Foreword
Dear fellow AWU member,
Your union is committed to providing all 130,000 working men and women
who are part of the AWU with the tools they need to improve their skills in
the workplace, which is why we have published this trade manual for both
apprentices and tradespeople; we hope that it is a valuable addition to your
technical library.
The AWU is one of Australia’s most effective unions when it comes to
campaigning and agitating for more apprentices and better training in our
workplaces. This along with our ongoing mission of ensuring that our
members are protected by the strength of the AWU is a core part of our
everyday work.
I hope that you find this trade manual useful and feel free to contact the
AWU on 1300 885 653 or on the web at www.awu.net.au if you have any
queries or concerns.
I look forward to working with you over the coming years as we make sure
that we are STRONGER TOGETHER.
Yours in unity,
Paul Howes
NATIONAL SECRETARY
3
Get In Touch With Your Union - www.awu.net.au
National Office
Level 10, 377-383 Sussex Street
Sydney NSW 2000
Phone: 02 8005 3333
Members Hotline: 1300 885 653
Fax: 02 8005 3300
National Secretary: Paul Howes
Queensland Branch
Phone: 07 3221 8844
Fax: 07 3221 8700
Branch Secretary: Bill Ludwig
Newcastle Branch
Phone: 02 4967 1155
Fax: 02 4960 1349
Branch Secretary: Kevin Maher
Greater NSW Branch
Phone: 02 9897 3644
Fax: 02 9897 1481
Branch Seretary: Russ Collison
Port Kembla Branch
Phone: 02 4229 3611
Fax: 02 4229 8096
Branch Secretary: Andy Gillespie
Victorian Branch
Phone: 03 8327 0888
Fax: 03 8327 0899
Branch Secretary: Cesar Melhem
Tasmanian Branch
Phone: 03 6234 6744
Fax: 03 6234 5712
Branch Secretary: Ian Wakefield
Greater South Australian Branch
Phone: 08 8360 1900
Fax: 08 8360 1960
Branch Secretary: Wayne Hanson
Get In Touch With Your Union - www.awu.net.au
Whyalla Branch
Phone: 08 8645 8800
Fax: 08 8645 5998
Branch Secretary: Graham Hall
West Australian Branch
Phone: 08 9221 1686
Fax: 08 9221 1706
Branch Secretary: Stephen Price
Tobacco Workers’ Branch
Phone: 02 9311 1958
Fax: 02 9311 3139
Branch Secretary: Norm McBride
AWU Trade Manual Edition 1
Disclaimer: The views and/or opinions expressed in this publication are not necessarily
those of the publisher and/or advertiser/s. All editorial material has been sourced and
supplied by the Australian Workers Union, the Publisher accepts no responsibility for
the accuracy of any information contained in any advertising and/or the sourcing of the
editorial content.
AWU Trade Manual
5
AWU Trade Manual
Contents
Chapter
Page Number
Automotive ....................................................................................................... 7
Bearings .......................................................................................................... 19
Computing ...................................................................................................... 27
Data Charts ..................................................................................................... 33
Drawing Symbols ........................................................................................... 41
Drilling ........................................................................................................... 47
Electrical ......................................................................................................... 57
Fluid Power ..................................................................................................... 71
Food Technology ............................................................................................ 91
Grinding .......................................................................................................... 97
Machining....................................................................................................... 103
Management................................................................................................... 117
Materials ....................................................................................................... 125
Measuring ..................................................................................................... 139
Mechanics ..................................................................................................... 143
Occupational Health and Safety ................................................................... 149
Refrigeration ................................................................................................ 155
Sawing .......................................................................................................... 159
Screw Threads .............................................................................................. 163
Welding ......................................................................................................... 171
7
Automotive
9
AUTOMOTIVE ENGINE MANGEMENT SYSTEMS
The function of Engine Management Systems is to primarily control the conditions under which the
most appropriate engine operating conditions exist, amongst which are economy and air pollution.
As a consequence of this, the Engine Management System has connections with the;
fuel system
ignition system
crankshaft angle (piston position)
transmission
engine temperature
air temperature
engine rev/minute
engine noise (detonation knock)
manifold vacuum (MAP sensor)
air flow
exhaust gases
vehicle speed
turbo charger if fitted
Control is achieved by the Electronic Control Unit (also known as the computer) receiving input
signals from sensors and sending messages to actuators. To do this the ECU is programmed to
analyse the signals, perform calculations and make decisions before actuating the actuators which
effect the operation conditions. All this takes place on a continuous basis. As a driver operates the
vehicle, the ECU responds by analysing the demand and setting the optimum engine conditions.
Early model control systems employed a number of small computers integrated into the system. Late
models have tended towards using one ECU to control all functions.
Sensor
Actuator
Actuator
Actuator
E.C.U.
COMPUTER
Sensor
Sensor
As systems have developed in sophistication, the ECU could also monitor or control the:
lubricating oil pressure
valve timing
air-conditioning
radiator fan
turbo waste gate
automatic transmission
turbo intercooler water pump
vehicle load
suspension
braking
Before the ECU can make changes to the operation, it needs to know the existing conditions. The
information supplied by the sensors is essential to the operation.
To start an engine, the sensors would signal the presence of fuel pressure and detect the engine
temperature. The ECU would then set the correct fuel air ratio mixture and the ignition timing
according to the crankshaft position. By controlling the period of time the fuel injectors are open,
(pulse width) response to the throttle position can be achieved. Also noted by the ECU would be if
the air conditioning is on and any other engine loads.
When the engine starts, the ECU senses detonation, air flow, engine rev/minute and activates other
sensors for exhaust gas (oxygen sensor), oil pressure and places the system in readiness for the
driver to operate. To maintain an idle speed under varying engine loads, an air bypass valve around
the throttle is used. The position of this is also controlled by the ECU.
As the driver operates the throttle and engages the transmission, the vehicle begins to move. Under
these conditions the ECU responds to the sensors on the throttle, airflow, exhaust oxygen analyser,
rev/minute, crankshaft position, engine detonation, engine temperature, turbo charger and cam shaft
position.
Vehicle makers have applied the principles in various ways. The sensing of air flow may be made
directly after the air cleaner by a vane and potentiometer or by the electrical resistance of a
temperature controlled hot wire, which tends to cool with an increase in air flow, hence requiring
more current to maintain the temperature. Another method analyses the throttle position and the
manifold vacuum to determine the air flow. (MAP sensor). The sensors used are electric / electronic
and need operating power as well as sensing connections. These connections vary between makers.
Some do’s and don’ts with Engine Management systems are;
1. Before removing any ECU system component, disconnect the battery earth.
2. Never start the engine without the battery being solidly connected.
3. Never separate the battery from the on-board electrical system while the engine is running.
4. When charging the battery, disconnect it from the vehicle’s electrical system.
5. Never subject the F Control Unit to temperatures above 80 degrees C. (176 degrees F.) i.e. paint
oven. Always remove the control unit first, if this temperature is to be exceeded.
6. Ensure that all cable harness plugs are connected solidly and that the battery terminals are
thoroughly clean.
7. Never connect or disconnect the cable harness plug at the ECU Control Unit, when the ignition
is switched on.
8. Before attempting any arc welding on the vehicle, disconnect the battery leads and the ECU
Control Unit connector.
9. When steam cleaning engines, do not direct the steam cleaning nozzle at any ECU component.
If this happens, corrosion of the terminals can take place.
10. Use only test equipment suitable for use with electronic ignition systems, since any other test
equipment may give incorrect results.
11. Many older design timing lights and battery chargers produce transient voltages capable of
destroying semi-conductor devices. Consult manufacturers to ensure that their equipment is
suitable for use with semi-conductor devices.
12. When using a spark gap, a resistor of at least 2k-ohm must be connected between the spark gap
and the coil to avoid damage to the coil module.
13. Do not connect an external power source e.g. ohmmeter, to the Hall generator or distributor.
14. Never use external power sources greater than 16V or quick charge battery chargers to assist
starting the vehicle or damage to the ignition will result.
15. Never connect shielded capacitors or test lamps to the coil terminal or connect the coil terminal
to ground (e.g. installing an anti-theft system).
16. Never connect battery positive (+) to coil negative (-) terminal or the coil module will be
destroyed.
17. A distance of at least 100 mm must be kept between secondary high voltage leads and the lead
from ignition coil terminal 1 to control module, terminal 1.
18. If the ignition is turned on for work on the engine or ignition system, beware of high energy at
the high voltage terminals on the ignition coil, distributor and control module.
AWU Trade Manual
11
GUIDE TO LUBRICATING OIL DEFINITIONS
VISCOSITY – SAE SYSTEM
The viscosity numbering system was devised by the Society of Automotive Engineers and is used to
correlate the “thickness” of an oil (its resistance to flow) with the ability to lubricate moving parts at
different temperatures. The system has been in use for many years and during 1980 was updated to
more accurately describe lubricating oils.
Oil viscosity is measured at both high and low temperatures.
At high temperatures (i.e. 100oC) the viscosity measurement is useful in selecting the correct oil to
lubricate a working motor.
The viscosity measured at low temperature as “W” after the SAE number, eg SAE 15W.
At low temperature, the measurement predicts engine cranking characteristics and oil pumpability.
These tests provide lubricants with easy starting properties and adequate flow during initial start-up.
Multigrade oils, eg 20W-50 are formulated to meet the control limits at low temperatures in the case
of the SAE 20W rating and, at high temperatures for SAE 50. These oils provide better lubrication in
a wide range of climatic conditions than monograde oils.
QUALITY STANDARDS
To indicate the performance level or quality of a lubricant, the American Petroleum Institute (API)
has established the following classifications:
Petrol Crankcase:
SA
SB
SC
SD
SE
SF
SG
SH
SJ
-
Diesel Crankcase:
CA
CB
CC
CD
CE
CF-4
CG-4
-
Straight mineral light duty only
Minimum duty, anti-scuff fortified
Requirements for vehicles up to 1968
Requirements for vehicles up to 1972
Minimum requirements for most vehicles after 1972
Minimum requirements for most vehicles after 1980
Minimum requirements for most vehicles after 1988
Minimum requirements for most vehicles after 1992
supersedes all previous “S” classifications.
These oils have stringent test requirements offering significantly improved
engine sludge control and wear protection.
Light duty only
Early models moderate duty
Late models moderate duty
Severe duty and supercharged
Very severe turbocharged duty
Very severe low emission turbocharged 4-cycle duty
Very severe duty turbocharged engines meeting 1994 US Exhaust Emission
Standards
Gear Oils:
GL1
Unfortified straight mineral oils
GL2
Worm drive anti-wear mineral oils
GL3
Spiral bevel axles and some manual transmissions
GL4
Hypoid moderate high speed EP oil
GL5
Hypoid shock load, high speed and torque EP oil
GL5Plus Same as GL5 plus friction modifier. For use in limited-slip differentials.
GREASE PROPERTIES
NOTE: (1) The values listed are percentages of the limited speeds given in the bearing tables.
Remarks: The grease properties shown here can vary between brands.
AWU Trade Manual
13
GREASE PROPERTIES
SELECTION OF TYRES FOR MOTOR VEHICLES AND TRAILERS
USING PASSENGER CAR TYRES AND DEFINITION OF TERMS
TYRE AND RIM ASSOCIATION STANDARD
TYRE SELECTION RELATING TO LOAD
Passenger tyre selection shall meet each of the following conditions:
Vehicle Normal Load on the tyre
Vehicle Maximum Load on the tyre
Tyre Load Capacity Reduction determined by.
- Maximum Camber Angle at maximum static wheel load
- Vehicle Maximum Speed in excess of 210 km/h
Refer to appropriate tables for Tyre Load Limits and applicable notes for camber angle/maximum
speed tyre load reduction.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
MOTOR VEHICLES mean any of the following categories of vehicle using passenger car tyres.
(a) Passenger Car.
(b) Forward Control Passenger Vehicle.
(c) Off-Road Passenger Vehicle.
(d) Light Omnibus up to 3.5 tonnes GVM up to 12 seats.
(e) light Goods Vehicle
TRAILERS mean any category of trailer using passenger car tyres.
NORMAL LOADED VEHICLE MASS OF A PASSENGER VEHICLE means the sum of:
(i) the ‘Unladen Mass’ together with:
(ii) the heaviest regular production options, if such individual options have a mass of 2.3 kg or
more; plus
(iii) 68 kg for each of 2 front ‘Seat’ occupants; plus
(iv) if the designated ‘Seating Capacity’ is 5 or more, 68 kg for a rear ‘Seat’ passenger
NORMAL LOADED VEHICLE MASS OF A VEHICLE OTHER THAN A PASSENGER
VEHICLE means the sum of:
(i) the ‘Unladen Mass’ together with:
(ii) the heaviest regular production options, if such individual options have a mass of 2.3 kg or
more; plus
(iii) 68 kg for the front ‘Seat’ occupant if only one front seating position is provided; or
(iv) 68 kg for each of 2 front ‘Seat’ occupants if more than one front seating position is provided;
plus:
(v) one third of the difference between this mass and the ‘Maximum Loaded Vehicle Mass of a
Vehicle other than a Passenger Vehicle’ distributed evenly over the loading space area or in the
case of ‘Partially Completed Vehicles’ over the rear ‘Axle’ or ‘Axle Group’.
MAXIMUM LOADED VEHICLE MASS OF A PASSENGER VEHICLE means the sum of:
(i) the ‘Unladen Mass’ together with:
(ii) the heaviest regular production options, if such individual options have a mass of 2.3 kg or
more, with a full capacity of lubricating oil, coolant and fuel; plus
(iii) additional loading equivalent to 68 kg at each seating position; plus
(iv) the number of seating positions times 13.6 kg for luggage in the appropriate luggage space, with
the centre of gravity of the luggage load at the centre of the luggage space.
MAXIMUM LOADED VEHICLE MASS OF A VEHICLE OTHER THAN A PASSENGER
VEHICLE means the Gross Vehicle Mass or Gross Trailer Mass.
VEHICLE NORMAL LOAD ON THE TYRE means that load on an individual tyre that is
determined by distributing to each Axle or Axle Group its share of the weight arising from the
relevant Normal Loaded Vehicle Mass and dividing by the number of tyres on the Axle or Axle
Group.
AWU Trade Manual
15
For a passenger vehicle the load attributable to the occupants may be distributed as in Table 1.
Table 1
VEHICLE MAXIMUM LOAD ON THE TYRE means that load on an individual tyre that is
determined by distributing to each Axle or Axle Group its share of the weight arising from the
relevant Maximum Loaded Vehicle Mass and dividing by the number of tyres on that Axle or Axle
Group as appropriate.
PASSENGER CAR TYRE MARKINGS
Each new tyre shall be conspicuously labelled by permanently moulding on both side walls (on
outside only if assymetric) the tyre size designation, load index or maximum load, tyre construction
symbol, speed symbol, identification of manufacturer and whether tubeless or tubed.
EXPLANATION OF TYRE SIZE DESIGNATION:
1. ISO Service Description Designated Tyres. This is preferred system.
Speed Symbol
Service Condition
Load Index Characteristics
Rim Diameter Code
Construction Symbol R=Radial
D= Diagonal
Nominal Aspect Ration
Dimension and
Nominal Section Width mm constructed characteristics
*When the maximum tyre load is specified by a Load Index it shall appear immediately before a
Speed Symbol which, together, denotes the Service Description .
2. Speed Symbol marking within Tyre Size Designation**
Rim Diameter Code
Construction Symbol R=Radial
D= Diagonal
Speed symbol
Nominal Aspect Ration
Nominal Section Width mm
“When the maximum tyre load is specified kilograms and branded elsewhere on the tyre the Speed
Symbol shall appear immediately before the Construction Symbol.
MAXIMUM COLD INFLATION PRESSURE (kPa)
TYRE AND RIM ASSOCIATION STANDARD
Inflation pressures as indicated in the tables for the various loads are the absolute minimum
recommended service inflation pressures and do not provide for any increment to counter in-service
neglect. Inflation pressures may be increased above those indicated in the tables when recommended
by the tyre and vehicle manufacturer or for high speed operation. Absolute maximum inflation
pressures are shown in the table below and must never be exceeded.
When radial ply passenger car tyres are operated at speeds above 140 km/h the minimum cold
inflation pressure must be increased above that shown in the appropriate load table by 10 kPa for
each 10 km/h speed increase (or part thereof) up to the absolute maxi-mum inflation pressure shown
in the table below.
If a tyre is required to operate at its maximum rated speed but the absolute maximum inflation
pressure limit (310 kPa) precludes this then the tyre load must be reduced in line with the relevant
load table.
