study promotes interests in any information about particular education
systems. This help us to explain why educational systems are the way they are,
why a system is what it is or even one system is differ from another. This helps us
to the shaping of our own education system.
(iii)
The study facilitates practical reform and planned development of the school
systems. By studying other systems for example, we can get to know the distance
96
from one to another and this one help us in school mapping; we can learn
educational policies that can develop our educational system or even reform our
curriculum for the better like Irrelevant curriculum.
(iv)
The study helps us to promote international understanding and to develop
desirable international attitude among those who study it. It helps us appreciate
problems at home and abroad. After identifying the problems processes of
devising workable solution to avert problems become easier. Therefore the study
is helpful in harmonizing the political, social and economic problems among
Nations.
(v)
The study helps us identify areas of weakness in our education system.
(vi)
Comparative education can develop the capacity to predict the outcome of
educational policies e.g through comparative education, educationists have for a
longtime warned nations that having less relevant curricular in Universities we
may end up with unemployed graduates.
?
Now take some time to think or discuss the following
question.
1. What is the relevance of comparative education to the
teacher’s trainee of Tanzania?
THE RELEVANCE OF STUDYING COMPARATIVE EDUCATION TO THE
TEACHER TRAINEES
The relevance or importance of teaching comparative education to the teachers’ trainee is
to expose them to the international standard of education system of other countries so that
97
they understand their challenges better hence in better position to meet challenges in
their system. The need of studying comparative education is:
1. To provides an appreciation of international standard and a desire to enter in
partnership. There fore the role of comparative education in the training of
teachers is that of providing an international perspective the teachers’ tasks in
helping to shape the live of students and to cultivate readiness to adoption as well
as to facilitate the movements of ideas a cross cultural boundaries. In short
comparative education helps in the making sense what taking place in
contemporary world.
2. The teacher should be up to date and current with the topics that are being
handled in the area of comparative education. This one will aid the teacher to
develop a comparative analysis of what is taking place in education in his
environment and elsewhere.
3. The study helps the teacher to clarify ideas regarding education theories and
practice by comparing their own ideas with those held by others. That is
perspective teachers are provided with an opportunity to compare their own
education system with other cultures and in the process they begin to question the
basis of significant differences and similarities if any.
4. The teacher who examines other teacher’s views regarding education is assisted to
appreciate his own system as well as perceive the need for constant change in
education system. In short we can say comparative education helps the teacher to
become flexible in as far as education concern.
5. Students and teachers of comparative education get to know other system and in
the process they tend to understand better and make recommendation that may
better our education system. Because of these factors most developed and
98
developing societies have made the study compulsory in the training of teacher at
all levels.
SUMMARY
Comparative education is a field of study that examines education in one
country (or group of countries) by using data and insights drawn from the
practices and situation in another country, or countries. It is a science of
education which gives reforms and the planner predictive and directive powers
to the curriculum developers. Comparative Education can be viewed as a field
of applied studies where the aim is geared at improving education so as with
substantial issues and tries to find the solution. It is explicitly looks at the
practice of education using history pragmatically and selectively. The
importance of teaching comparative education to the teachers’ trainee is to
expose them to the international standard of education system of other
countries and in a good position of reforming their system and view the
principles and practice of education process in the contact of social system
EXERCISE
1. What is comparative education?
2. Mention the aims and importance of comparative education?
3. Mention the relevance of studying comparative education to the teacher’s
trainee?
99
LECTURE 11
FACTORS INFLUENCING EDUCATION SYSTEM
INTRODUCTION
In the last lecture, we mentioned the meaning and the aims of teaching the comparative
education to the teacher’s trainee. In this lecturer let us proceed and look into various
factors influencing the system of education of any nation.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lecture you should be able to:
(a)
describe the factors influence education system;
(b)
mention the influence of natural factors to the education system;
(c)
describe the influence of religion to the education system;
(d)
describe how political and secular influence the education system;
THE INFLUENCE OF NATURAL FACTORS EDUCATION SYSTEM
Education systems are interplay national education system therefore are a reflection of
the philosophy of the nation that is it reveled to us how a particular community develop
in life. One of the comparative educationists in the name of Nicholas Hans has divided
factors which influence education system into three categories. Natural, Religions and
Political or Secular factors.
100
(a)
The Racial factor:
Every society has groups of people who feel different from other groups. Each group has
values or norms (culture) which are different from others. So Subsequently because of
these differences we get an element of competition. This is what we may call inter group
competition that is each group strives to make life’s more rewarding to its members. Such
competitions may result into prejudices discrimination and later on may culminates into
conflicts. If these competitions are relied in very much they may undermine the warfare
of the society as whole. In many counties there many problem of inter group conflict
which takes values forms an nature, for example during the days of racial discrimination
in South Africa the organization and administration of education was based on skin
colour, whiles in one hand were entlted to free and compulsory education from the age of
seven to fifteen years. On the other hand blacks were subjected to an inferior system of
education which where neither free nor compulsory. As regard national resources
allocated to the education sector the whites who constituted less than 30% of total
population enjoyed 80% of the resource and blacks on the other hand who constituted
over 65% had the less 20% share. The other percentage was remaining for coloured (4%).