PREFIX AND SUFFIX LETTERS USED BY THE TYRE AND RIM
ASSOCIATION IN TYRE SIZE DESIGNATIONS AND THEIR
DEFINITIONS
Prefix and suffix letters are included, when necessary, as part of Tyre Size Designations to
differentiate between tyres designed for service conditions which may require different loads and
inflations and/or tyres designed for and which must be used on different types of rims.
PREFIX LETTERS
LT - Identifies a tyre primarily intended for service on light trucks.
M - Identifies a motorcycle tyre.
P - Identifies a tyre primarily intended for service on passenger cars.
T - Identifies a tyre intended for one-position “temporary use” as a spare only.
SUFFIX LETTERS
IT - Identifies Light Truck tyres for service on Trucks, Buses, Trailers and Multipurpose passenger
vehicles used in normal highway service for a 50 tapered bead seat rim with a specified rim
diameter of nominal minus 0.81 mm or with a 150 tapered bead seat rim. This suffix is intended
to differentiate among tyres for Passenger Car, Truck-Bus and other vehicles or other services
which use a similar designation.
Example: 7.00-15, 7.00-15LT, 7.00-15TR.
Note: Some European and Japanese Light Truck tyres use the suffix C instead of LT for the same
purpose.
TR –Tyres for service on Trucks, Buses and other vehicles with rims having a specified rim
diameter of nominal plus 3.96 or plus 6.35 mm. This suffix is intended to differentiate among
tyres for Passenger Cars, Light Trucks and other vehicles or other services which use similar
designations. Example: 7.00-15, 7.00-15LT, 7.00-15TR.
Note: This suffix is not normally used on tyres of Australian manufacture but the definition holds.
ML - Mining and Logging Tyres used in intermittent highway service.
AWU Trade Manual
17
S1 UNIT CONVERSION FACTORS
SPEED CATEGORY
Speed Symbol - A symbol indicating the speed category at which the tyre can carry a load
corresponding to its Load Index under specified service conditions.
Speed Category - A category assigned to a tyre which denotes the maximum speed for which the use
of the tyre is rated.
Where the tyre size designation include the letters “ZR” followed by a Service Description then the
tyre Speed Category is that indicated by the Service Description.
“ZR” tyres with no service description have a speed capability of
“over 240 km/h”. Consult the tyre manufacturer for the actual
capability of the tyre.
“ZR” must appear in the tyre size designation of tyres having a
maximum speed capability over 300 km/h.
Example
Tyre Description Maximum Speed
P275/4OR17 93W
270 km/h
P275/40ZR17 93W 270 km/h
P275/4OR17 93Y
300 km/h
P275/40ZR7 93Y
300 km/h
P275/40ZR17
Over 240 km/h
Reproduced with permission from
The Tyre and Rim Association of Australia.
19
Bearings
21
Rolling Bearings
Precautions for Proper Handling of Bearings
Since rolling bearings are high precision machine parts, they must be handled accordingly. Even if
high quality bearings are used, their expected performance cannot be achieved if they are not
handled properly. The main precautions to be observed are as follows:
(1) Keep Bearings and Surrounding Area Clean
Dust and dirt, even if invisible to the naked eye, have harmful effects on bearings. It is necessary to
prevent the entry of dust and dirt by keeping the bearings and their environment as clean as possible.
(2) Careful Handling
Heavy shocks during handling may cause bearings to be scratched or otherwise damaged possibly
resulting in their failure. Excessively strong impacts may cause brinelling, breaking, or cracking.
(3) Use Proper Tools
Always use the proper equipment when handling bearings and avoid general purpose tools.
(4) Prevent Corrosion
Since perspiration on the hands and various other contaminants may cause corrosion, keep the hands
clean when handling bearings. Wear gloves if possible. Pay attention to rust of bearing caused by
corrosive gases.
Mounting
The method of mounting rolling bearings strongly affects their accuracy, life, and performance, so
their mounting deserves careful attention. Their characteristics should first be thoroughly studied,
and then they should be mounted in the proper manner. It is recommended that the handling
procedures for bearings be fully investigated by the design engineers and that standards be
established with respect to the following items:
(1)
Cleaning the bearings and related parts.
(2)
Checking the dimensions and finish of related parts.
(3)
Mounting procedures.
(4)
Inspection after mounting.
(5)
Supply of lubricants.
Bearings should not be unpacked until immediately before mounting. When using ordinary grease
lubrication, the grease should be packed in the bearings without first cleaning them. Even in the case
of ordinary oil lubrication, cleaning the bearings is not required. However, bearings for instruments
or for high speed operation must first be cleaned with clean filtered oil in order to remove the anticorrosion agent. After the bearings are cleaned with filtered oil, they should be protected to prevent
corrosion.
Prelubricated bearings must be used without cleaning.
Bearing mounting methods depend on the bearing type and type of fit. As bearings are usually used
on rotating shafts, the inner rings require a tight fit. Bearings with cylindrical bores are usually
mounted by pressing them on the shafts (press fit) or heating them to expand their diameter (shrink
fit). Bearings with tapered bores can be mounted directly on tapered shafts or cylindrical shafts using
tapered sleeves. Bearings are usually mounted in housings with a loose fit. However, in cases where
the outer ring has an interference fit, a press may be used. Bearings can be interference-fitted by
cooling them before mounting using dry ice. In this case, a rust preventive treatment must be applied
to the bearing because moisture in the air condenses on its surface.
Mounting of Bearings with Cylindrical Bores Press Fits
Fitting with a press is widely used for small bearings. A mounting tool is placed on the inner ring
and the bearing is slowly pressed on the shaft with a press until the side of the inner ring rests
against the shoulder of the shaft. The mounting tool must not be placed on the outer ring for press
mounting, since the bearing may be damaged. Before mounting, applying oil to the fitted shaft
surface is recommended for smooth insertion. The mounting method using a hammer should only be
used for small ball bearings with minimally tight fits and when a press is not. available. In the case
of tight interference fits or for medium and large bearings, this method should not be used. Any time
a hammer is used, a mounting tool must be placed on the inner ring.
When both the inner and outer rings of non-separable bearings, such as deep groove ball bearings,
require tight-fit, a mounting tool is placed on both rings and both rings are fitted at the same time
using a screw or hydraulic press. Since the outer ring of self-aligning ball bearings may deflect a
mounting tool should always be used for mounting them.
In the case of separable bearings, such as cylindrical roller bearings and tapered roller bearings, the
inner and outer rings may be mounted separately. Assembly of the inner and outer rings, which were
previously mounted separately, should be done carefully to align the inner and outer rings correctly.
Careless or forced assembly may cause scratches on the rolling contact surfaces.
(Reproduced with permission from NSK.RPH Australia.)
Thermal methods
Advantages and drawbacks of the thermal method
Oil bath
Bearings of all sizes and types are heated in an oil bath (except sealed and greased bearings, spindle
bearings and other precision bearings). The heat-up temperature - which has to be controlled - is
80…100oC. Thermocouple control is required. In order to prevent a one-sided heating of the
AWU Trade Manual
23
bearings they must not touch the bottom of the oil bath container. Therefore they are placed on a
screen or suspended in the bath. This measure also protects the bearings from contaminants settling
on the tank bottom. Drawbacks are pollution of the environment by oil vapours and the
inflammability of the hot oil. Prior to mounting, the fitting surfaces of the bearings must be wiped.
Mineral oils with a viscosity of 60…75 mm2/S at 40oC are recommended for the oil bath; flash
points over 250oC. Oil baths can be purchased for small and medium-size bearings. Large bearings
require special designs of the oil bath tanks.
Heating plate
Individual bearings can be heated provisionally on an electric heating plate which should be
thermostatically controlled. It is important to turn the bearings over several times in order to ensure a
uniform heating. It is recommended to check the temperature of the bearings (80…100oC). In case
the temperature of the heating plate exceeds +120oC in an uncontrollable way during heating an Etype spherical roller bearing, the cage must not touch the plate. This ca be prevented by placing a
ring between heating plate and inner ring. Thermostatically controlled heating plates are customary
in trade applications.
Hot air cabinet
A safe and clean method of heating rolling bearings is to use a thermostatically controlled hot air
cabinet; it is particularly advantageous to use a circulating-air cabinet. The method is clean and is
used for small and medium-size bearings. The heat-up times are relatively long.
Induction heating
The induction heating methods are fast and clean. Therefore particularly suitable for series
mounting. They are used for heating complete bearings, rings of cylindrical roller bearings or needle
roller bearings and other rotational-symmetrical steel parts such as labyrinth rings, roll couplings,
rims etc.
(Reproduced with permission from FAG Australia Pty Ltd.)
Evaluation of running features and damage to dismounted bearings
Rolling bearing damage symptoms and their causes
Damaged area of bearing
Symptom
Seats
a) Unusual
running behaviour
Uneven running
Unusual noise
Disturbed
temperature
behaviour
b) Appearance
of dis-mounted
bearing parts
1. Foreign particle
indentations
2. Fatigue
3. Stationary
vibration marks
4. Molten dents
and flutes
5. Skidding
6. Rolling
element indentations, scuffing
7. Seizing marks
8. Wear
9. Corrosion
10. Overheating damage
11. Fractures
12. Fretting
corrosion (false
brinelling)
AWU Trade Manual
Rolling
contact
areas
Lip and
roller
face
areas
Cage
Mounting
Incorrect
Sealing mounting
procedure
or tools
Typical causes of rolling bearing damage
Fit too
Fit too
Poor
tight,
Misalignment
loose,
Dirt
or shaft
support
too
too little
deflection
of rings
much
preload
preload
25
Symptom
Typical causes of rolling bearing damage
Operation Stress
Load too high
or too low
a) Unusual
running
behaviour
Uneven running
Unusual noise
Disturbed
temperature
behaviour
b) Appearance
of dis-mounted
bearing parts
1. Foreign
particle
indentations
2. Fatigue
3. Stationery
vibration marks
4. Molten dents
and flutes
5. Skidding
6. Rolling
element
indentations,
scuffing
7. Seizing marks
8. Wear
9. Corrosion
10. Overheating
damage
11. Fractures
12. Fretting
corrosion (false
brinelling)
Environmental influence
Aggressive
Vibrations High speeds Dust, dirt media, water
External
heat
Lubrication
Current Unsuitable Insufficient
lubricant
passage lubricant
Excess
lubricant
27
Computing
29
INTERNET BASICS
Networks
A network usually consists of more than two computers, with one providing specialist services to the
others. The specialist computer is often known as the network server, or file server as it provides
files that all computers on the network can access.
Networks Increase in complexity from local area networks (or LANs), usually confined to one
building or group of buildings, to wide area networks (or WANs) - computers linked over a wide
geographic area.
What makes a LAN or WAN work in each case is a common computer language and set of rules for
using that language so that the computers understand each other. This is known as a protocol.
The internet is the network of LANs, WANs and stand-alone computers around the world which use
a particular pair of protocols as the basis for determining the address of each computer on the
Internet and for sending data between computers. These are the Internet Protocol or IP and the
Transport Control Protocol or TCP.
Each computer which can access the Internet has a four part numeric address or IP number (e.g.
25532.8.123). Computers which provide services through the Internet also have a domain name of
two or more parts separated by dots (e.g. dvet.tas.gov.au). It is usually not necessary to know the IP
numbers of these computers, only their domain names. The protocols will translate the domain name
into an address for us.
The domain name system originated in the United States, and originally the right-most part of the
name was a three letter abbreviation for the sector that the Internet site belonged to. These were com
(commercial), mil (military), edu (educational), gov (governmental net (network provider) and org
for other organisations. Later another dot and two letters were added to the right for other countries
to distinguish them from American sites (e.g. au - Australia, ca - Canada).
Internet services
Very loosely, computers which provide services to other computers are known as servers. Programs
on other computers which access these services are known as clients. There are a number of different
services available on the Internet.
E-mail
Each person on a LAN with access to E-mail has the equivalent of a mail box at the E-mail post
office. Physically the post office is a storage area on the hard disk of the network server computer.
The software on the computer which handles the mail is often referred to as the mail server.
Associated with the name for each person on the mail server is an address for that person’s mail box.
Addresses tend to be based on the person’s name rather than on numbers: e.g. Greg Robinson has the
E-mail address gregr in the HIT local area network post office.
When E-mail is sent to the person it is a simple matter for the mail server to look up the person’s
mail box address and file the mail there.
Internet mail uses SMTP (simple mail transfer protocol) as its common language. Since the name
and E-mail address of a person elsewhere on the Internet usually won’t already be on the LAN, these
have to be entered into a personal mail directory before E-mail can be sent.
The Internet mail address usually consists of the person’s LAN mail address, plus the LAN’s Internet
address, separated by the ‘at’ symbol The Internet mail address for Greg Robinson is:
gregr@dvet.tas.gov.au.
Discussion Groups
These are E-mail distribution services. One subscribes or joins a discussion group usually by sending
an E-mail message to the subscription address of the discussion group. Thereafter a copy of any mail
sent to the discussion group address is automatically routed to your E-mail address. Likewise any
mail you send to the discussion group is distributed to all subscribers.
A listserv is a particular form of discussion group. Examples of Australian discussion groups are
Flexidel (flexible delivery listserv) and Vetlibs (VET libraries listserv).
News Groups
New groups first appeared in the United States, as part of Usenet, or User’s Network. They are the
Internet equivalent of subject specific bulletin boards. There is some similarity between news groups
and discussion groups. One can post items to a news group via E-mail, but rather than the item then
being distributed to individual E-mail addresses, it is distributed to those news group servers that
hold a copy of that particular news group.
News groups are accessed using news reader software. There are many thousands of news groups,
each dealing with a different topic, and having hierarchical names. The names build from left to
right, from broader to narrower subjects: e.g. rec.food.cooking (rec = recreational). Each news group
can contain many hundreds of postings of statements and responses. Each posting may stay for a
period varying from days to months, depending on the popularity of the new group.
The State Services news server is at newsroom tas.gov. au and it receives a small subset of the many
news groups available. Postings can be read using the news reader that comes as part of Netscape.
The Web site www.dejanews.com is useful for locating news groups on particular subjects.
Chat Sessions
These are the Internet equivalents to teleconferences. One can log to a chat session running on a chat
server elsewhere, using a chat client program, and then join in an online conversation via the
keyboard. Anything typed by one participant is immediately seen by all of the others. There are
many public chat sessions occurring at any time that interested people can join, although the
usefulness of these is doubtful. They have some potential for use for academic discussions as an
alternative to teleconferences. One advantages is that a record of all discussion can be made
automatically. A sample Web chat site can be found at www.funsites.com/in-chat-html.
Telnet
This service enables one computer to act as a terminal on another computer. Once one logs into the
remote computer, one’s keyboard and monitor behave as if they were part of that remote computer.
An example of a telnet session is using Ttwin to access Tafemis.
Library catalogues can also be accessed using telnet: e.g. a telnet link to talis.tased.edu.au will cause
your PC to act as a display terminal on the Talis system. Similarly a telnet session to
library.utas.edu.au will display the University of Tasmania Library catalogue and library.rmit. edit. au
will display the RMIT Library catalogue.
FTP
FTP (file transfer protocol) is a service which allows remote manipulation and copying of files.
Many remote computers allow the copying/downloading of files, particularly shareware or sample
computer programs using FTP. Selecting a document or file in an ftp session usually results in it
being downloaded to your hard disk. Sample ftp sites can be found at: oakoakland.edu (software)
and gatekeeper.dec.com/pub/recipes (cooking recipes)
Gopher
This is a service that lets the operator browse information from computer to computer without
having to enter the computer’s address each time.
Everything which displays is either a menu (or directory), a document (or file), a telnet session or an
option to search the current site. Gopher was the first attempt to integrate several different Internet
protocols or services into one application package. The gopher client/server protocol came into
common use in 1991 and reached its peak in 1994.
Veronica is a type of server used for searching for flies on gopher servers. A gopher client is used to
access this server.
Example gopher servers are millbrook.lib.rmit.edu.au at RMIT and info.utas.edu.au at the University
of Tasmania.
Veronica.scs.unr.edu/11/veronica is an example of a Veronica server site in the U.S.
World Wide Web (or WWW)
The World Wide Web (or simply ‘the Web’) is a service on the Internet which allows the distribution
of information in a variety of different formats, such as text; pictures, sound and video. It is currently
the major growth area of the Internet. The WWW protocol came into use in 1993, and now Web
AWU Trade Manual
31
servers have largely superseded gopher servers. Currently the two most popular client programs or
browsers for the Web are Netscape Navigator and Microsoft’s Internet Explorer.
Web documents are written in a programming language called html, or hypertext markup language.
Such documents are referred to as pages, even though individual documents may be many screens
long.
Addresses of Web pages are referred to as Uniform Resource Locators (URLs). Each page on the
Web has its own unique URL. The URL can be just a domain name or could end in a directory or
file name.
E.g. http://www.dvet.tas.gov.au/hit/whatsnew.htm
(Service name)://(domain name)/(directory and requested page name)
If no page is requested as part of the URL then whatever default page has been set up on the server
is assumed.
The entry page for each Web site is usually called the home page for the particular organisation
which is providing the information on the Web.
The http part stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol and indicates that this is the address of a Web
server. Other service names could be Gopher, Telnet, FTP, etc.
Web pages contain hypertext (textual) or hypermedia (pictures) links to other parts of the same page,
to other pages on the same server, or to pages on other servers. The user fetches these other pages
simply by clicking on the link (hence the name of the protocol). These links are indicated by having
a different colour to the rest of the text (usually blue, or purple if they’ve been accessed recently by
the client software).
(Reproduced with permission from the author, Dr Greg Robinson, TAFE, Tasmania.)
33
Data Charts
35
CONVERSION FACTORS
CONVERSION FACTORS
AWU Trade Manual
37
BASIC S.I. UNITS.
Quantity
Length
Mass
Time
Electrical current
Thermodynamic temperature
Unit
Metre
kilogram
Second
Ampere
Kelvin
Symbol
m
kg
S
A
K
DERIVED UNITS.
Physical quantity
Force
Pressure or Stress
Work or Energy
Quantity of heat
Power
Unit
Newton
Pascal
Symbol
N
Pa
Derivation
kgm/s2
N/m2
Joule
Watt
J
W
N-m
J/s
PREFIXES
Power
12
10
109
106
103
10-3
Name
Tera
Giga
Mega
Kilo
Milli
Symbol
T
G
M
k
m
Power
10-6
10-9
10-12
10-15
10-18
Name
Micro
Nano
Pico
Fento
Alto
Symbol
μ
n
p
ƒ
a
GREEK ALPHABET
⟨
⟩
⌫
⌬
⌭
⌮
⌯
⌰
␣
␤
␥
␦
⑀
␨
␩
␽
alpha
beta
gamma
delta
epsilon
zeta
eta
theta
⌱
⌲
⌳
⌴
⌵
⌶
⌷
⌸
␫
␬
␭
␮
␯
␰
␱
␲
iota
kappa
lambda
mu
nu
xi
omicron
pi
⌹
⌺
⌻
⌼
⌽
⌾
⌿
⍀
␳
␴
␶
␷
␸
␹
␺
␻
Phonetic alphabet
Alpha
Beta
Charlie
Delta
Echo
Foxtrot
Golf
Hotel
India
Juliet
Kilo
Lima
Mike
November
Oscar
Papa
Quebec
Romeo
Sierra
Tango
Uniform
Victor
Whisky
Xray
Yankee
Zulu
rho
sigma
tau
upsilon
phi
chi
psi
omega
PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS
METAL
SYMBOL
MELTING POINT
Aluminium
Antimony
Arsenic
Barium
Beryllium
Bismuth
Cadmium
Caesium
Calcium
Cerium
Chromium
Cobalt
Columbium
(Niobium)
Copper
Dysprosium
Al
Sb
As
Ba
Be or Gl
Bi
Cd
Cs
Ca
Ce
Cr
Co
Cb
Nb
Cu
Dy
1082.6
—
Erbium
Gadolinium
Gallium
Germanium
Gold
Hafnium
Indium
Iridium
Iron
Lanthanum
Lead
Lithium
Magnesium
Manganese
Mercury
Molybdenum
Er
Eu
Ga
Ge
Au
Hf
In
Ir
Fe
La
Pb
Li
Mg
Mn
Hg
Mo
—
—
30
900
1063
2200
155
2454
1527
810
327
186
649
1212
–38.87
2500
Neodymium
Nd
840
Nickel
Ni
1455
METAL
SYMBOL
MELTING POINT
Osmium
Palladium
Platinum
Potassium
Praseodymium
Os
Pd
Pt
K
Pr
2500
1555
1773.5
62.5
940
Radium
Rhenium
Ra
Re
700
3440
±60
Rhodium
Rh
1966
±3
Rb
Ru
Sm
Sc
Se
Ag
Na
Sr
Ta
Te
Tr or Tb
Tl
Th
Tm
Sn
Ti
W
U
V
Yb
Y
Zn
Zr
38
2500
1350
1200
217
960
97.5
771
2910
450
327
301
1700
—
232
2000
3375
1800
1720
√ 1800
1490
419.4
1927
ϒC.
AWU Trade Manual
659
630
850
704
1281
268
321
28.25
851
635
1830
1467
1950
ϒC.
Rubidium
Ruthenium
Samarium
Scandium
Selenium
Silver
Sodium
Strontium
Tantalum
Tellurium
Terbium
Thallium
Thorium
Thulium
Tin
Titanium
Tungsten
Uranium
Vanadium
Ytterbium
Yttrium
Zinc
Zirconium
39
AWU Trade Manual
41
Drawing Symbols
43
SELECTION OF FITS. HOLE BASIS SYSTEM
DIMENSIONING AND TOLERANCING
AWU Trade Manual
45
SURFACE TEXTURE
47
Drilling
49
PRECISION CUTTING TOOLS
Recommended Cutting Angles for
Various Materials
Helix
Point Lip
Angle
AngleClearance
Material
␣
⍜
␤
Degrees
DegreesDegrees
Steel-up to
40 T.P.S.I.
27
118 8/12
Steel-40-60
T. P. S. I
27
Steel-60-80
T. P. S. I.
27
118/125 8/12
Steel-Stainless
Free Machining
27
118/135 6/8
*Manganese
Steel 7/14%
12
130/150 6/10
Cast Iron-Soft
27
90/118 10/12
Malleable Iron
27
Aluminium
Brass
118
118
8/12
8/12
27/45
100/130 12/18
15
118/130 12/15
Copper-Soft
30/35
Copper-Hard
27
Phosphor Bronze
12
100 121/15
130
12/15
118/130 12/15
Magnesium Alloys 27/45
90/130 12/15
Bakelite
60/118 15/20
Plastics
(Thermoplastic)
10/20
10
60
12/15
*Use specially constructed drills for this material.
The figures above are designed for general
guidance, and may be varied to suit a particular
set of machining conditions or materials.
PRECISION CUTTING TOOLS
SPEEDS, FEEDS AND LUBRICANTS FOR DRILLS
Material
Feed per Revolution of Drills - Inches
0.040” 0.125” 0.25”
0.50”
Speed to
to
to
to
Over
Ft./
0.125” 0.25”
0.50”
1”
1”
min.
Dia.
Dia.
Dia.
Dia.
Dia.
Steel - up to 40 T.P.S.I.
80/100
0.0015
0.003
0.006
0.010
0.012
Steel - 40-60 T.P.S.I.
60/80
0.0015
0.003
0.006
0.010
0.012
Steel - 60-80 T.P.S.I.
30/60
0.0015
0.003
0.006
0.010
0.012
Steel - Stainless Free
Machining
40/80
0.0015
0.003
0.006
0.010
0.012
Sulphurised Oil diluted
with Paraffin
Manganese
Steel 7/14%
15/20
0.001
0.002
0.003
0.005
0.006
Sulphurised Oil or Dry
Cast Iron - Soft
100/150 0.0025
0.005
0.010
0.020
0.025
Cast Iron - Hard
30/100
0.001
0.002
0.003
0.005
0.006
Malleable Iron
60/100
0.0025
0.005
0.010
0.020
0.025
Aluminium
200/500 0.0015
0.003
0.006
0.010
0.012
Brass
150/250 0.0025
0.005
0.010
0.020
0.025
Copper - Soft
100/250 0.0025
0.005
0.010
0.020
0.025
Copper - Hard
70/100
0.002
0.003
0.005
0.006
Phosphor Bronze
200/250 0.0015
0.003
0.006
0.010
0.012
Magnesium Alloys
200/400 0.0025
0.005
0.010
0.020
0.025
Dry. Compressed Air or
Soluble Oil
Dry. Compressed Air or
Soluble Oil
Dry. Soluble Oil, Soda
Water or Mineral Oil
Soluble Oil, Paraffin or
Paraffin and Lard Oil
Dry. Soluble Oil or
Paraffin and Lard Oil
Soluble Oil, Lard Oil or
Sulphurised Oil and
Paraffin
Soluble Oil, Lard Oil or
Sulphurised Oil and
Paraffin
Dry. Soluble Oil or
Lard Oil
Dry. Compressed Air
Bakelite
80/150
0.003
0.006
0.010
0.012
0.001
Soluble Oil or
Sulphurised Oil
Soluble Oil or
Sulphurised Oil
Sulphurised Oil
Dry. Cool drill with
Compressed Air
Plastics(Thermosplastic) 100/300 0.0015 0.003
0.006
0.010
0.012 Soluble Oil or Soapy
Water
The figures above are designed for general guidance, and may be varied to suite a particular set of
machining conditions or materials.
AWU Trade Manual
0.0015
Cutting Fluid
51
PRECISION CUTTING TOOLS
RECOMMENDED SPEEDS & FEEDS
Select drill speed nearest to table figure. The figures shown are intended as a guide only. In determining the most effective cutting speed and feed for each application, allowance should be made for the
variance in the grades of material with which you are working.
SPINDLE SPEED RPM
PRECISION CUTTING TOOLS
TROUBLESHOOTING CHART – DRILLS
AWU Trade Manual
53
PRECISION CUTTING TOOLS
RECOMMENDED SPEEDS FOR REAMERS
Speeds and feeds for reaming are governed by the finish required, material, rigidity of set-up and the
cutting fluid used. In general, it may be taken that the feed is two to three times, and the speed two
thirds to three quarters that of a drill of the same diameter. When close tolerance and fine finish are
required, it may be found necessary to finish ream at considerably slower speeds than normal.
The amount of feed required will vary with the material being cut. A good starting point is between
0.001” and .004” per tooth per revolution. Too low a feed may result in glazing, excessive wear,
and occasionally, chatter. Too high a feed tends to reduce the accuracy of the holoe and may lower
the quality of surface finish. It is recommeded that the highest feed be used which will produce the
required finish and accuracy.
PRECISION CUTTING TOOLS
REAMER TOLERANCES
(Reproduced with permission from CYCLONE HARDWARE Pty Ltd.)
AWU Trade Manual
SUTTON TOOLS DRILL SIZE AND
mm
Fract
Gauge Dec
Dec.
Equiv.
80
.0135
0.35
.0138
79
.0145
0.38
.0150
1/64
.0156
0.40
0157
78
.0160
0.42
.0165
0.45
.0177
77
.0180
0,48
.0189
0.50
.0197
76
.0200
0.52
0205
75
.0210
0.55
.0217
74
.0225
0.58
.0228
0.60
.0236
73
.0240
72
.0250
0.65
.0256
71
.0260
0.70
.0276
70
.0280
69
.0292
0.75
.0295
68
.0310
1/32
.0312
0.80
.0315
67
.0320
66
.0330
0.85
.0335
65
.0350
0.90
.0354
64
.0360
63
.0370
0.95
.0374
62
.0380
61
.0390
1.00
.0394
60
.0400
59
.0410
1.05
.0414
58
.0420
57
.0430
1.10
.0433
1.15
.0453
56
.0465
3/64
.0469
1,20
.0472
1:25
0492
1 30
.0512
55
0520
1.35
.0532
5.10
5.00
4.90
4.80
4.70
4.60
4.50
4.40
4.30
4.10
4.20
4.00
3.90
3.80
3.70
3.60
3.50
3.30
3.40
3.20
3.10
2.95
3.00
2.90
mm
13/64
3/16
11/64
5/32
9/64
1/8
Fract.
7
8
10
9
12
11
14
13
15
16
17
18
19
21
20
22
23
24
26
25
27
28
29
30
31
32
Gauge
Equiv.
33
.1130
.1142
.1160
.1162
.1181
.1200
.1220
.1250
.1260
.1285
.1299
.1339
.1360
.1378
.1405
.1406
.1417
.1440
.1457
.1470
.1495
.1496
.1520
.1535
.1540
.1562
.1570
.1575
.1590
.1610
.1614
.1654
.1660
.1693
.1695
.1719
.1730
.1732
.1770
.1772
.1800
.1811
.1820
.1850
.1875
.1890
.1910
.1929
.1935
.1960
.1969
.1990
.2008
.2010
.2031
Dec
8.00
7.70
7.80
7.90
7.60
7.50
7.40
7.20
7.30
7.10
7.00
6.80
6.90
6.70
6.60
6.40
6.50
6.30
6.20
6.10
6.00
5.80
5.90
5.70
5.60
5.50
5.40
5.30
5.20
mm
5/16
19/64
9/32
17/64
1/14
15/64
7/32
Fract
N
M
L
K
J
1
H
G
F
E
D
C
B
A
1
2
3
4
5
Gauge
Equiv.
6
.2040
.2047
.2055
.2087
.2090
.2126
.2130
.2165
.2188
.2205
.2210
.2244
.2280
.2283
.2323
.2340
.2344
.2362
.2380
.2402
.2420
.2441
.2460
.2480
.2500
.2520
.2559
.2570
.2598
.2610
.2638
.2656
.2660
.2677
.2717
.2720
.2756
.2770
.2795
.2810
.2812
.2835
.2874
.2900
.2913
.2950
.2953
.2969
.2992
.3020
.3031
.3071
.3110
.3125
.3150
Dec.
14.00
13.50
12.50
12.70
12.80
13.00
12.00
12.20
11.80
11.20
11.50
10.80
11.00
10.50
10.20
10.00
9.80
9.50
9.20
8.90
9.00
8.80
8.70
8.50
8.60
8.40
8.30
8.10
8.20
mm
35/64
33/64
17/32
1/2
31/64
15/32
29/64
7/16
27/64
13/32
25/64
3/8
23/64
11/32
21/64
Fract.
SUTTON TOOLS DRILL SIZE AND DECIMAL EQUIVALENT
DECIMAL EQUIVALENT CHART
mm
Fract.
Gauge Dec
Equiv.
54
.0550
1.40
.0551
1.45
.0571
1.50
.0591
53
.0595
1.55
.0610
1/16
.0625
1.60
.0630
52
.0635
1.65
.0650
1.70
.0669
51
.0670
1.75
.0689
50
.0700
1.80
.0709
1.85
.0729
49
.0730
1.90
.0748
48
.0760
1.95
.0768
5/64
.0781
47
.0785
2.00
.0787
2.05
.0807
46
.0810
45
.0820
2.10
.0827
2.15
.0847
44
.0860
2.20
.0866
2.25
.0886
43
.0890
2.30
.0906
2.35
.0926
42
.0935
3/32
.0938
2.40
.0945
41
.0960
2.45
.0965
40
.0980
2.50
.0984
39
.0995
2.55
.1004
38
.1015
2.60
.1024
37
.1040
2.65
.1043
2.70
.1063
36
.1065
2.75
.1083
7/64
.1094
35
.1100
2.80
.1102
34
.1110
2.85
.1122
Z
Y
X
W
V
U
T
S
R
0
P
Gauge
Equiv.
0
.3160
.3189
.3228
.3230
.3268
.3281
.3307
.3320
.3346
.3386
.3390
.3425
.3438
.3465
.3480
.3504
.3543
.3580
.3593
.3622
.3680
.3740
.3750
.3770
.3858
.3860
.3906
.3937
.3970
.4016
.4040
.4062
.4130
.4134
.4219
.4252
.4331
.4375
.4409
.4528
.4531
.4646
.4688
.4724
.4803
.4844
.4921
.5000
.5039
.5118
.5156
5312
.5315
.5469
.5512
Dec
25.40
25.00
24.50
24.00
23.50
23.00
22.50
22.00
21.50
21.00
20.50
20.00
19.50
19.00
18.50
18.00
17.50
17.00
16.50
16.00
15.50
15.00
14.50
mm
63/64
1
31/32
61/64.
15/16
29/32
59/64
57/64
7/8
55/64
53/64
27/32
13/16
51/64
25/32
3/4
49/64
47/64
23/32
45/64
43/64
11/16
21/32
41/64
5/8
19/32
39/64
37/64
9/16
Fract.
Gauge
Equiv.
.5625
.5709
.5781
.5905
.5937
.6094
.6102
.6250
.6299
.6406
.6496
.6562
.6693
.6719
.6875
.6890
.7031
.7087
.7187
.7284
.7344
.7480
.7500
.7656
.7677
.7812
.7874
.7969
.8071
.8125
.8268
.8281
.8437
.8465
.8594
.8661
.8750
.8858
.8906
.9055
.9062
.9219
.9252
.9375
.9449
9531
.9646
.9687
.9842
.9844
1.0000
55
57
Electrical
59
THE NATIONAL SYSTEM OF RESTRICTED ELECTRICAL
LICENCES
The system has been developed with industry on a tripartite basis, to meet industry work needs and,
at the same time, provide consistency and portability of restricted electrical licences throughout
Australia. That is, a person holding a current licence from a State or Territory may obtain a
reciprocal licence from another State or Territory, on application and payment of the prescribed fees.