(b)
Language and Education
The influence of language is closely connected with educational problems and it presents
the main focus on educational reforms and plan to many countries. Mother tongues try to
hold back the rate at which national unity is achieved. This tries to prevent national
integration the linguistic problem. There fore in the educational system should be handled
carefully. For example in the former Soviet Union the linguistic problem was the custer
one, the Russians who constituted half of the state population wanted their language to
domain and the other small and scattered groups of people were not comfortable will
Russian language. What stated as a prejudice culminated in open confrontation and the
disintegration of Soviet Union became inevitable .This the resulted the collapse of former
Soviet Union due the Linguistic problem and other problems. There is therefore a great
101
danger of imposing foreign language as medium of communication Instruction in schools
because this foreign language tends to suppress indigenous language.
(c)
Geographical and Economic Factors
These two factors greatly Influence an education system. The economy nation or society
for example determines the content and method of instruction. The geography on the
other hand determines the type of curriculum, structure of school building, the equipment
(teaching aids), location of schools and the age of entry to school. In developed world
educational planners plan their system of education considering their economic and local
conditions of their society for example in an area where pastoralist flourishes the
curriculum will be design to cater for pastoralist, where the economy favours mining or
fishing the curriculum will be equal design to cater for those. Therefore in the curriculum
in Africa to be relevant there is a need to design along the economic and local conditions
of the people.
Denmark for example is a land shadow soils and it mainly made up of highlands. The
climate is rather harsh that is too cold in the winters, these has prompted children not to
go to school until the age of seven years. Denmark therefore has not infant departments in
their school system. As a country they have no minerals and their wealth depend in expert
of dairy product. Therefore emphasis is put on dairy farming and curriculum is emphasis
along those lines. Little attention is given to mining because not an economic activities.
The influence of climate on location of school building is also vital. Areas which are
prone to earth quakes are avoided as we located schools. Even the type of structure is
determined by geographer’s e.g Semi arid areas school building allocated strategically to
tackle the wind; in addition the structures are deliberately well ventilated to allow enough
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air circulating. In highland where the terrain is an even .we tends to avoid locating school
there. In Australia geographical condition compelled them to develop two different
systems of education. That is one system for urban and other system for rural areas.
Urban areas have got well equipped schools and adequate personnel to management.
Therefore most facilities are found in urban areas. On the other hand, school in the rural
areas are very small and facilitates there is inadequate and this due to sparsely population
nature. These two factors jointly influence the system of education and it is high time in
Africa for such issue to be addressed. Therefore, there is no need of universal curriculum,
lets design curriculum basing on our local condition.
?
1. How the natural factors influence the education system?
THE INFLUENCE OF RELIGIONS FACTORS TO THE EDUCATION
SYSTEM
This spiritual factor guides educator in his activities the most cases some schools are
found on the strength of certain religions and values of this religions are reflected in
curriculum. There are five major religions in the world and each has influence education
system. The most of the schools have established traditions in the line of founding
religion. Religion therefore in many parts of the world has a lot of influence in education
e.x you find two schools located almost on the same campus these schools have failed to
match due to religion factor. Religion diversity has brought a health competition as far as
education concern but undermine national unity. There is tendency to divide people along
religion line which contradict national unity.
Each religion tries to advocate and transmit its own values i.e Islamic Schools. In most
Catholic schools sexes are not mixed but those of Protestant are not in particular nature.
Therefore Catholics associate with non-mixed schools and preserving minerals.
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Protestant encourage both sexes and stride to give them equal opportunities in education.
Religions convection tend to be reflected in the values they transmit to some extent
religion to focus schools because some school tend to focus more in religion rather than
achieving other education goal. Nicholaus Hans write” Among spiritual Influences,
religion is the most power fully because it appears whole man”. This is because religion
penetrates the emotional depth of human nature and in some cases it conditions ones
behaviour.
Therefore if religion is allowed to penetrate in the whole nation it may do disservices to
education. Finally religions oriented organization has been closely associated with
education in school. This one is good but once they dominate the curriculum then they
may affect other educational course. Lastly this is the most powerfully bat available can
appear human nature. It is good because it inculcates morals in the human being but bad
in sense undermines national unity.
?