The system is based on units of competence and work area categories.
Units of Competence
There are six units of competence. These units of competence may be grouped in various ways so as
to match the skills needed by workers who are required to perform particular electrical procedures in
the course of their normal employment. Restricted electrical licences will be issued based on the
units of competence achieved.
Competency 1 (Occupation Health and Safety Procedures) is a compulsory unit that is common to
all work area categories.
1
Occupational health and safety procedures associated with electrical work are followed.
2
Fixed wired equipment which is connected to a supply of up to 650 volts, is disconnected
and reconnected
3
Faults are located and rectified in equipment which is connected to single phase 250 volts
supply.
4
Faults are located and rectified in equipment which is connected to a supply of up to 650
volts.
5
Flexible cord and plug is attached to equipment which is connected to a single phase 250
volt supply.
6
Flexible cable and plug is attached to equipment which is connected to a supply of up to
650 volts.
The licence will be endorsed with two or more units of competence which are appropriate to the
individuals need.
Work Area Categories
1
Plumbing/Gas Equipment
2
Commercial Equipment
3
Industrial Equipment
4
Refrigeration/Air conditioning Equipment
5
Instrumentation/Process Control Equipment
6
Communication/Computing Equipment
7
Laboratory/Scientific Equipment
The licences will also be endorsed with the appropriate work area category of the individual.
Limit of Work Permitted
The type of work covered by the Licence is limited to:
•
•
•
•
•
Disconnection/reconnection of electrical wiring at the equipment itself and only to the extent to
permit the non-electrical work to be performed.
Replacement of equipment on a “like for like” basis.
Testing necessary for the safe isolation of the equipment to be disconnected/reconnected.
Replacement of “blown” fuses and resetting of “tripped” circuit breakers.
Restricted electrical work is confined to equipment operating at voltages up to 650V alternating
current and is limited to areas as detailed in “Work Area Categories”
The work does NOT include disconnection/reconnection at:
•
•
•
•
•
•
The switchboard
Light fittings
Switchgear
Switches
Power points
Other electrical accessories.
(Reproduced with permission from The Licensing Administrator, Electrical Licensing Board, Tasmania.)
Electronic Components
Correctly identifying electronic parts can be one of the most difficult tasks facing someone building
or repairing electronic equipment. As components become even smaller to allow higher density
circuit boards, & is increasingly difficult to distinguish the different types such as resistors,
capacitors, inductors and subminiature fuses.
Knowing what markings to expect can be a big help when faced with a circuit board full of
unfamiliar components. The information presented here, combined with a basic understanding of
components should enable you to correctly identify those most commonly used.
Preferred Values
The system of preferred values, which is used for resistors, capacitors and inductors, was developed
to provide a logical progression from one value to the next, where each value represents an increase
by an approximately constant percentage. Depending on the tolerance of the particular components,
there can be between 3 and 192 preferred values in each decade. The more common series are shown
in the tables below. Values given for each series are repeated in every decade.
3 Per Decade (50% tolerance)
24 Per Decade (5% tolerance)
10
22
47
10 11 12 13 15 16 18 20
22 24 27 30 33 36 39 43
47 51 56 62 68 75 82 91
12 Per Decade (10% tolerance)
10 12 15 18 22 27 33 39
47 56 68 82
Decimal Multipliers
Decimal multiplier prefixes are in common use to simplify and shorten the notations of quantities
such as component values.
Capacitance, for example, is measured in Farads. But the Farad is far too large a unit to be of
practical use in most cases. For convenience, we use sub-multiples to save a lot of figures. For
example, instead of writing 0.000000000001 Farads, we write 1 pF (1 picofarad).
AWU Trade Manual
61
The more common prefixes and the relationships to one another are as follows.
Abbrev
p
n
U
m
k
m
Prefix
pico
nano
micro
milli
UNIT
kilo
mega
Multiply by
0.000000000001
0.000000001
0.000001
0.001
1
1000
1000000
or
10-12
10-9
10-8
11-3
100
103
106
Units
1000 pico units
1000 nano units
1000 micro units
1000 milli units
1000 units
1000 kilo units
=
=
=
=
=
=
1 nano unit
1 micro unit
1 milli unit
1 unit
1 kilo unit
1 mega unit
Circuit Notation
Some circuits give component values as they are normally spoken - e.g. 4.7pF for 4.7 picoparads,
5.6nH for 5.6 nanohenries. Others replace the decimal point with the first letter of the sub-multiple
e.g. 5n6 for a 5.6nF capacitor or a 5.6nH inductor. Similarly for resistors, 6k8 is the same as 6.8k
ohms while 1R5 would mean 1.5 ohms.
Tolerance
All components differ from their marked value by some amount. Tolerance specifies the maximum
allowed deviation from the specified value. Tolerances are normally expressed as a percentage of the
nominal value.
As an example, a component with a marked value of 100 and a tolerance of 5%, could actually be
any value between 5% below the marked value (95), and 5% above the marked value (105).
Resistors
Most resistors are so small that it is impractical to print their values on them using normal numeric
characters. Instead, they are marked using a code of coloured bands.
Resistors made to tolerance of 5% and 10% are marked with 4 bands while higher precision types,
such as 2%, 1% or better, may be marked with 5 bands to allow for an extra digit of precision.
How to read 4-band codes:
At one end of the resistor there will be a gold, silver or brown tolerance band. This band is usually
spaced apart from the other three bands. Start with the band nearest to the other end. Its colour
represents the first digit of the resistor’s value, as shown in the colour code chart. The next band
represents the second digit of the resistor’s value. The third band represents the decomal multiplier,
that is, the number of zeroes that we have to put after the first two digits to arrive at the resistor’s
value. The final band givesus the tolerance of the resistor, silver for 10% types, gold for 5% types,
brown for 1% types.
Lets take the resistor shown at the top of the colour chart as an example. Its first band is yellow,
representing “4” and the second band is violet, representing “7”. The third band, the multiplier, is
orange which tells us to add 3 zeroes to the number we already have. This is the same as multiplying
it by 1,000. Thus the value of the resistor is 47,000 - forty-seven thousand ohms or 47k-ohms.
Finally, the fourth band, being gold, indicates that the resistor has a 5% tolerance, that is, its actual
value will be somewhere between 44,650 ohms and 49,350 ohms.
Some special high-voltage resistors use a yellow tolerance band in lieu of gold. This is simply
because the metal particles in the gold paint might compromise the resistor’s voltage rating.
What do they mean:
Band one - first figure of value
Band two - second figure of value
Band three - number of zeroes/multiplier
Band four - tolerance
Tolerance band colours: brown 1%, red 2%, gold 5%, silver 10%, none 20%.
RESISTOR COLOUR CODE
Reading 5-band resistors:
Because the final band on these resistors is usually brown or red, it can be a bit more difficult to
know which end to start from. In most cases the first four bands are grouped a bit closer together
than the fourth and fifth bands. The first two bands are read the same as they are on the 4-band
types. The third band supplies the third digit of the value. The fourth band now becomes the
multiplier and the fifth represents the tolerance.
For example, if the 5 bands are, from first to fifth, red/yellow/white/gold/brown, then the three
significant digits of the value would be “249”, the multiplier would be 0.1, and the tolerance 1%.
Hence, this is the code for a 24.9 ohm, 1% resistor.
What they mean:
Band one - firsts figure of value
Band two - second figure of value
Band three - third figure of value
Band four - number of zeroes/multiplier
Band five - tolerance
Capacitors
Capacitors may be marked to show their value, voltage rating, accuracy, temperature stability and
other information. Most capacitors are not marked with all of these, however, the value and voltage
rating are usually given. Identification can be difficult because of the variety of systems in use.
Units
The unit of capacitance is the Fared, but this unit is too large in practice. Commonly used smaller
units are the microfarad (abbreviated uF), nanofarad (nF) and picofarad (pF). The section on decimal
multipliers shows the relationship between these.
AWU Trade Manual
63
Some capacitance values are commonly expressed by only one unit while others can be expressed
under two or more units, e.g. 1uF would rarely be called 1 000nF and never 1,000,000 pF, even
though these are equivalent. However, 0.0047uF is often expressed as 4.7nF, or as 4700p1F.
Value
Larger capacitors are marked in microfarads and indicate this by the abbreviations ‘uF’, ‘u’ or even
the obsolete ‘MFD’. Smaller capacitors are marked in nanofarads or picofarads and may abbreviate
the unit to ‘n’ or ‘p’.
If the value contains a decimal point the ‘u’, ‘n’ or ‘p’ is sometimes, put in place of the decimal
point. Therefore a 4.7p1F capacitor can be marked as 4p7.
If no unit is given, a judgement, based on the capacitor’s physical size, must be made to determine
which unit is intended. For example, a small ceramic capacitor marked ‘4.7’ is probably 4.7 pF,
whereas a large plastic capacitor marked ‘4.7’ is more likely to be 4.7uF. If the value is in nF then
this is invariably shown.
Another marking system uses 3 numeric digits to indicate the in picofarads. The first two digits
represent the first two digits of the value and the third digit is the multiplier or number of zeroes.
For example, a capacitor marked 104 would be read as 1, 0, 0000. This would be formatted as
100,000 pF and would commonly be known as 100n1F or 0.1uF. Likewise a capacitor marked 472
would be 4700pF, also known as 4.7nF or .0047uF.
A similar system represents the” 3 digits using colours taken from the resistor code, instead of
numbers.
Some common values and their possible markings:
microfards
nanofarads picofarads
0.000luF*
0.1n*
100pF
0.00022uF*
0.22n (n22)
220pF
0.001uF
l n (l nO)
1,000pF
0.0033uF
3.3n (3n3)
3,300pF
0.01uF
10n
10,000pF
0.047uF
47n
47,00pF
0.luF (ul)
100n
100,000pF
0.82uF (u82)
820n
820,000pF
I.0uF (1 u0)
1 000n*
1,000,000pF
*Not normally expressed in this form.
EIA code
101
221
102
332
103
473
104
824
105
Voltage Rating
Voltage rating is usually marked and is often identified by the symbol V. Most electrolytic capacitors
dearly indicate their voltage rating. Polyester capacitors usually show the voltage rating but often
omit the V symbol. Small ceramic capacitors often show no voltage rating.
If the capacitance and voltage rating are both marked, a unit is also marked for at least one of the
quantities so that the two cannot be confused.
Tolerance
Tolerance indicates how close a capacitor’s actual value is likely to be to its marked value.
A tolerance can be marked numerically, as a code consisting of a single letter, or, on colour-coded
capacitors, as a 4th coloured band. The code letter is usually placed immediately after the value.
Commonly used tolerance codes are:
Code
A
C
D
E
F
G
J
K
Colour
red
green
white
brown
red
green
white
Tol
+20-10(2)
+/-0.25pF (1)
+/-05pF (1)
+/-1.0p1F (1)
+/-1%
+/-2%
+/5%
+/-10%
Code
L
M
N
P
Q(2)
S
W
W(2)
Z
Colour
black
grey
Tol
+/-15%
+/-20%
+/30%
+100-0
+30-10
+50-20
+W -10
+40-20
+80-20
(1) used on Capacitors <=10pF
(2) used on electrolytic capacitors
Polarity
Polarity sensitive capacitors, such as electrolytics, are usually marked with a ‘+’ or ‘-’ symbol
adjacent to one lead to indicate polarity. Thompson brand tantalum capacitors may have a triangular
logo to indicate the positive lead, instead of the ‘+’ symbol.
Temperature Characteristics
All real capacitors exhibit some change in value with varying temperature. Some ceramic types
exhibit fairly linear changes and are useful as temperature compensating elements in AC circuits.
The temperature coefficients of these types may be marked in letter codes or designated by a
coloured spot.
Tempco
EIA
JIS
Colour
Tempco
Code
Code
Code
Code
ppm/0C
P100
red/violet
+100
NPO
COG
C
black
0
N30
S1G
H
-30
NO33
S1G
brown
-33
N075
UlG
red
-75
N080
UlG
L
red
-80
N150
P2G
P
orange
-150
N220
R2G
R
yellow
-220
N330
S2H
S
green
-330
N470
T2H
T
blue
-470
N750
U2J
U
Violet
-750
N1500
P3K
W
orange/orange -1500
N2200
R3L
-2200
P350/N1000
SL
SL
+350 to-1000
Capacitors using the JIS code sometimes have a second letter to designate the temperature
coefficients toterance.
Letter
Tempco Tolerance
G
+/-30ppm/0C
H
+/-60ppm/0C
J
+/-120ppm/0C
K
+/-250ppm/0C
L
+/-500ppm/0C
For example, a capacitor marked ‘CH’ would have a temperature coefficient of between +60ppm/0C
and -60ppm/0C (“C”=O “H” = +/60ppm/0C.
Ceramic capacitors with non-linear temperature coefficients sometimes use a 3-digit code to indicate
their operating temperature range and their stability over that range.
The 1st character indicates minimum operating temperature, the 2nd, maximum temperature and the
3rd gives the stability over this temperature range.
AWU Trade Manual
65
1st
Character
X
Y
Z
Min
2nd
Temp0C Character
-55 5 +85
-30 7 +125
+10
Max Temp
C
0
3rd
Character
F
p
R
S
T
U
V
Stability (%)
+/-7.5
+/-10
+/-15
+/-22
+22/-33
+22/-56
+22/-82
An example of this is the common ‘Z5U’ type used in bypass applications. This capacitor operates
over the +100 to +850 temperature range and exhibits a stability of +22 to -56% over this
temperature range.
Putting It All Together
Knowing how the important information is likely to be marked, we can decode the markings on a
capacitor and determine its value, voltage rating, tolerance and sometimes its temperature
characteristic.
For example, a capacitor marked 104K 63V Y5P will be 0.1uF (decoded from the 104) having a +/110% tolerance (decoded from the K), a 63 volt rating, an operating temperature range of -300 to
+850 (decoded from Y5) and a stability of +/1-10% (P) over this range. Likewise, 6n8K63 would
indicate 6.8nF (from 6n8), +/-10%, (from K) and 63 volts (from 63).
104
K
63
Y
5
P
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
1 0 0000 pF
100nf = 0.1 uF
+ 10% Tolerance
63 Volts
-300C
+850C
+10% Stability
MOS Handling Precautions
Modern MOS manufacturing technologies have brought new levels of circuit sophistication and
convenience to the circuit designer. However, the extremely fine geometries and very high
impedances found in these devices results in them being considerably more fragile than earlier
devices.
A CMOS IC input is electrically equivalent to a capacitor, of 1 to 5 pF, in parallel with a resistor of
around 1 million megohms. Such a huge input impedance is prone to the build up of high
electrostatic voltages, which may damage the IC through a variety of failure mechanisms.
Although most MOS devices incorporate protection networks at their inputs, at best these are only
effective against static voltages of no more than about 4K. Even the simple act of walking across a
polished floor can cause a static build up on a human body of 4kV-15kV. Consequently, the
following handling precautions should be adhered to at all times when handling MOS devices and
circuitry.
• Never exceed the published maximum ratings specified for any device, especially a MOS part .
Special care may be needed to ensure that switch on and power down transients are contained
within specified limits.
• Tie all unused MOS inputs to low-impedance, valid logic level such as Vss or Vdd.
• Only connect and disconnect test equipment to MOS circuitry while that circuitry is powered up.
• Never remove or insert a socketed MOS IC while power is applied to it.
• When MOS inputs are connected to long, noisy lines, or to circuitry operating from a different
power source, series resistors (10K to 100K)should be added to protect the MOS device. In
some cases this may be impractical as the added resistance may slow input rise and fall time to
an unacceptable degree.
• MOS devices and circuitry should only be stored and transported in antistatic packaging.
•
•
•
•
•
•
Nylon and similar materials, which allow the generation and build up of static charges, should
never be allowed to contact MOS devices.
MOS devices should be placed on a grounded surface and users should ground themselves to
discharge any accumulated static prior to handling the devices. The use of current-limited,
grounded wrist-straps is advisable.
Similarly, soldering irons and other tools should be discharged to ground prior to using them on
MOS circuitry.
MOS devices should be mounted on PCBs after all other components have been loaded and
soldered.
Ground and supply pins of MOS ICs should be soldered before other pins.
Air humidifiers should be employed in otherwise dry environments. Relative humidities above
40% can significantly reduce the build up of static charges.
RMS, Average and Peak Relationships
The term “RMS” (root-mean-square) is often encountered in electronics publications. It is the value
of any waveform which results in the same power being dissipated in a resistive load. For example, a
24OV RMS a.c. waveform, no matter what its shape, will cause the same power dissipation in a
resistor as 24OV d.c.
The table below shows the relationship between the RMS and average values for three common
waveforms for which the peak value is known. Multiplying the peak value by the factors given in the
table will yield the RMS and average values.
Strictly speaking, the average value of a waveform, which is symmetrical about the zero axis, is zero.
However, we often need to know the average of the absolute value of a waveform, and this is the
value which the table factors will yield.
Most test equipment does not directly measure RMS values. Meters typically measure average values
but are scaled to provide the RMS value of a sine wave, Knowing this, we can convert the indicated
reading back to the average value and then convert this to the true RMS value as long as we know
the shape of the measured waveform.
Waveshape
Multiplying Factor to
Temperature Conversion
0
Convert Peak Value to:
C = 5/9 (0F-32)
0
RMS
Average
F = 32 + 9/5 0C
Sine
0.707
0.637
Square
1
1
Triangle/SawtootH 0.577
0.5
Fuses
The humble fuse provides reliable and low cost protection against excessive currents which occur
during overloads. There are many different types and styles of fuses, and selecting the right fuse for
a particular application can be difficult.
When replacing blown fuses, try to obtain a fuse with a rating as close as possible to the original. If
it is not possible to locate an exact replacement, remember this - A higher current fuse will offer less
protection to the equipment, increasing the risk of damage and fire. A lower current fuse will offer
more protection, but will be more prone to nuisance blowing. Therefore, it is better to substitute a
lower value fuse until the correct type is obtained.
The explanations below should assist in understanding the terminology of fuses.
Current Rating indicates the current carrying capacity of a fuse under a particular set of test
conditions, at 250. Fuses operated at higher temperatures need to be derated, and allowance must be
made for any surge that occurs during switch-on. It is generally recommended that fuses be specified
at 125% of normal load current in order to avoid nuisance blowing.
Voltage Rating is the maximum circuit voltage at which a fuse can be relied upon to safely interrupt
an overcurrent. At voltages higher than the rating, a fuse may not be able to suppress the internal
arcing that occurs after the fuse link melts. In electronic circuits, where limiting impedances ensure
that the fault current is kept low so that a destructive arc cannot occur, fuses may sometimes be used
beyond their specified voltage rating.
AWU Trade Manual
67
Fuse Types. The common 3AG (Size 3 Automotive Glass) fuses are 6.3mm (0.25”) in diameter and
32mm (1.25”) in length. The smaller M205 fuse is 5mm in diameter and 20mm in length. Standard
fast-acting fuses are designed to open very quickly during an overload. They are not designed to
withstand the inrush current or switch-on surge that occurs in some equipment. Time delay or
slow-blow fuses are designed to tolerate the temporary overloads that occur during switch on, but
they still blow quickly if subjected to gross overloads during faults. Slow blow fuses are commonly
used in the primary circuits of electronic equipment, where the initial surge can be many the normal
load current. Slow blow fuses and fast acting fuses are not interchangable due to their different time
characteristics. It should be understood that the overload needed to cause even a fast-acting fuse to
open quickly must be of the order of 200% or more. An overload of only 35% (ie 4A through a 3A
fuse) could take an hour to open a fuse.
Handy Constants
Natural logarithm base
In(x)/log(x)
Pi
Pi (for Basic Programmers)
odBm
OdBm voltage in 600 ohms
odBm voltage in 50 ohms
dBSPL reference level
Charge on electron
Absolute zero
Speed of light in Vacuum
Speed of Sound
- in air @ 00C
- in air @ 200C
- in fresh water @ 200C
- in sea water @ 130C
Density of air @ 200C
␪
␪
0K
c
c
p0
2.71828
2.3026
3.14159265
4 x ATN (1)
1mW
774.6mV
223.6mV
20uPa
1.60210x10-19C
-273.160C
2.997925x108ms-1
331.6ms-1
343ms-1
1481ms-1
1500ms-1
1.293kgm-3
Electronic Formula Circuit Laws
Ohm’s Law
The relationship between voltage, current and resistance in a circuit is defined by Ohm’s law, which
may be simply stated by the formula:
E = I x R where E is in volts, 1 is in amps and R is in ohms.
This can be turned around to look like:
R=E
I=E
R
I
Power In A Circuit
When a current passes through a component, energy is given off in the form of heat. Normally, we
associate resistors with this action; that’ s part of their job. We often need to know how much power
is being given off by a resistor - and we find this out by using the formula:
P = E x I where P is in watts,
E is in volts and
I is in amps.
This formula too can be turned around if required:
P=P
I
I=P
E
Resistors in Series
Resistors in a series circuit are simply added together to find the total resistance. In other words, a 10
ohm, 150 ohm and 1000 ohm-resistor connected in series would be the equivalent of a single 1,160
ohm resistor.
The formula is:
RT=R1+R2+R3+….
Resistors in Parallel
Resistors in a parallel circuit are a little more difficult. The formula to use is:
RT=
1
1
1
1
R1 + R2 + R3
R1 x R2
Two resistors in parallel RT= R + R
1
2
Capacitors in Series
Capacitors in series, on the other hand, are similar to resistor in parallel. You add the reciprocals:
1
CT=
1 1 1
C1 + C2 + C3
C xC
Two capacitors in series CT= C1 + C2
1
2
Capacitors in Parallel
Capacitors behave exactly the opposite to resistors; when capacitors are in parallel, you add them:
CT = C1 + C2 + C3 + ….
Inductors in Series
LT = L1 + L2 + L3+
Inductors in Parallel
1
LT=
1 1 1
L1 + L2 + L3
LT= L1 x L2
L1 + L2
Two inductors in parallel:
(Reproduced with permission from DICK SMITH ELECTRONICS Pty. LIMITED.
AWU Trade Manual
69
PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS
Programmable logic controllers are purpose-built computers. A typical PLC has four separate yet
interlinked components. These are:
an input/output section, which connects the PLC to the outside world (the machine with its sensors,
solenoid valves and switches, lamps, heaters and electric motors).
a central processing unit (CPU), which is micro-processor based. This may be an octal or
hexadecimal microprocessor.
a programming device, which may be a hand-held programming console, a special PLC desk-type
programmer, similar to a lap-top computer, or a desk-top computer with monitor.
a power supply to power input sensors and output signals leading to lamps, motors, heaters and
solenoids on the fluid power valves (usually 24V DC).
A PLC’s internal configuration and interface with machine and peripheral equipment.
The CPU (central processing unit) is microprocessor based and may be regarded as the brain of the
controller. It scans and reads all the on/off conditions of all input terminals and stores them in its
input image memory before executing the program. The CPU then processes that information
according to the control plan programmed into the user memory (UM). Such an internal control plan
may include numerous memory functions, logic “AND”, “OR” and “INHIBITION” functions,
Arithmetic computation instructions, Timers and Counter functions. The CPU also continuously
scans (motors) the status of all output signals (bits) and thus constantly updates the contents of the
input image memory according to changes made to the output image memory (because outputs may
also serve as inputs). The CPU also organises its internal operation (watchdog timer, initialising
program etc) (figure 1-02). Larger PLCs also employ additional microprocessors to execute complex,
time-consuming functions such as mathematical data processing and PID (proportional integrated
derivative) control.
The program is entered with ladder diagram or graphic logic symbols through a computer and
monitor. It may also be entered by statement list or mnemonics via a hand-held or on-board
programming console. It then remains in the RAM (random access memory) of the CPU. In
practically all cases RAM is used for the initial program configuration (UM). RAM permits changes
to be easily made during the initial programming stages. Current trends in PLC design are the use of
CMOS (complementary metal-oxide silicon) RAM chips because of their extremely low power
consumption and providing battery backup to the chip to maintain logic status to flip-flops during
interruptions to PLC power supply. RAM by nature is a volatile memory, which loses stored data
during power failure! Execution results based upon the logic combinations rendering internal or
external output signals are then written internally (electronically) into the element image memory.
The element image memory then drives the output relays of the PLC.
THE PLC’s INTERNAL ORGANISATION PROGRAM
When a programmable logic
controller (PLC) operates, that is,
when it executes its program to
control an external system with, for
example, fluid power valves and their
actuators, a series of operations are
automatically performed within the
CPU. These automatic operations are
regarded as the PLC’s internal
organisation program. These internal
operations can broadly be grouped
into four categories.
common internal processes such as
resetting the watchdog scan-cycle
timer and checking the user program
memory
data input/output refreshing
instruction execution
peripheral device command
servicing.
Of these four internal operations, the
only one easily visible is the third,
instruction execution (driving valves
and their actuators and starting or
stopping motors, turning lamps on or
off and actuating heaters and fans).
Immediately after power application, the first three operations shown in the diagram are performed
once only. All other operations shown in are performed in cyclic order, with each cycle forming one
scan. The scan time is the time required for the CPU to complete one of these cycles. This scan cycle
includes the four types of operation listed above.
(Reproduced with permission from the author, Rohner Peter, “Automation with Programmable Logic
Controllers. UNSW PRESS.)
AWU Trade Manual
71
Fluid Power
73
Industrial hydraulic symbols
These symbols are based upon the international I.S.O. 1219 fluid power symbols. Only the most
common symbols have been included
Composite symbols can be devised for any fluid power components by combining the relevant basic
symbols.
Pumps, motors, and drives
Double acting actuator
Single direction pump
Differential actuator
with oversize rod
Double direction pump
Single direction motor
Double acting actuator
with double ended rod
Double direction motor
Single direction pump/motor
with reversal of flow direction
Piston with adjustable
end cushioning
Single direction pump/motor
with single flow direction
Piston with fixed end
cushioning
Double direction pump/motor
with two directions of flow
Telescopic, single
acting actuator
Hydrostatic drive,
split syster type
Hydrostatic drive, compact,
reversible output
Semi rotary actuator
Telescopic, double
acting actuator
Pressure intensifier
Valve control
mechanisms
Linear actuators
Undefined control
Single acting ram (load returns
the ram)
Hand lever (rotary or linear)
Single acting actuator (load
returns the piston)
Push button
Foot lever
Single acting actuator (spring
returns the piston)
Cam roller
Plunger (piston or ball)
Spring
Detent mechanism
Working lines
Pilot lines
X, Y
A, B
Pressure relief
Pressure line P
Pressure applied
Tank line T
Pneumatic pilot
Hydraulic pilot Solenoid
Check valve
Solenoid/hydraulic pilot
Spring loaded check valve
Pneumatic/hydraulic pilot
Pilot operated check valve
Spring centred
OR function valve
AND function valve
Directional control valves
Directional control valve with
two discrete positions
Deceleration valve
Deceleration valve
Directional control valve with
three discrete positions
Directional control valve with
significant cross-over positions
Valve with two discrete and an
infinite number of intermediate
throttling positions
Valve with three discrete and an
infinite number of intermediate
throttling positions
Two position, two port valve
Two position, three port valve
Two position, four port valve
Two position, five port valve
Three position, four port valve
with fully closed centre
configuration
Port labelling:
AWU Trade Manual
Servo and
proportional valve
Proportional control
pressure relief valve (with
integral max. pressure
limitation)
Pilot operated
directional
proportional valve
4-way servo valve with
mechanical feedback,
standard overlapping
and hydraulic zero
75
Pressure controls
Throttling orifice normally
closed or normally open
(*optional)
Offloading valve
Pressure relief valve (fixed
Pressure reducing valve
(fixed)
Pressure relief valve
(adjustable)
Pressure reducing valve
(adjustable)
Detailed symbol of pilot
operated pressure relief
valve (compound relief
valve)
Simplified symbol of
compound relief valve (Pilot
flow externally drained)
Pilot operated pressure
reducing valve
Pressure reducing valve
with secondary system
relief
(Pilot flow internally
drained)
Brake valve
Flow controls
Throttle valve not affected
by viscosity
Unloading valve
(accumulator charging
valve)
Throttle valve (fixed)
Throttle valve (adjustable)
Counter balance valve
(back pressure valve)
Flow control valve,
pressure and temperature
compensated
Sequence valve with
remote control (external
pilot)
Flow control valve with
reverse free flow check
Sequence valve with
direct control (internal pilot)
By-pass flow control valve
Flow divider
Fluid plumbing and storage
Pressure source
Miscellaneous symbols
Electric motor
Heat engine
Working line, return line, feed line
Electric motor with
pump and drive coupling
Pilot control line
Plugged line
Drain line
Plugged line with take-olf line
Quick connect coupling
Enclosure line
Rotary connection
Flexible line
Electric line
Pipeline connections
Cross pipeline (not connected)
Accumulator
Filter, strainer
Cooler with coolant lines
Heater
Air vent
Pressure gauge, pressure
indicator
Reservoir with inlet below fluid
level
Flow meter
Thermometer
Reservoir with inlet above fluid
level
Pressure switch (electrical)
Shut-oft valve
AWU Trade Manual
77
FLUID POWER FORMULAE
FLUID POWER CALCULATION DATA
AWU Trade Manual
79
HYDRAULIC FAULT FINDING
The following tables may be used as a general guide to spotting problems in a system, but many
other unexpected and uncalculated problems can crop up. Even in a simple system it may be
necessary to call in a skilled and trained hydraulic technician.
Noisy Pump
Cause: What to do
Oil Aeration
Be sure that the oil reservoir is filled to normal level and that the oil intake is below the surface of
the oil. Check pump seals, piping connections and all other points where air might leak into the
system. If oil level is low, return line to reser-voir may be exposed above the oil level.
Cavitation (The formation of vacuum in a pump when it does not get enough oil)
Check that the suction isolating valve (if fitted) is open. Check for clogged or restricted intake line or
plugged air vents in the reservoir. Check strainers in the intake line. The oil viscosity may be too
high, check recommendations.
Loose, worn or stuck pump parts.
Parts may be stuck by metallic chips, bits of lint etc. Products of oil deterioration such as gums,
sludges, varnishes and lacquer may be a cause of sticking. Return equipment to manufacturer for
overhaul.
Inlet filter or strainer dirty.
Filters and strainers must be kept clean enough to permit adequate flow. Be sure that original filter
has not been re-placed by one of smaller capacity. Use oil of quality high enough to prevent rapid
sludge formation.
Pump running too fast
Determine recommended speed. Check pulley and gear sizes. Make sure that no one has installed a
replacement motor with other than recommended speed.
Pump out of line with drive motor.
Check alignment. Misalignment may be caused by temperature distortion.
Leakage Around Pump
Cause: What to do
Worn shaft seal
Check shaft seal and other sealed connections for leakage. Replace / tighten as required
Pump Not Pumping
Cause: What to do
Pump shaft turning in wrong direction
Shut down immediately. Some types of pump can turn in either direction without causing damage;
others are designed to run in one direction only. Check belts, pulleys, gears, motor connections.
Reversed leads on 3-phase motors are a common cause of wrong rotation.
Intake clogged
Check line from reservoir to pump. Be sure that filters and strainers are not clogged. Check that
suction isolating valve(where fitted) is open. Intake line must be below oil level. If the oil supply is
low, less oil will be available to carry away just as much heat. This will cause a rise in oil
temperature, especially in machines without oil coolers. Be sure oil is up to recommended level in
the reservoir.
Air leak in intake
If any air at all is going through the pump, it will be quite noisy. If this condition is allowed to
continue, erosion damage to pump will result.
Pump shaft speed too low.
Some pumps will deliver oil in a low speed range; others must be operated at recommended speed to
give appreciable flow. First determine the manufacturer's recommended speed, then check the speed
of the pump, preferably with a tachometer.
Unloading valve. (where fitted) not operating.
High setting on unloading valve. If so, reset or if solenoid unloading type, solenoid control valve
may be faulty, ie, spool is jammed by dirt or solenoid is burnt out. Pressure switch may not be
operating.
Oil viscosity too high
Check oil recommendation. If uncertain of the viscosity of the oil in the system, it may be worthwhile
to drain the system and refill with oil of the correct viscosity.
Relief valve setting low.
Check setting of relief valve and compare with specifications. The setting may be too low because the
load has increased. Discuss with manufacturer before adjusting to a setting other than specified on
drawings.
Overheating of System
Cause: What to do
Internal leakage too high.
Check for wear and loose packings. Oil viscosity may be too low, check recommendations. Under
unusual working conditions the temperature may increase enough to reduce viscosity of
recommended oil too much. Check with manufacturer if this problem arises. Return equipment to
manufacturer if there are signs of excessive wear.