1. How the religion can influence the education system?
POLITICAL AND SECULAR FACTOR
Political or Secular factor guide the educator in his activities and training could based on
this consideration. Education can not be divorced in political activities e.g France is a
country where values and competition are encouraged and little attention is given to
sports. On the other hand the Americans emphasis on democracy and developing ones
talent as far as possible, because of this reasons the curriculum in USA is design in such
manner to cuter for ones ability and interest. Thus why the curriculum as too many as 250
subjects, the focus is an developing the individual specifically we are talking about
ideology and this one differs from place to place e.g Capitalism advocates for the
exploitation of resources at all cost i.e it is man society. In communist in Socialist state
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the story is different i.e exploitation of resources is communal and the interests of the
individual do not over right interest of the society. In Tanzania the introduction of civic
(Uraia) primary education is an attempt to use education for political purposes. Their
intention therefore is to achieve patriotism aims through education.
The above therefore three main factors (natural religions secular) which can influence
any system of education. It can influence its organization, learning, policies as well as its
development.
?
1. How the political and secular influencing the education system?
SUMMARY
Education systems are interplay national education system therefore are
a reflection of the philosophy of the nation that is it reveled how a
particular community develop in life. Factors which influence education
system can be describe into three categories, Natural factors, Religions
and Political or Secular factors
EXCERCISE
1. To what extent natural factors influence education system?
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LECTURE 12
EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN DEVELOPED AND DEVELOPING
WORLD
INTRODUCTION
In this lecture we shall discuss the different education systems using examples from
developed countries such as USA and from the developing countries such as Tanzania.
We will also attempt a comparative analysis of the education systems of these countries
OBJECTIVES
At the end of lecture you should be able to:
1. Identify education systems of USA
2. Describe the education system of USA
3. Describe the evolution of education systems of Tanzania
4. Identify the broad aims and education program of Tanzania
5. Discuss the education programs of Tanzania
6. Compare and contrast the between education system of
USA and Tanzania
EDUCATION SYSTEM IN THE USA
USA is the country of recent origin or creation, this is because unlike other countries
which can trace back their history of more than a thousand years (England, France and
Russia). America in the contrary is still in the making her past history is so short
compared to other countries in the West. In habitants of USA moved from different
countries like France, Germany, Denmark, Norway and U.K and settled there. Therefore
the present US is mainly compose of immigrants from different continents e.g Blacks,
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Dutch, British, Jews etc. because of the nature of this historical setting the education
system of the USA is decentralized.
These people left their countries because of their religions and political presentation as
well as economic hardship. They had harsh background characterized by hardship and
uncertainty and this two factors prompted to immigrate. This suffering united them
although they maintain their diversity. They started thinking about developing an
American cultured. The structure of education system is based on federal demand of each
state. Each state has a unique system of education reflecting the economy the geography
as well as the group of people settled there the system of education in the US is based on
three major principles, namely Democracy, Autonomy and Self-Reliant principle
GOAL OF EDUCATION IN USA
The aims of education in USA basically target to obtain the following: Pragmatism,
flexibility and democracy in addition the needs of community are seriously considered in
curriculum design.
OBJECTIVE OF THE SYSTEM
The cardinal objective of USA is to prepare children for all aspects of life. The principle
is to educate people with fundamental skills that can help them participate fully in
developing their communities.
1.
DEMOCRACY PRINCIPLE
The system is democratic in characters, this was deliberately effort. To create the
system that will cherish democracy and ensure that people who got through the
system valued the democracy right from the beginning.
2.
AUTONOMY PRINCIPLE
The system of education aims at producing in dependent thinkers. People who can
differ in thinking but still agree to disagree.
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3.
SELF-RELIANT PRINCIPLE
The system of education aims at creating people who are self reliant i.e Job
creators but not job seekers.
Therefore in curriculum is designed in such manner the three principles are aestivated in
what ever done in school. The curriculum is flexible to cater for people of different back
ground. Different academic abilities as well as different heavily involved in what goes on
in the schools. This is because learners are taught to think about ways and means of
helping their local communities. Therefore the interests of community are combined in
school curriculum and where the conflict they strike a compromise.
?
1. What are principles of USA education system?
THE STRUCTURE OF SYSTEM OF EDUCATION IN USA
1.
Kindergarten: This is voluntary but most of children are in rolled at the age of
four. It is mainly or socialization and the focus is to teach kid how to relate one
another. At the age of seven the child is sent to elementary school.
2.
Elementary School: The structure again differs from state to state. In some state
pupil joined the elementary school between the ages of four to seven. The
following has are commonest features in elementary school in US.
- The curriculum is child centered that is the child is a centre of attention and what
is taught to him or her depend solely in his and capabilities.
- Promotion is according to age in some state is just automatic.
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- Education is free and compulsory, the child is taught the American way of life
and patriotism right from the begin. The nation anthem must to be sung daily and
the nation flag display on the daily basis.