Incorrectly sized installation piping
Check manufacturer's recommendations.
Oil cooler clogged.
On any system equipped with an oil cooler, high temperatures may be expected. If temperatures
normally run high, they will go even higher if oil cooler passages are clogged. In the case of water
cooled heat exchangers check for adequate flow of coolant or any presence of scaling. In the case of
air-blast coolers, check fins for cleanliness.
Insufficient Pressure to Operate System
Cause: What to do
Relief valve setting too low
If the relief valve setting is too low, oil may flow from the pump through the relief valve and back to
the reservoir, across the open circuit without reaching point of use. To check relief setting, block the
discharge line beyond the relief valve and check line pressure with a pressure gauge. The system may
overheat if this happens.
Relief valve stuck open.
Look for dirt or sludge in the valve. If the valve is dirty, disassemble and clean. A stuck valve may be
an indication that the system contains dirty or deteriorated oil.
Broken, worn or stuck pump parts.
Install pressure gauge and block system just beyond the relief valve. If no appreciable pressure is
developed and relief valve is OK, look for mechanical trouble in the pump. Contact manufacturer for
replacement pump.
Erratic Action
Cause: What to do
Valves, pistons etc stuck or binding.
First check suspected part for mechanical deficiencies such as misalignment of a shaft, worn
bearings etc. Then look for signs of dirt, oil sludge, varnishes and lacquers caused by oil
deterioration. Mechanical deficiencies can be rectified by replacing worn parts, but keep in mind
that these deficiencies may be caused by the use of incorrect oil.
Sluggishness when a machine is first started.
Sluggishness is often caused by oil that is too thick at starting temperatures. If this can be tolerated
AWU Trade Manual
81
for a short period of time, the oil may thin out enough to give satisfactory operation once operating
temperature is reached. If the oil does not thin out, or if the surrounding temperature remains
relatively low, it may be necessary to switch to an oil with lower viscosity. Under severe conditions
immersion heaters may be used to preheat the oil. If speed is too low, look for trouble in the drive
motor.
Oil viscosity too high.
If oil viscosity is too high, some types of pumps cannot pick up prime. Drain the system and fill with
oil of the correct viscosity.
Mechanical trouble (broken shaft or loose coupling, etc)
Mechanical trouble is often accompanied by noise the source of which can be easily located.
System Operates Slower Than Normal.
Check the following for possible causes:1 Check the main system relief for partial unloading due to possible malfunction or setting too
low.
2 Check if internal leakage within the pump is excessive.
3 Check if leakage within motor is excessive, ie, either port to port or crankcase leakage.
4 Check that control valves are functioning correctly.
5 Check condition of suction filters.
Diagnostic Hints
These pointers are worth considering:
1. Hydraulic systems do not fail overnight. There are usually symptoms of an approaching
problem. If the suggested remedies do not correct the trouble and you need to refer to hydraulic
specialists, always give as much background information to the problem as possible.
2. Get to know the operation of the equipment you are maintaining. Read manufacturers
instructions and study circuit diagrams carefully, particularly recommended start-up procedures.
3. Use the right tools and use them correctly. Some hydraulic components are delicate and it can
take just the right touch to make them tick.
4. Don't take short cuts. Take the time to do the job properly.
5. Don't experiment unless it's your last resort. Manufacturers spend a lot of time designing,
building and testing equipment. This doesn't mean you can't make improvements, but take it
easy.
6. Play it safe. Most modern hydraulic equipment works in the range of 1 MPa to over 100 MPa
(150 - 15000 psi), and high pressures can be dangerous. If you must work on a line that is under
pressure, be careful. It is best to shut the machine down first.
7. Analyse the system and develop a logical sequence for setting valves, mechanical stops,
interlocks and electrical controls.
( Reproduced with permision from MANNESMANN REXROTH Pty Ltd.)
GENERAL PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE
FOR ALL PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS
Daily:
Drain condensate from the filters if the air has a high water content and if no automatic condensate
drainage has been provided. With large reservoirs, a water separator with automatic drain should be
fitted as a general principle. Check the oil level in the compressed air lubricator, and check the
setting of the oil metering.
Weekly:
Check signal generators for possible deposits of dirt or swarf. Check the pressure gauge of the
pressure regulators. Check that the lubricator is functioning correctly.
Every 3 months:
Check the seals of the connectors for leaks. If necessary, re-tighten the connectors. Replace lines
connected to moving parts. Check the exhaust ports of the valves for leaks. Clean filter cartridges
with soapy water (do not use solvents), and blow them out with compressed air in the reverse of the
normal flow direction. Check the function of the automatic drain valves.
Every 6 months:
Check the rod bearings in the cylinders for wear, and replace if necessary, also replace the scraper
and sealing rings
Important preventive measures include:
Correct components and signal generators, matched to the environmental conditions and control
sequence.(Check the technical data for the components, and make use of special designs if
appropriate).
Robust cylinder designs, with appropriate mountings in cases where heavy loads and lateral forces
are present.
Mechanical absorption of the actuating forces by means of additional shock absorbers in cases where
acceleration forces are high.
Use of covers or self cleaning components in cases of high incidence of dirt and dust.
Correct securing of the mounting screws of cylinders and signal generators.
Short line lengths, fitted with amplifiers if appropriate, to prevent sluggish signals.
Provision of reliable exhausting for control and power valves.
Malfunctions and Failures:
Malfunctions and failures may be caused by the following:
Natural wear and tear of components and lines.
Natural wear and tear is considerably accelerated by the effects of external environmental influences
and by internal influences which, as far as pneumatics is concerned, are generally connected with the
condition of the compressed air.
Wear of units may lead to breakages, seizure of units, functional failures leakages, etc.
Contaminated air may lead to component failure caused by blockages, seizures (oil) and increased
wear (due to incorrect fitting).
Lines may become blocked, split or bent, or may age prematurely due to external influences.
Deposits may cause additional resistances in lines and components, which may in turn cause a
marked pressure drop and possibly incorrect switching
Incorrect switching can also be expected in cases where a pressure drop is caused by leaks or by
fluctuating supply pressure. Filter elements which have not been correctly serviced can be a further
cause of pressure drops of this kind.
Incorrect fitting of cylinders and incorrect loads lead to premature wear.
Limit valves have not been mounted correctly, or signal lines are too long (sluggish signals).
AWU Trade Manual
83
Putting controls into service
Each new, extended or repaired control represents a possible source of danger. The possibility can
never be excluded that a cylinder will move in an unexpected way. In order to prevent injuries and
damage to tools and material, a set of commissioning instructions should be prepared for each
system. This should incorporate in particular the following points in the order given:
1.
2.
3.
Ensure that the entire system is under no-pressure conditions.
Check that all power components are in their starting position.
Check that all bi-stable valves are in the correct position. If necessary, individual valves must
be reversed by means of their manual overrides or by means of controlled pulses.
4. Close all flow control valves which control the piston speeds of the cylinders.
5. Increase the air supply for the cylinders and valves slowly
a) manually, by means of the pressure regulator
b) automatically, by means of a safety start-up valve.
6. Open the flow control valves slowly
7. Carry out test runs without work pieces. Divide the overall sequence into individual steps, eg. by
triggering the manual override of control valves, or by means of inching operation.
8. Check the switching functions, mounting and adjustment of the limit valves. Is there a reliable
switching function? Is it certain that the switching elements are not overloaded?
9. Carry out test runs with a workpiece.
10. Check that the specified forces and speeds are reached.
Even small cylinders can cause dangerous injuries. When carrying out adjustments, you should
therefore always be sure to keep your hands out of the way of the cylinder movements (eg. when
checking the actuation of limit valves). It is better to increase your reach by means of a suitable
object or tool.
Pneumatic Fault Finding
Type of malfunction
Possible cause
Remedy
Single acting cylinder
When a power valve is
connected, this blows at its
exhaust port.
Piston seal is leaking, or is
loose on the piston rod.
Renew the piston seal.
Piston rod does not return
to the end position.
Pressure spring is broken
Filter nipple is clogged.
Fit a new spring
Clean filter nipple.
Air blows into the atmosphere
at the flanged bearing bush.
Piston seal is leaking, and
Replace the sleeve and
flanged bush is damaged.
flanged bush.
Piston seal is fitted upside down. Reposition the piston seal.
Double-acting cylinder
Air escapes at the piston rod.
Ring seal is defective.
Fit a new ring seal.
The power valve which is
connected blows at port R.
Piston seal and piston are
damaged.
Replace both components.
Piston travels hard into
rings.both end positions.
Both cushioning rings are
worn out.
Replace both cushioning
Lubricator
Resination of lubricator.
Incorrect oil used.
Wash out lubricator.
Lubricator incorrectly fitted.
Flow direction indicated by
arrow.
Lubricator does not function
correctly.
Too much oil in system.
Lubricator is incorrectly
adjusted.
Oil is above mark.
Adjust lubricator correctly.
The O ring is leaking.
Lubricator is adjusted
incorrectly.
Fit new O ring.
Adjust lubricator correctly.
The pilot piston is jammed
(contamination).
Coil does not respond,
control lines do not open.
Pressure insufficient
for reversal.
Replace ring seal.
Solenoid actuator is noisy
(humming).
Coil heavily contaminated.
Excessive play between
armature and armature tube.
Clean coil.
Replace complete solenoid
actuator.
Air flows out of armature tube.
Rubber seal in armature
damaged.
Nozzle damaged.
Replace armature.
Oil level in lubricator falls rapidly.
Solenoid valve
Pilot spool does not reverse.
Compressed air filter and regulator valve.
Filter does not separate dirt
Filter fitted wrong way round.
and water.
Condensate level above
marked line
Air discharges into the
atmosphere at the
pressure regulator.
Quick exhaust valve
Valve blows into
atmosphere at port R.
Air is escaping between
the upper and lower parts
of the housing.
One-way flow control valve
Valve blows with regulating
screw closed.
Valve is noisy.
Pneumatic limit valve
Valve blows through the
R port when not actuated.
AWU Trade Manual
Drain off oil.
Replace coil.
Check pressure level.
Replace housing.
Fit and connect filter so that
flow direction is correct.
Drain condensate; if
appropriate, fit automatic
condensate drain.
Regulator incorrectly fitted
as regards flow direction.
Fit regulator correctly.
Incorrectly connected
compressed air supply ports.
Cup seal is leaking.
Switch the lines at P and A.
The O ring is damaged
Replace the O ring.
Pressure spring is jammed
or incorrectly fitted.
Regulating screw damaged.
Disc seal is defective.
Replace or re-position
spring.
Disc seal is defective.
Replace disc seal.
The stem sealing washer
is damaged.
Ports P & A crossed over.
Replace the washer.
Replace cup seal.
Replace regulating screw.
Fit new disc seal.
Change the tubing over.
85
Valve blows through the A port.
Washer or valve stem
is defective.
Ports P & R crossed over.
Replace the damaged
components.
Change the tubing over.
Valve blows at exhaust
port in diaphragm.
Diaphragm is leaking.
Replace diaphragm.
Valve does not reverse.
Pilot pressure too low.
Pilot unit contaminated.
Diaphragm defective.
Set pressure correctly.
Check filter unit.
Observe minimum pressure.
( Reproduced with permission from FESTO Pty Ltd.)
TROUBLE-SHOOTING PROCEDURE - PNEUMATIC FILTERS
The following is a list of general problems which may be encountered with filters. Also included are
the possible cause and remedy most likely to cure the problem. Automatic drains are non-repairable
and must be replaced if defective.
Excessive Pressure Drop
Possible Cause
Micro rating of element too small for
application.
Remedy
Use larger micron size element.
Filter element plugged.
1. Clean element (sintered elements only)
2. Replace with new element
Flow requirement greater than filter
capacity.
Use larger filter.
Dirt Passing Through Filter
Possible Cause
Element seal is missing or defective.
Remedy
1. Replace seal.
(Note: Seals not required on some units).
2 Tighten element.
Water Passing Through Filter
Possible Cause
Water level in bowl above baffle.
Flow capacity of filter exceeded.
Remedy
Drain water.
Maintain flow within capacity of filter
or change to filter capable of handling
desired flows.
Crazing of Polycarbonate Bowl
Possible Cause
Bowl has been cleaned with incompatible fluid.
Remedy
Replace bowl.
Clean only in clear, warm water or
kerosene.
Bowl is being used in an area containing
fumes or vapors incompatible with polycarbonate.
Replace bowl.
Eliminate source of problem or
convert from plastic to metal bowls.
Compressor oil vapor may be causing
problem.
Replace bowl.
Eliminate source of problem or
convert from plastic to metal bowls.
Air intake to compressor may be from
an area containing fumes or vapor
Replace bowl.
Eliminate source of problem or
harmful to polycarbonate.
convert from plastic to metal bowls.
TROUBLE SHOOTING - LUBRICATORS (OIL FOG)
No Drip Rate
Possible Cause
Remedy*
Oil adjustment, full clockwise.
Re-adjust.
Low oil level.
Check oil level.
Airflow through lubricator too low.
Use smaller size lubricator.
Plugged siphon tube.
Remove bowl, check siphon tube,
Clean if necessary.
Plugged orifices and throttling disc.
Disassemble needle valve assembly
and remove throttling disc, drip gland
and venturi tube. Clean parts, making
certain all passageways are clear.
Plugged oil filter screen
Remove bowl. Screen is located on
end of siphon tube.
Remove sight-feed adjustment dome
and dean or replace screen located
in dome assembly.
Reservoir will not pressurize.
See filter malfunction column.
Reservoir will not Pressurise (causes no drip rate)
Possible Cause
Remedy*
Reservoir charge check valve has
plugged orifice.
Remove check valve and clean orifice.
Make certain all passageways are open.
Cycle rate too great to permit
Remove bowl change check valve.
pressurisation of reservoir.
Reservoir, bowl, adjustment dome or
Check seals, replace if necessary.
fill plug seal leaking.
Flooding of Oil in Sight-feed Glass or Dome
Possible Cause
Remedy*
Rapid reduction of applied pressure.
This can occur in lubricators containing
bowl pressurisation (charge) check
valves. Can be prevented by slowly
reducing applied pressure or removing
charge check valve.
Unable to Reduce Drip Rate
Possible Cause
Remedy*
Action of throttling disc and pressure
Replace parts using standard repair kit.
plate may be impaired.
*Caution: Before working on lubricators make sure all pressure has been reduced to zero.
AWU Trade Manual
87
Typical Drip Rate Setting for Micro Fog Lubricator
The above chart refers to a particular lubricator which shows that a drip rate of 60 drops per minute
with an upstream pressure of 6.3 bars and 12 dm3/s of flow, a moderate mixture of micro-fog is
introduced into the airline. The drip rate of below 25 drops per minute becomes lean while anything
above 90 drops per minute is rich.
Typical Pressure Drop for Micro Fog Lubricator
As mentioned earlier, flow across any component suffers a pressure drop. With this model lubricator
its chart shows that with a primary pressure of 4.0 bars and a flow rate of 32.5 dm3/s, the expected
pressure drop across the lubricator is 0.3 bar.
TROUBLE SHOOTING - LUBRICATORS (MICRO FOG)
No Drip Rate
Possible Cause
Oil adjustment knob full clockwise.
Remedy*
Readjust knob.
Low oil level.
Check oil level.
Air flow through lubricator too low.
Use smaller size lubricator.
Plugged siphon tube.
Remove sight-feed adjustment dome
and clean or replace screen located in
dome assembly.
Air leaks.
Check bowl, fill plug and sight-dome
gaskets.Tighten if necessary.
*Caution: Before working on lubricators, make sure all pressure has been reduced to zero.
HOW TO SELECT A (MICRO-FOG OR OIL-FOG TYPE) LUBRICATOR
The following points should be determined in order to make the correct recommendation.
1) What is normal line pressure?
2) What pipe size is required?
3) Do you require high amounts of oil or fine control? Name application.
4) What is the required flow?
5) Is the environment and temperature compatible with the lubricator's polycarbonate bowl? Is a
metal bowl more suitable for the application?
6) What type of lubricating oil is being used?
7) Are remote filling capabilities required?
PNEUMATIC LUBRICATION OILS
Only lubricating oils as recommended by both the equipment and lubricator manufacturers should be
used, and for oil mist and microfog types, oils having inclusions of molybdenum disulphide, graphite
powder and lubricating soaps are generally not recommended.
Oil viscosity is of great importance in airline lubricator performance, and for a given air flow rate. a
thinner oil will be picked up by a lubricator in larger quantities. Inadequate lubrication can often be
remedied by using thinner oils. Lubricating oils having viscosities of between 160 and 320 seconds
Redwood Number 1 at 21% are generally recommended and employed.