- Practical education is encouraged and learners are encouraged to love work fight
from the beginning.
- There no examination, assessment is progressive.
3.
High School education system in USA.
As in elementary school promotion is by age in high School. At the age of 17 or
18 years children graduate. Schools are highly comprehensive that is both
vocational and academic subjects are taught.
Foreign languages, scientific subjects, commercial subjects, Arts Subjects, Fine art and
Music. Despite this guide choose some subjects are compulsory. Subject like English,
Mathematics, History and Civics are compulsory subjects. Others subjects include home
economics, hair dressing, management etc.
The aim of having such a curriculum is to adopt a system that will accommodate different
abilities that peoples have. Qualifications are bases on credit and parents are highly
involved in the guidance of their children. There differences in quantity in education
among states. Rich states can afford the wide variety of subjects in their curriculum.
High School education on average take three to six years and this one depend from states
to state because of the variations of the curriculum University education it takes four
years and this is time when students start to specialize a job.
1. Identify the structure of education system in USA.
?
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TEACHER EDUCATION IN USA
Create emphases has been put in teacher education in the USA. Every teacher acquires
educational from the state University. Training is undertaken depending on the need of
the state. Continuous training is encouraged as well as up grading. On the whole teachers
are highly paid and teaching is one of he highly paid professions in USA.
EVALUATION OF EXAMS SYSTEM IN USA
They don’t have any formal examinations, promotion depend on the law put in a
particular place. Emphasis is put on regular on skill acquisitions, sports and performance
in class as well as attendance, after high School students are awarded diplomas and after
getting Diploma one are automatically enters state college without any exams. However
there two bodies gives exams after high school.
-
The college Entrance Exam Board (CEEB)
-
Educational Testing Service (ETS)
The test offered by this board is recognized throughout the USA.
MERITS OF CONTINOUS ASSESMENT SYSTEM
1.
It keeps the students continuously active
2.
It takes into account the problems that may be facing the nation e.g in a crisis
where rising school fees is a problem automatic promotion will help to reduce
the drop out rate.
3.
All skills in this system are catered for, therefore students have wide range
from where to choose which helps than to have vision of what they want to
become.
4.
This system takes into account ability and interest of the student. So the
student ends up offering. Subject depending on ability and interest. This
flexibility helps them to pick more interest in a system of education.
PLOBLEM OF THIS SYSTEM
(a)
This system does not
have coverage enough competition and this led to same
student passing the all exercise are unserious.
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(b)
There is possibility of subject bias that is shy way from subject which can be
proved profitable to them.
(c)
If the learners are not well guided they mightily shy way from subject which can
be proved profitable to them.
(d)
The absence of central examination system can promises their standardize
standards can not be the same throughout the country.
(e)
It is mostly likely the Diploma awarded does not meet the national standards and
this can be easily disregarded by international community.
1. What are problems of continuous assessment system in USA
?
EDUCATION SYSTEM IN TANZANIA
The education system that we have now in Tanzania has evolved over time. You will
note that sometimes changes were implemented and various factors have influenced these
changes or reforms.
EVOLUTION OF EDUCATION
The system in Tanzania began as highly centralized that is education was controlled from
the centre. This was due to historical factor like colonialism and missionary adventure in
Africa. The centralized system favoured the colonial system because order will come
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from London to be implemented in colony. The system was based on education a few
people who allemately would be separated from their community
Therefore the need communities were never considered. So we end up serving the need
of colonial masters but not our need. The system was and it still academic oriented that is
practical subjects are not emphases. There is therefore need to emphases both academic
and practical oriented subjects.
The problem with and academic oriented system of academic is that it turns elites who
must struggle to secure employment simply because they have no practical skills.
Therefore education in Tanzania like most developing countries ended up with irrelevant
curriculum. Graduating people with a mentality of embarking of while ‘collar’ jobs and
looking down open work.
AIMS OF EDUCATION
Every country has its national goal and principle as far as education concern. Such goals
and principles are reflected in curriculum. And they differ from country to country
depending open the political system adopted by a country.
BROAD AIMS IN TANZANIA EDUCATION
1.
To promote the understanding and appreciation of the value of national unity,
patriotism and cultural heritage
2.
Inculcate moral, ethical and spiritual values in the individual and to develop self
discipline, integrity tolerance and respect and respect of publicity property.
3.
To inculcate the sense of service and love for work as well as public
Counter ability
4. To promote scientific, technical and cultural knowledge skills and
attitudes needed for development.
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1. Mention four aims of education in Tanzania
?
EDUCATION SYSTEM
The Tanzanian educational system is based on the 7-4-2-3 system: 7 years of primary
school, followed by four years of secondary school leading to Ordinary Level (0-level)
exams in nine subjects, followed by two more years leading to the Advanced Level (Alevel) exams in nine subjects, including General Studies. In the second year of secondary
school, there is a national assessment examination which allows those who pass to
continue to study for an additional two years. After those two years, students take the
Certificate of Secondary Education Exam (CSEE), held in November; the results come
out in March of the following year. Two years later, A-level exams are given. The
students is required to have three pass credit of CSEE as qualification to sit for Advance
Certificate of Secondary Education Exams (ACSEE) After the final year of secondary
school - the thirteenth year - students can take the Advanced Certificate examination,
which is recognized all over the world. On the average, a student can complete the
Bachelor's degree in three years, although there degree program go such as engineering,
medicine, law etc require more time.
Kiswahili is our official language; it is used as the medium of instruction in primary
schools and is also taught as a subject. English is taught as a subject from Standard Three
onwards and is the medium of instruction in secondary schools and other institutions of
higher learning. All primary school textbooks, except English textbooks, are written in
Kiswahili. English textbooks are used in secondary schools and institutions of higher
learning.
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EDUCATION DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM
The Government of Tanzania is dedicated to the successful accomplishment of the
Primary Education Sector Program (PEDEP)education reforms, as spelled out in the
Primary Education Sector Program “Mpango Maalum wa Elimu ya Msingi- MMEM”
(PEDEP), Secondary Education Program “Mpango Maalumu wa Elimu ya SekondariMMES” (SEDEP) and Higher Education and Technical Education Expansion Program
(HETEP). The purpose of these entire programs is to improve access to and quality of
education in this country. Financing of education in Tanzania, like in many other
developing countries, has always been the most overwhelming problem in our efforts to
develop this important social sector. The Government accepts the fact that it has the
obligation to provide education to its citizens. However the financial resource at its
disposal for fulfilling this obligation has never been adequate to fully satisfy the existing
demand. It is a discrepancy which has manifested itself in compromised accessibility,
equity and quality in education .The challenge is how to ensure that there is sustainable
funding; for the entire education system in the face of budget constraints. It is a challenge
which requires concerted efforts by all the stakeholders, and it calls, therefore, for a
partnership approach in dealing with it.
COMPARISON OF USA EDUCATION SYSTEM AND THAT OF
TANZANIA
Comparative analysis of the two system is Important in order to establish the strength and
weakness of each system and learn some lessons of good practices in each system
We shall focus on the following:
1.
Evaluation of both systems
2.
Aims of education in both countries
3.
Administration and management of education in each system
4.
Structural set-up of the system
5.
Curriculum issues
6.
Financing the of education in each system
7.
Teacher education in each country.
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EVALUATION OF THE SYSTEM - USA
USA is a country of recent origin and the populations there are mainly Refugees from
different parts of the world. These include Blacks, Dutch, British and Red Indians etc.
These people had diverse background and histories from the areas they immigrated from
because of these the evolution of the system of education in the US reflect historical
background of the people. Thus why each states in USA is due to the different groups of
people who settled there. Other considerations include the geography as well the
economy of the state. Generally the system of education is based on the needs of the
Community. USA began as fragmented state and the nation was forged after a war of
Abraham Lincoln naming it USA. Therefore the system of education strongly emphases
on constitution, equality of all men and women, and they absolute democracy and self
sufficient.
SUMMARY
The Tanzanian educational system is based on the 7-4-2-3 system.
Kiswahili is our official language; it is used as the medium of instruction in
primary schools and is also taught as a subject. The Government of
Tanzania is dedicated to the successful accomplishment of the education
reforms. The purpose of reforms
is to improve access to and quality of
education in country.
EXERCISE
1. What are merits of continuous assessment to the education
system of USA?
2. Mention problems of continuous assessment.
3. Comment on education program of Tanzania specifically to
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the Primary Education Sector Program (PEDEP)
4. Comment on comparison of education system of USA and
Tanzan
SUGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING
Gross, N.C, J.B Giancquinta & M. Bernstein, Implementing Organisational
Innovation: A Sociological Analysis of Planned Educational Changes,
New York, Basic Books. 1971
Illich, Ivan D, Deschooling Society, New York, Haper & Row, 1971
Jackson, P.W, Life in Classrooms, New York, Holt, Rinehart and Wiston
Inc, 1968
Ishumi, A.G.M, 30 Years of Learning: Education Development in Eastern
and Southern Africa from Independence, Ottawa, IDRC Books, 1994
Sifuna, D, Development of Education in Africa: The Kenya Experience,
Nairobi, Initiative Publishers,
Nyerere, J.K, Education for Self – Reliance, D’salaam, Government
Printer, 1966
S.D Nyirenda & A.G.M Ishumi(eds), Philosophy of Education: An
Introduction to Concepts, Principles and Practise, D’salaam, D’salaam
University Press
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SECTION 4
SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
INTRODUCTION
Sociology of education is one of the branches of sociology which explain the relationship
between the education and social activity. The sociology of education observes analyses
and explains the importance of education with regards to its social use and social
significance or influence to the society. Sociology of education explains how social
institution and individual experiences affect educational processes and outcomes.