The SI unit for Kinematic Viscosity is m/s preferably expressed as centistokes (cSt) and quoted at
200C. 1 cSt = m/s2 x 10-6.
NOTE: For high speed pneumatic tools viscosity should be below 50 cSt at 20%. For normal to
heavy duty lubrication of standard pneumatic equipment viscosity should be between 50 cSt and 170
cSt at 200C. Minimum lubricator flow rates should be taken as at least 0.5 dm3/s(s.c.f.m) above
specified minimum flow rates.
AWU Trade Manual
89
TYPICAL OILS RECOMMENDED FOR LUBRICATORS
For normal lubrication of standard pneumatic equipment, viscosity should be between 50 cSt and
100 cSt at 200C. The listed oils have been found satisfactory for pneumatic equipment and have
suitable anti-corrosion and anti-oxidation properties.
3448
No.No.
1@700F
1@7
OIL COMPANY GRADE OF OIL VISCOSITY ISO1S0
3448 cSt
cSt @200C
@ 200CREDWOOD
REDWOOD
GERM
KILFROST
SHELL
GULF
R.D. N1COL
BA
TOTAL
CHEVRON
GULF
MOBIL
FINA
ESSO
MOBIL
CASTROL
ELF
CENTURY
GERM
DUCKHAMS
SHELL
GULF
Dynobear EL
Pneumatic Tool
Anti-Freeze Lubricant
Tellus 23 22
Harmony 32AW
RDN60
HLP32 (150)
Azolla. VG 32
EP Hydraulic Oil 32
Harmony 32
DTE Oil Light
Hydran 32
Nuto H32
DTE 24
Hyspin AWS32
0Ina 32
PWLA
Dynobear 1
Zerotto 4
Tellus 37
Harmony 46AW
22
-
50
52
194
192
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
31.3
46
60.0
81
73
75
75
77
82
79
80
80
80
80
84
85
89
90
100
122
225
259
285
292
297
305
291
320
307
310
317
320
330
340
340
340
370
417
Pneumatic Cylinder Rod Seals and Wipers
The wiper seal is situated normally in a groove at the front of the piston rod bearing. Its purpose is to
prevent dust-dirt etc. from entering the cylinder during the retracting stroke. Although not a pressure
seal it is more so a mechanical type due to its wedging action against the piston rod.
Seal Materials
Many types of seal materials are available according to application requirements. Examples are
leather, metallic - stainless steel, phosphor bronze, cast iron and synthetic rubbers, polymers.
For pneumatic equipment, synthetic rubbers are mainly used due to ease of moulding and resistance
to oils. The most popular seal material presently is Nitrile or Buna-N which exhibits excellent oil
and wear resistance within the range of temperature at which most pneumatic equipment is required
to work.
General Characteristics of Popular Seal Materials
Nitrile
- (Buna-N), Working Temperature Range
-20oC to+12O0C. Excellent wearing qualities.
Viton
- Working Temperature Range, -400C
to +1900C. Excellent wearing quality.
Polyurethane
- Working Temperature Range, -200C
to +2000C. Excellent wearing quality.
PTFE
- Working Temperature Range, -200C
to +2000C. Excellent wear/chemical
resistance.
Silicone
- Working Temperature Range, -900C
to +2600C
PTFE material would be the most advantageous for temperature and chemical resistance, but the use
of such seals requires finely finished mating surfaces. Interior finishes can cause excessive wear.
Silicone seals have a high temperature resistance but generally the abrasion resistance and tear
strength is low and in this respect, they cannot be considered suitable for dynamic use in equipment
which is operating frequently.
Note: Where seals are specified for particular environments, then the equipment manufacturers
should be closely consulted.
( Reproduced with permission from NORGREN.)
AWU Trade Manual
91
Food Technology
93
FOOD TECHNOLOGY
Quality food production requires strict control of hygiene in the process of manufacture and handling
foodstuffs.
The quality standards for food is set out internationally by the
CODEX ALIIMENTARIUS COMMISSION
Under this Commission, the participating member countries are required to specify food stuffs by;
1. Product designation, definition, composition.
2. Hygiene requirements.
3. Weight and measure requirements.
4. Labelling requirements.
5. Sampling, testing and analytical methods.
To meet Quality Standards, the appearance, taste, chemical analysis and microbiological evaluation
are controlled by the relevant government authorities.
Additives controlled by authorities are;
Nutrients
Colourings
Flavourings
Flavour enhancers
Anti-microbiological preservatives.
Food spoilage is caused generally by;
micro organisms
enzyme action
dehydration
Micro-organisms are effected by;
temperature
moisture
oxygen concentration
available nutrients
degree of contamination
growth inhibitors
Harmful bacteria may, but not always reveal itself as discolouration, odour, slime, gas inside sealed
packaging or change in texture.
Sources of bacteria are;
Personnel carriers. Food handlers must observe regulations concerning personal hygiene and not
handle food if unwell or have wounds on their hands.
Cross contamination occurs when processed food is contaminated with unprocessed.(e.g. raw and
cooked meat.) Utensils and equipment must be kept separate.
Un-hygienic premises or handling methods where the food may come in contact with the floor or
vermin and insects which carry bacteria.
Sanitising equipment and utensils with hot water, the final rinse if washing is done by hand should
be 80°C minimum for two minutes. Machine washing may use a final rinse cycle of 80°C for 10 to
12 seconds. Boiling water immersion should be for 30 seconds minimum.
Low temperature reduces the respiration of fruit and vegetables, which also reduces the rate of
oxygen consumption and carbon-monoxide produced by the food stuffs. Listed is the recommended
refrigeration storage temperatures and time period for the foodstuffs listed.
COOL ROOM PRODUCT STORAGE
Storage
RelativeSpecific HeatLatentFreezing
Respiration
Product
Temperatures Humidity
APPLES
ASPARAGUS
BACON (Fresh)
BANANAS
BEAN (Green)
REEF Fresh-Fat)
BEEF (Fresh, Lean)
BUTTER
CABBAGE
CAULIFLOWER
CELERY
CHEESE
CHERRIES
CUCUMBERS
EGGS (Fresh)
EGGPLANTS
FLOWERS
FISH (Fresh Iced)
GRAPES
HAM (Fresh)
HONEY
ICE CREAM
LARD
LAMB
LEMONS
LETTUCE
LIVER (Fresh)
LOBSTER (Boiled)
MELONS
MILK
MUSHROOMS
ONIONS
ORANGES
OYSTERS (Shell)
PEACHES
PEARS (Fresh)
PEAS (Green)
PINEAPPLES (Ripe)
PORK (Fresh)
POTATOES
POULTRY (Dressed)
SAUSAGE (Fresh)
SQUASH
STRAWBERRIES
TOMATOES (Ripe)
VEAL
VEGETABLES
AWU Trade Manual
-1 to 0
0
- 18 to 15
13 to 22
0 to 1
-1 to 0
-1 to 0
0
0
-0.5 to 0
0 to 3
-0.5 to 0
7 to 10
1 to -0-5
7 to 10
2 to 4
-4
-1 to 0
-2
- 0.5 to 0
-18 to -12
0 to 1
0 to 1
0
0
0 to 1
-4
1 to4
1 to 2
0 to 2
0
0 to 1
0 to 2
-0.5 to 0
- 2 to 0.5
0
4 to 7
-1
2 to 10
-2 to -1
-0.5 to 2
10 to 13
-0.5 to 0
4 to 10
- 2 to -1
0
kJ/kg.K
Heat
Long
Short
%
°C
3 to 6
4
2 to 4
13 to 22
4 to 7
3 to 6
3 to 6
4 to 7
7
4 to 7
7 to 10
4 to 7
4
7 to 10
°C
85 to 88
85 to 90
80
85 to 95
85 to 90
.84
85
90 to 95
85 to 90
90 to 95
80 to 85
80 to 85
8 to 10
85 to 90
85 to 90
-4 to -1
2 to 4
2 to 4
7 to 10
4 to 7
1 to 6
13 to 14
7
2 to 3
2 to 4
4 to 7
4 to7
13 to 16
10 to 16
10
3.5
10
4
4 to 7
2 to 4
7 to 16
-1.5 to 0
2 to 4
13 to 16
6 to 7
13 to 21
4 to 7
2 to 4
80 to 85
80
3.3
80
82
80 to 85
90 to 95
83
75 to 85
80 to 85
70 to 75
85 to 90
1.8
85 to 90
85 to 90
85 to 90
10
85
85 to 90
80
70 to 75
80 to 85
85 to 90
3.0
90 to 95
Point kJ/kg-day W/tonne
Above
Below
Freezing Freezing
3.6
1.9
282
3.9
2.0
312
2.1
1.3
68
3.3
1.8
252
3.8
2.0
298
2.5
1.55
184
3.2
1.7
233
2.7
1.4
35
3.9
21.0
308
3.9
2.0
308
4.0
2.0
315
2.7
1.5
184
3.6
1.9
280
4.1
2.1
319
3.2
1.7
233
3.9
2-0
303
3.2
1.7
235
3.7
1.8
270
2.8
1.6
202
1.5
1.1
61
1.9
224
-2.8
2.2
1.3
210
2.9
1.3
195
3.9
1.9
296
4.0
2.0
317
3.0
1.7
217
3.4
1.8
245
3.9
2.0
308
3.9
2.1
289
3.9
2.0
303
3.8
1.9
289
3.8
1.9
289
270
-2.8
3.8
1.9
289
3.6
1.9
275
3.3
1.8
247
85 to 90 3.7
1.9
2.8
1.6
202
3.4
1.8
259
3.3
1.5
247
3.7
2.3
217
3.9
2.0
303
3.9
2.0
301
4.0
2.0
312
1.6
212
-1.7
3.8
1.9
303
kJ/kg
°C
-2
-1.2
-3.9
-2.2
-1.3
-2.2
-1.7
- 1.1
-0.4
-0.5
- 1.3
- 8.3
-3.3
-0.8
-2.8
-0.9
1.68.
13.4
9.74
7.85
4.03
5.28
5.45
3.08
-
0
- 1.1
-3.2
-2.8
-1.7
-2.2
-0.4
-1.7
0.98
1.65
0.96
8.6
- 1.7
-0.6
-1
-1
-2.2
4.05
-1.4
-2
- 1. 1
284
-2.2
-1.7
-2.8
-3.3
-1
-1.2
-0.9
2.03
1.4
7.69
1.47
-1.1
4.66
9.32
1.17
1.63
-1.4
1.68
95
By observing a danger zone of between 7°C and 80°C together with limiting the time food will be at
this temperature during processing, the risk of spoilage is reduced.
Humidity has an important bearing on the quality of food and also on the rate of bacterial growth.
Food kept at higher than recommended humidity will enhance the growth of bacteria and food kept
below the required humidity will suffer degradation of quality. This in conjunction with temperature
and air circulation must be controlled.
Chemical contamination with preservatives are controlled by strict regulations in order to reduce
spoilage and not present consumer problems. Accidental contamination may result from pesticides
etc. not being removed by washing prior to processing.
The time a particular food may be kept in ideal storage conditions is well documented and is intended
to restrict the spoilage due to bacteria which may exist under these conditions,
Preservation Methods
Refrigeration
Above zeroºC, most successful preservation is with high water content food.
Freezing
Rapid freezing in circulated air or in contact with freezer plates is necessary to avoid the formation of
large ice crystals.
Blanching
Harmful enzymes are controlled by a heat treatment prior to freezing.
Drying
If not dried to 12% moisture prior to harvest, grain is artificially dried to prevent the formation of
moulds. Fruit is dried to 16 to 25% moisture content and must be kept dry.
Desicants are used to improve the storage life.
Freeze Drying
Performed under high vacuum and strict temperature control. Packaging prevents the absorption of
moisture.
Canning
Glass, enamel or tin coated steel, aluminium and plastic have widespread use as canning containers.
Food is thermally treated to expand and remove gases before heat sterilising and sealing. Cooling
creates a partial vacuum.
Fermentation
Desirable micro-organisms are utilised to ferment the product in a solution of increasing salt brine
concentration.
Pickling
Similar to fermentation. Also uses other ingredients i.e. sodium hydroxide, nitrite, nitrate, sugar citric
acid or vinegar
Concentrated
Concentration occurs as a result of heating until reduced to approximately 70%. The presence of the
jelly forming is due to Pectin being present in all fruits or may be added to achieve the result.
Candied
The fruit is slowly impregnated with sugar syrup until the mould yeast is inhibited.
Chemical Preservation
As well as the use of sugar, salt, vinegar and alcohol other agents used are Organic Chemical
Preservatives. Sulphur dioxide and sulphides are used in fruit preservation and wine making. Nitrates
and nitrites are used in meat curing.
Irradiation (Ionising Radiation)
Use on its own to control parasites, organisms etc. or with other methods to in activate enzymes.
Antimycotics
Mould inhibitors such as poly unsaturated fatty acids keep meat, cheese and other moist foods better
in refrigeration.
97
Grinding
99
GENERAL OPERATING RULES
RESPONSIBILITY: Competent persons shall be assigned to the mounting, care, and inspection of
grinding wheels and machines.
INSPECTION AFTER BREAKAGE: Whenever a wheel breaks, a careful inspection shall be
made to make sure that the wheel speed has not been exceeded and the hood has not been damaged,
nor the flanges bent or sprung out of true or out of balance. The spindle and nuts shall also be
carefully inspected.
REPLACING WHEEL GUARD: After mounting a new wheel, care should be taken to see that the
guard is properly replaced.
STARTING NEW WHEELS: All new wheels shall be run at full operating speed for at least one
minute before applying work, during which time the operator shall stand at one side.
APPLYING WORK: Work should not be forced against a cold wheel, but applied gradually, giving
the wheel an opportunity to warm and thereby minimise the chance of breakage. This applies to
starting work in the morning in cold rooms, and to new wheels
which have been stored in a cold place.
TEST OF BALANCE: Wheels should occasionally be tested
for balance, and rebalanced if necessary.
TRUING: Wheels worn out of round shall be trued by a competent person. Wheels out of balance through wear, which
cannot be balanced by truing or dressing, shall be removed from
the machine.
Instructions for the SAFE USE of Grinding Wheels
Grinding wheels are safe and necessary cutting tools, but they are not unbreakable. They must be
handled, mounted and used carefully and with adequate protection. The Australian Standard Safety
Code AS1788 regulations tell how to use wheels safely and with confidence. Be sure to follow the
basic instructions below.
MOUNTING WHEELS
1. Select correct wheel for your operation. Inspect for cracks. “Ring” Do not use cracked wheel.
2. Never exceed maximum safe speed established for wheel. Be sure machine speed is not
excessive.
3. Never alter hole in wheel or force wheel on spindle.
4. Use clean, recessed matching flanges at least one-third wheel diameter.
5. Use one clean, smooth blotter on each side of wheel under each flange.
6. Tighten nut only enough to hold wheel firmly.
7. Adjust wheel guard and put on safety glasses before starting wheel.
USING WHEEL
1. Adjust dust hood and coolant nozzle. Keep rest adjusted within 3mm or less of operating wheel
face.
2. Stand aside and allow wheel to run idle a full minute before starting to
grind.
3. True wheel if out of running truth.
4. Make grinding contact without “bumping” or impact.
5. Grind only on face of straight wheel. Use disc wheels for side grinding. Light side grinding
permitted on cup or saucer wheel.
6. Never force grinding so that motor slows noticeably or work gets hot.
7. Protect wheel when not in use. Store safely if removed from grinding machine.
The above brief general rules cannot cover many questions on special grinding applications. If in
doubt, please consult your Safety Code or contact NORTON.
Grinding Wheel Speed is Important
The speed at which a grinding wheel revolves is important. Too slow a speed means wastage of
abrasive without much useful work in return, whereas an excessive speed may result in hard grinding
action and may introduce danger of breakage. As a general proposition, it is better to operate a
grinding wheel at as near as possible the speed recommended by the maker, as he has found by years
of experience that certain speeds work better than others. The grain, grade and structure usually
recommended for a certain grinding operation are based on the assumption that approximately the
recommended speeds will be employed. If for some reason they cannot be, then the grade at least
must usually be changed to suit this condition.
RECOMMENDED WHEEL SPEEDS IN METRES PER SECOND
Tool and Cutter grinder
23-30 m/s
Cylindrical grinding
28-33m/s
Internal grinding
23-30 m/s
Snagging, offhand grinding (vitrified wheels)
26-33 m/s
Snagging, floorstand and swingframe (resinoid wheels)
33-48 m/s
Snagging, floorstand and swingframe (reinforced wheels)
48-64 m/s
Snagging portable (resinoid wheels)
33-48 m/s
Snagging portable (reinforced wheels)
48-80 m/s*
Surface grinding
20-30 m/s
Knife grinding
18-23 m/s
Hemming cylinders
11-26 m/s*
Wet tool grinding
26-30 m/s
Cutlery wheels
20-26 m/s
Rubber, Resinoid and Shellac cutting-off wheels
45-80 m/s
*This higher speed is recommended only where bearings, protection devices and machine rigidity
are adequate.