Education has always been seen as a fundamentally optimistic human endeavor
characterized by aspirations for progress and betterment.
In this section we shall discuss the meaning and rationale for studying sociology and
sociology of education. we will explore the relationship between education and society
and identify some of the influence that agents of socialization have on education.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of lecture you should be able to:
1. Describe the meaning of sociology and sociology of education
2. Identify the aims and objectives of sociology of education
3. Discuss the development of sociology of education.
4. Identify the interaction between the society and education
5. Discuss the impact of society to the education and role of teacher in
school.
6.
Identify the agents of socialization and discuss t he impact of
education to the socialization of society.
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LECTURE 13
MEANING AND SCOPE OF SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
Sociology of education is the study of relationship between education and society. It is
the social study and is so far as it has scientific methods. Information is collected through
systematic observation and summarised in logical manner. Sociology of education is
concern with educational aims, methods, Institution, administration and curricular in
relation to the economic, political, religious, social and cultural forces of the society in
which they are function.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of lecture you should be able to:

Describe the meaning of sociology and sociology of education

Identify the aims and objectives of sociology of education

Discuss the development of sociology of education.
ACTIVITY
1. What is sociology of education?
?
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AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF STUDYING SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
1. Develop a deeper understanding why human being prefer living and interacting in
groups
2. To relate peoples behaviours in groups towards educational principles and
practice
3. Analyse different cultures in different communities around the school.
4. Understanding the community around the school and be able to generate positive
changes
5. Understanding the School – Community relations and be able to identify the
needs, the interests and aspiration of the learners so as to design appropriate
learning programs.
6. Assess the importance of education in society.
7. Examine the concept of socialization and the various family patterns of society.
8. Discuss the traditional roles of the family.
9. Asses the role of peers groups and the community in the education of the children.
10. Examine the structural patterns of schools as formal social organization.
11. Analyse the status and roles played by the members of the school system.
HISTORICAL DEVELOPEMNT AND THEORY OF SOCIOLGY OF
EDUCATION
During the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, sociologists and educators were
caught up in the optimism of the Progressive Era. Rejecting the prevailing belief that
human affairs are governed by destiny, they insisted instead that intellect could guide
societal evolution toward the achievement of worthy goals. Among these advocates were
such sociological pioneers as Lester Ward and Albion Small and such prominent
educators as William James and John Dewey.
This was a time during which educators and sociologists worked closely together in an
enterprise known as Educational Sociology. Their goal was the perfection of humanity
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and society. They do belief that the schools could contribute toward that perfection by
developing human intellect and by inspiring students to devote themselves to reforming
society. They argued that all the society ill can be alleviated by education. To them
education was the key to life of the society.
After certain time these schools differed to the approaches and Sociology fell into
disgrace. Educators and sociologists both turned privately toward their own disciplines,
each attempting to develop their own unique body of theory and research.
Educational Sociology became a historical phenomenon. Its passing was marked
officially in 1963 when the Journal of Educational Sociology became the Journal of the
Society of Education and when the American Sociological Association's section on
Educational Sociology became its section on the Sociology of Education.
Today, Sociology of Education closely concerns with equality of educational opportunity,
school desegregation, curriculum content, inter group relations in the school, and
teaching as a career. The sociologist of education on the other hand emphases the
sociological theory and research as relevant method in the search for the solution to
educational problems, and that experience with the operation of educational institutions
can contribute to the development of social research and theory building
SUMMARY
Sociology of education is one of the branches of sociology which
explain the relationship between the education and social activity. The
sociology of education observes analyses and explains the importance
of education with regards to its social use and social significance or
influence to the society. It is the social study and is so far as it has
scientific methods. Information is collected through systematic
observation and summarized in logical manner. Sociology of
education is concern with educational aims, methods, Institution,
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administration and curricular in relation to the economic, political,
religious, social and cultural forces of the society in which they are
function.
EXERCISE
1.
What is the aims and objectives of sociology of education
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LECTURE 14
SOCIETY, EDUCATION AND AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION
After understanding the meaning and scope of sociology of education, explore the
relationship between education and society. You will note that in a society there are
agents of socialization which lead the person to socialize with the society. There is for
example, a series of process child pass through which enable him/her to socialize. These
processes are known as agents of socialization.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of lecture you should be able to:

Identify the interaction between the society and education

Discuss the impact of society to the education and role of teacher in
school.

Identify the agents of socialization and discuss t he impact of
education to the socialization of society.
THE SOCIETY
There is direct and indirect relationship between the society and education. Usually
education introduced in order to meet the demand of the society. In other words it is the
society leads to the introduction of education in society, while on the other hand
education is sharpen the society. With these regards there is mutual relationship between
the society and education.
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The Relationship between Society and Education
Education and society are two things you can not separate them, they are complementary
of each other. The relationship of society and education based mostly on provision of
building the school, growth and maintenance. Usually society support education
development through construction of school. These can be done through society
organization such as village, government and non-government organization. The
development and flourish of school to the great extent depend on the support of society in
all terms. Without society supporting the education/school obviously we tend to expect
the falling down of education. It is from these relationship let see the function of
education to the society.
The importance of education
Here our focus will be based upon on education has an impact to the society. The
education transmits the knowledge from one generation to another, as well as develops
skills and led to the discovery of new technique in production, it improve personality and
socialization of the society. It led to the total transformation and changes in different
aspects such as economic, social and political environment.
The Impact of Society in Education
It known that, the environment where the leaner is coming from the can have the great
impact to the learning process of the child. Society is the first environment where the
child grows and spends most of time compared to school. Environment to the great extent
influence the mental and social knowledge of the child. Child tends to learn, interact and
adopt either from other children, member of the family or society. The child ability,
personality and interaction reflect what child has learned from the environment. That to
say a good environment can mould child to grow better and perform well in learning
process. However, if the child grows from the ill-environments there is possibility to
affect the child personality and ability in learning process. With these respect, the teacher
should be aware about the environments surround child and its impact on child learning.
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The School
School is organization which has got the structure, objectives, regulation and rules. The
structure of the school constitutes the head of school, heads of departments, teachers,
supporting staffs and students. The regulations and rules of the schools based upon the
entry qualification and age limit, the stage of promotion, passing test and examination.
While the broad aim of education is to disseminate knowledge and socialize children to
be responsible to the society.
The Teacher
Teacher is among the components which form the school organization. We have to seen
that, the broad aim of education is to disseminate knowledge and socialize children to be
responsible to the society. If this is the case, the above role is performed by the teacher,
who disseminates knowledge and socializes child to the society. Here we do mean that,
teacher should teach and mould behavior of the child according to norms of the society.
Teaching does by the teacher is means of reaching the objectives of the school. Teacher
should play the role of teaching effectively through well preparation, teaching properly
and evaluate child before the promotion. The performance of teacher reflects the school
to be seen as organization which intends to achieve its goal. However, teacher should be
trained to socialize with the society before can engage in teaching. The role of teacher is
important in school because in one way teacher spends more time with child compared to
their parents or guardians. The society has a trust to teacher for their children. With these
expectation teacher should socialize with society in order to understand the child growing
environment. The socialization with society will brought effect to the growing of
children. Here we do mean that, teacher could be in good position of teaching child better
if the environment of society is clearly. Teacher needs cooperation of the society in
teaching in order to have good performance. If there is no combination of teacher and
society the performance will be affected, ultimately, the society will blame the school.
Due to these reasons, there is a need to have the good combination of school and society
for better performance of the school.
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AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION
As explained in the introduction of this lecture, agents of socialization are the ones
which affect child in training and learning process. The agents of socialization are:
family, school, the peer group, the religion and mass medi
The Family as agent of socialization
Family is the first environment where the child grows. When child grows is surrounded
by the family for the first years of his life and depend them for survival. We can say that,
family is the first stage where by child starts to socialize. Through the family child
acquire the initials education though is not formal, child learn the habit, behaviors,
thinking and perceive of the family. In these ways child learns and behave differently
from one family to another.
School as agent of socialization
School is second stage of child socialization where by the child go out of the family and
start the interaction with the group of people who are not part of his family. School tends
to socialize child indirect and direct. Directly, the school provide child with new
knowledge about reading, writing, expression and cognitive development. Child learns
more about society surround him pertaining to the norms and culture of the society.
These trainings prepare child to be useful member of society. Indirectly, the school gives
child opportunity of interaction with other children and teachers. Here child develop
interaction through learning how to behave with play-mates and other people. He is given
chance to discussion of different ideas, cooperation, grow relation and obey the rules and
regulation of his age mate.
The school as socialization agent has the role to socialize child. Within the school there is
teachers who are adult and knowledgeable. Their task is to socialize the child through
learning and mould their habits, attitude, behavior, interest, expression etc according to
the need of the society. On the other hand school is centre where by children from
different background meet and socializes. The school has the role to these children to be
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molded and educated according to the aspects accepted in the community. The duty of
the school is to intercept, change or reforms all aspects do not accepted by society.
The Peer-Group as agent of socialization
The peer group is group of people who are within the same age group. Peer group is
socialization agent to the child. The growing of child involves the playing and living with
the children of similar age. Child tend to associate with age mate when is he is playing or
interacting. While at the school child meet with his peer group particularly the peer group
within the classroom. In peer group child work together, socialize and playing. Through
the peer group child tend to learn other values such as responsibility, cooperation and
socialization. It is the peer group through playing that when gender equity and
responsibility came out. Child has a tendency to learn from his group since he is spending
more time with them. The school provides the good environment where child can interact
with peer group well through the guidance of teachers. Though peer group socialize
child, it should be noted that child can socialize in bad manner if he interact with bad peer
group. The caution should be taken to observe which type of peer group child interact
with.
Mass media as agent of socialization
Mass media is the communication organs which offer information services such as
television, radio, internet, newspaper and magazine. Mass media is socializing agent
simply because child can learn different habit, attitude, behavior and interact with
different people from different parts of the world. Child observes different living style of
different people and compare with his society. Mass media enable child to bee more
knowledgeable about different issues. However, caution should be taken and observed
mass media simply because child can adopt behavior or attitude which is not accepted in
society. There should be guidance on using mass media to the children to avoid those
watching immoral pictures.
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Religions as an agent of socialization
Religions is agent of socialization where by child is taught about obedience, respect,
interaction and fearing of God. The religions of all sects (Christian and Islam) teach
about morals and belief. Child are taught to interact each other, be kind, humble, God
fearing and patience, It is religion which taught child that, doing immoral behavior such
as theft, prostitution, un respectful of adult and elders is sin before God. Those who do or
go against the will of God will be sent to heathen. Religion reinforce child to be well
grown and behave in good morals and manners so that can suit with society
?
1. What are agents of socialization?
EDUCATION AS A SOCIAL INSTITUTION
Asocial institution is the social structure through which human society organizes, directs
and executive the activities required to satisfy human needs. Social structure sets a
pattern of behaviour, also social structure is social institution if it carries specific
function. A family for example is social institution performing the function of
reproducing and training future generations. Religion as a social institution has a function
of guiding and counseling the members of society. Therefore to understand the activities
and operation of society it requires an inquiry into social institutions
EDUCATION AS A DISCIPLINE
Like other subjects, education is a branch of knowledge basically concerned with
problems of preparing the young one to be useful members of society. It uses other
discipline such as history and psychology in training young ones. The focus of education
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as field of society study is on the child as a member of society. Before children interact
with society, they begin to interact with the members of the family first. When they grow
up, they interact with member society. The children exert some influence to society as
they too influenced.
Education is concern with nurturing of children, since nurtured children line with society
and they play their role in it. So they need to be equipped with certain skills which will
enable them to perform their societal obligation in good manner. They also need to
acquire certain knowledge and develop certain desirable attitude in order to beat peace
with them
SOCIALISATION
It is a process of learning roles and expected behaviour in relate ion to one’s family and
society and developing satisfactory relationship with other people. In this process people
acquire knowledge, skills, attitudes, values, interest and characters, so as to be integrated
into society or become useful member of to society. This process should seen as the
transformation of the raw human material of society into full membership pf the society,
example of raw human material include, the new admitted student, newly born baby etc
SUMMARY
Education and society are two things that you can not separate
beecause, they are complementary of each other. The society alway
have agents of socialization which ensures that a member of society
is directed and moulded to fit and develop in that society. Agents of
socialization are the series of process child pass through which enable
him/her to socialize. These agents of socialization they are the one
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which affect child in training and learning process. The agents of
socialization are: family, school, the peer group, the religion and mass
media
We have noted that in formal educatin the relationship of society and
education are based mostly on provision of buildings, growth and
maintenance of the school.
EXERCISE
1. What is the impact of society in education?
2. . Show the role of teacher in education.
3. To what extent the agents of socialization influence
education for the child?
2. Discuss the role of education in socialization.
Suggestions for Further Reading
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Curle, A, Educational Development for Developing Societies, London,
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Gross, N.C, J.B Giancquinta & M. Bernstein, Implementing Organisational
Innovation: A Sociological Analysis of Planned Educational Changes, New
York, Basic Books. 1971
129
Hughes. M, Kroehler .C.J & Zanden J.W, Sociology- The Core, Boston,
McGraw-Hill, 1999
Jackson, P.W, Life in Classrooms, New York, Holt, Rinehart and Wiston
Inc, 1968
Ishumi, A.G.M, Community Education and Development, Nairobi, Kenya
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Zanden, J.W.V, Sociology, A Systematic Approach, New York, Ronald
Press Co, 1965
Ralph, Linton, The Cultural Background of Personality, London,
Routledge, 1945
130
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138