Maximum Safe Operating Speeds
The maximum operating speed of each wheel must be established at the time of manufacture to
assure proper manufacturer’s approval and suitable test. The manufacturer’s established maximum
operating speed shall never be exceeded.
Tables on next pages indicate maximum peripheral operating speeds (m/s) which are standard for
various classes of wheels.
Special high speeds as listed in table for specially designed and fully protected machines have been
established for cutting-off wheels, thread grinding, crank grinding and cam grinding. These higher
speeds are not approved except on adequate, fully protected machines.
The peripheral speed approved by the wheel manufacturer shall not be exceeded even though it is
lower than the standard speed in the table.
Note: The number of revolutions per minute may be increased as the diameter of a wheel is reduced
through wear, provided the original peripheral speed is never exceeded.
Peripheral Operating Speed (m/s) may be calculated from the diameter of the wheel (D) and the
rotational speed of the spindle using the formula:
P.O.S. = R.P.M. x␲D
60
ie. for a 0.2 metre diameter wheel (20Omm) turning at 2000 R.PM.
P.O.S. = 2000 x␲ x 0.2
60
= 20.94 m/s
␲ = 3.142
Revolutions Per Minute (R.PM.) may be calculated using the formula
R.P.M. = 60 x P.O.S.
␲D
AWU Trade Manual
101
GRINDING WHEEL MARKINGS SUMMARY
SOFT TO VERY HARD
COARSE TO VERY FINE
19
23
25
32
38
53
57
NZ
ZF
37
39
74
A&
Aluminium Oxide
Aluminium Oxide
Aluminium Oxide
Aluminium Oxide
Aluminium Oxide
Aluminium Oxide
Aluminium Oxide
Aluminium Oxide
Aluminium Oxide
Aluminium Oxide
Silicon Carbide
Silicon Carbide
Silicon Carbide
37C Mixture
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
A
19A
23A
25A
32A
38A
53A
57A
NZ
ZF
37C
39C
74C
AC
STRUCTURE NUMBERS
Norton wheels are normally made by
the Controlled Structure method to
standard structure numbers. These
are not shown except in the case of:
(a) Non-standard Structure Products
Non-standard items are only
manufactured after standard
structures have been proved
unsuitable for the operation.
“P” ADDED AT END (e.g. VBEP, BP,
indicates INDUCED PORE TYPRES
10
30
80
220
E
J
O
12
36
90
240
F
K
P
V
14
46
100
280
G
L
Q
W
16
54
120
320
H
M
R
X
20
60
150
400
I
N
S
Y
24
70
180
500
T
Z
B = RESINOID
ALUMINIUM OXIDE AND
SILICON CARBIDE PRODUCTS
B
= Regular Resinoid
B3 = “3” Type Resinoid
B5 = “5” Type Resinoid
B7 = “7” Type Resinoid
BH = “H” Type Resinoid
B14 = “14” Type Resinoid
B17 = “17” Type Resinoid
B24 = “24” Type Resinoid
B25 = “25” Type Resinoid
BP = Regular “P” Type
Induced Pore
RESINOID REINFORCED
BDA = Raised Hub
BRA = Straight Wheels
BNA = Cutting Off Wheels
BNA2 = Cutting Off
Wheels
BNAH = Hi-speed Cutting Off wheels
E = SHELLAC
ALUMINIUM OXIDE AND
SILICON CARBIDE PRODUCTS
E6 = “6” Type Shellac
U
V = VITRIFIED
ALUMINIUM OXIDE PRODUCTS
VS
V
VBE
VBEP
VG
= S Type Vitrified
= Regular Vitrified
= “BE” Type Vitrified
= “BEP” Type Vitrified
Pore Vitrified
= “G” Type Vitrified
SILICON CARBIDE PRODUCTS
V
= Regular Vitrified
VK
= “K” Type Vitrified
VKP
= “KP” Type Induced
Pore
VKPL = “KPL” Type Induced
Pore
VP
= Regular “P” Type
Induced Pore
Wheels in SHELLAC RUBBER and
SILICATE BONDS, not made in Australia by
Norton.
103
Machining
105
CLASSIFICATION OF CEMENTED CARBIDES
The ISO classification is divided into three areas:
Blue P
- representing machining of long chipping materials
such as steel, cast steel, stainless steel and malleable
iron.
Yellow M
- representing machining of more demanding materials
such as austenitic stainless steel, heat resistant
materials, manganese steel, alloyed cast-iron, etc.
Red K
- representing machining of short chipping, materials
such as cast iron, hardened steel and non-ferrous
materials such as aluminium, bronze, plastics, etc.
Within each main area there are numbers indicating the
varying demands of machining, from roughing to
finishing. Starting at group 01 which represents
finish-turning and finish-boring with no shocks and with
high cutting speed, low feed and small cutting depth,
through a semi-roughing, semi-finishing area to mediumduty, general purpose at 25 and then down to group 50 for
roughing at low cutting speeds and very heavy chiploads.
Demands for wear resistance (WR) and toughness (T)
vary with the type of operation and increase upwards and
downward, respectively.
Typical range of cemented carbide grades set to cover the various operations that occur throughout
the ISO P,M and K areas.
A way of visualising the choice of grades, starting with the central first choice (1), moving on (2) to
secondary choices according to wear resistance/toughness demands throughout the ISO P, M and K
areas.
AWU Trade Manual
107
INDEXABLE INSERTS – TURNING
AWU Trade Manual
109
INDEXABLE INSERTS – MILLING
CODE KEY – TURNING TOOLS
AWU Trade Manual
111
MACHINING FORMULA
Large diameter – Small diameter
MILLING
Number of degrees required
AWU Trade Manual
113
Metric Module
TRIGONOMETRY
FORMULA FOR REGULAR GEOMETRIC FIGURES
AWU Trade Manual
115
4. Recommendation on Practicalities:
1. Use the “Trammel” method to mark out the shape of an elliptical tank end plate; and
2. Measure accurately around the elliptical perimeter to obtain that length, then if outside corner weld
preparation has been used to mark out the elliptical end plate add p times the shell plate thickness to
the end plate perimeter to get an accurate shell plate length.
AWU Trade Manual
117
Management
119
MANAGEMENT TODAY
Computer-Integrated Manufacturing (CIM)
Computer-Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) has linked the entire functions of manufacturing. By
combining the functions of designer and manufacturer, through use of Computer Aided Design and
Computer Aided Manufacture into the one identity known as CAD/CAM, machine tools are
programmed directly from the design stage. Also integrated into CIM is the business functions.
The use of CAD allows the designer to design and then simulate the functions of a component
before manufacture and at the same time evaluate the availability of tools and materials. A shared
central data base allows the complete integration of design and manufacture as shown in the
diagram.
A number of approaches have been developed to cater for the various needs of different industries,
these are known as CIM models.
Typically, a CIM Model would contain:
1
The elements of the business structure
2
Management control lines
3
Material and product flow
4
Information flow
5
Communication channel mechanisms
6
Concept to completion hierarchy
7
Time scheduling
In the various models data entry points and the communication channels are handled differently.
Quality assurance programs within the model structure ensure compliance to the flow paths.
Business Structure.
Within a typical management structure, depending on the size of the organisation the functions are
divided into separate departments.
A typical traditional business structure could contain departments as shown;
Directors/Manager
Secretarial
Research and development
Personnel
Purchasing
Production
Finance
Service
Maintenance
Accounts
Engineering
Records
Sales
Today’s management skills require a broader skill base than the traditional model. Greater
integration of the separate departments are now common practice with contractors filling many of
the functions previously performed within the business.
Current business structure could contain a core of highly skilled technocrats who would answer to a
board of directors. Their function would be to control the activities of the business utilising their
skills in multiple disciplines, rather than have specialist staff controlling sections of the overall
function.
Types of Business Organisation.
Sole Trader.
The sole trader is personally responsible and liable for all business functions. Registration of a
business name is optional.
Partnership.
Similar to a sole trader but will have two or more partners.
Corporation (Company)
Private companies shares are not available for purchase by the public. Where limited liability is
accepted by the company, the abbreviations Pty. Ltd. will be used after the business name.
Public Companies.
Capital may be raised through sale of shares to the public. They may also be listed on the Stock
Exchange. Financial statements must be presented to share holders annually. The abbreviation Ltd.
will be used after the business name.
Management leadership styles have been classified as follows;
Autocratic.
Authority and decision making is restricted to the one person and may be either dictatorial or
authoritarian. Dictatorial leadership exerts compliance on subordinates whereas authoritarian works
with subordinate compliance.
Democratic.
Reliance on the performance of subordinates, and control through organisational skills.
Laissez-faire.
Leadership functions are carried out by under management with minimal control by upper
management.
Business Plan.
A prepared business plan will contain elements similar to these listed.
Corporate direction statement containing;
Mission statement
Ethics statement
Objectives plan
SWOT analysis.
( Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities & threats.)
Marketing objectives and strategies, primary research.
Targeting ( who will be the clients).
Branding ( Perceptional ranking).
Positioning ( High or low market position ).
Action plan.
Production
Distribution
Pricing
Marketing communication
Budget forecast.
Calendar time frame.
Continuous business evaluation plan.
Quality Approach to Management
AWU Trade Manual
121
Type of Chart & Application
Flow Chart
Planning a process
Run Chart
Recording of control measures
Pareto Chart
Arranging of data in rank order
Check Sheet
Statistical record of occurrences
Cause and Effect Diagram
Brain storming: Identify issues
Scatter Diagram
Recording of test samples
Histogram
Recording distribution
Machine Condition Monitoring
The operational condition of a machine may be analysed by using techniques involving the
measurement of a machines normal operating condition and comparing with measurements obtained
from the existing operating condition.
On-Line Condition Monitoring
Collecting information may be accomplished by fitting sensors to strategic positions and
automatically recording this information. As changes take place, pre-determined limits may be used
to signal an impending failure. This method has applications in overall management systems where
the data may be collected periodically or on a continuous basis, and has the advantage of being able
to place sensors in normally inaccessible positions.
Portable Analysers
A variety of available analysers provides a user choice of recording or non recording condition
analysers. Graphical presentation of the data enhances the diagnostics by indicating the rate of
change over a time period. Non recording devices indicate the data in digital form without reference
to past readings.
To summarise the techniques used, they are as follows with a brief description of the system;
Vibration analysis.
Rotating masses produce vibrations from being out of balance or from deflections in shafts which
may be detected as positional displacements. Gear wheels produce a vibration due to the meshing of
the gear teeth and faults in rolling bearings result in a regular shock like vibration.
Seismic Sensing methods detect the amount of movement and the frequency by using
Piezoelectric sensing.
Accelerometers react to the position change with an electrical pulse of the frequency and signal
strength proportional to the amplitude and have good high frequency response.
Velocity sensors respond to lower frequencies with a stronger signal than accelerometers.
AWU Trade Manual
123
Proximity transducers
By creating a radio frequency eddy current on the surface of a rotating mass, any change in position
changes the strength of the return signal, indicating the magnitude of the position change. To
maximise the possibilities, two sensors should be placed at right angles to each other, around the
shaft thus obtaining a complete analysis of the position.
Electrical load sensing
Monitoring of the total electrical load will indicate excessive machine loading or conversely the loss
of machine load.
Temperature monitoring
Heat caused by friction is a valuable indicator. Temperature sensors may be of a number of different
types.
Thermocouples
Resistance temperature detectors (RTD’s)
Thermistors
Infrared
Bi-Metal
All types operate remote from the measured area and require electronic circuitry.
Thermocouples must be in direct contact with the surface to be sensed and may be connected
directly to a control monitor. Any extension wires must be of the same material as the thermocouple.
RTD’s are more sensitive than thermocouples and usually more expensive. Extension wires may be
of copper.
Thermitors are a semiconductor device that operate at or near ambient temperature, with a narrower
operating band and a faster response than thermocouples or RTD’s.
Infrared Temperature detection is a remote sensing technique indicating the temperature as an
image display with colour bands representing the temperatures. Photographs may be used as a record
of the condition.
Oil Analysis
Spectrographic oil analysis requires that a sample of oil be analysed either by a laboratory or using
portable instruments or permanent sensors.The sampling requirements are aimed at obtaining a
consistent result over a series of samples from the same source and noting the changes occurring.
To obtain the best results the sample should be;
Taken from a flowing source or soon after stopping.
Sampled at operating temperature.
Before additional oil is added to the system.
Collected in certified clean bottles that are filled without removing the stopper.
Analysed within 48hours.
The abnormal conditions detected are;
Moisture.
Air.
Chemical property change.
Heat effects.
Particle contamination.
Ferrography analyses a fluid for the presence of metallic particles.
Particle retrieval collects particles (e.g. magnetic) for later analysis.
In addition to the above mentioned methods, the following may also be
employed.
Noise monitoring provided by microphones and an amplifier tuned to a particular sound pitch and
volume are capable of monitoring a wide variety of sound related conditions.
Odour detection using recently developed techniques have enabled various odours to be detected in
industrial situations.
Gas monitoring of atmospheric conditions and analysis of gas samples can be achieved on-line with
the use of the appropriate detection sensor for the particular gas.
125
Materials
127
DESIGNATION OF WROUGHT ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
The international 4 - digit designation system of the Aluminium Association (AA) has been in use
since 1970. The first digit always indicates the alloy series.
European standard BS EN 573 is based on two systems:
• the first is the numerical designation using the AA system: the four digits (and any suffix letter
A or X) are preceded by “EN AW” (5), e.g. EN AW - 3003,
• the second is based on chemical symbols. These are put in square brackets [ ], e.g. [AI Mn1Cu].
This system, reminiscent of the ISO designation, is set to disappear.
Formally therefore, according to BS EN 573, the complete designation of a wrought alloy is (6):
EN AW - 3003 [AI Mn1 Cu]
THE SERIES OF ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
Type of
hardening
Strain
hardening
Age
hardening
Series
Alloying
element
Content
range (%)
1000
3000
5000
8000
None
Manganese
Magnesium
Iron
and Silicon
Magnesium
and Silicon
Copper
Zinc and
Magnesium
Silicon
0,5 to 1,5
0,5 to 5
Si : 0,3 to 1
Fe : 0,6 to 2
Mg : 0,5 to 1,5
Si : 0,5 to 1,5 (1)
2 to 6 Si,
Zn : 5 to 7
Mg : 1 to 2
0,8 to 1,7
6000
2000
7000
4000
Additives (2)
Tensile strength UTS
(MPa)
Cu
Mg, Cu
Mn, Cr
50 - 160
100 - 240
100 - 340
Cu, Cr
Mg
Cu
130 - 190
130 - 190
200 - 320
300 - 480
Without Copper 320 - 350
With copper: 430 - 600
150 - 400
TYPICAL APPLICATIONS OF ALUMINIUM AND ITS ALLOYS
AWU Trade Manual
129
EFFECT OF ALLOY ELEMENTS ON STEEL
Aluminium
• Provides an effective deoxidisation
• Limits grain growth
• Alloying element in nitriding steel
Boron
• Increases hardening
Cobalt
• Increases the hot hardness
Chromium
• Corrosion and oxidation resistance
• Increased hardenability
• Improves high temperature strength
• Together with C improves wear resistance
Manganese
• Reduces hot brittleness
• Improves hardenability
• Combined with C gives good wear
resistance
Molybdenum
• Deep quenching action
• Raises the austenite overheating
temperature
• Creep resistance
• Hot strength
• Improves stainless steel properties
• Improves wear resistance
Nickel
• Improves the strength of non-quenched
steels
• Low temperature toughness
• High Cr alloys form austenite
Phosphorus
• Increased strength of low carbon steels
• Corrosion resistance
• Improves machinability in free cutting
steels
Sulphur
• Improves machinability in free cutting
steels
• Reduces weldability
Silicon
• Deoxidising element
• Improves magnetic strength
• Improves hardenability in graphite free
steels
• Improves strength of low C steel
Titanium
• C forms inert particles
• With Cr, reduces hardenability
• Reduces austenite formation
• Resists Cr decrease in heat resisting
stainless
Vanadium
• Grain refining
• Improves hardenability
• Resists softening during tempering
Tungsten
• Improves hot strength and hardness
• Hardness and wear resistant in tool steels
HEAT TREATMENT TEMPERATURE CHART
AWU Trade Manual
131
Steel Temperature Colour Chart
Hardening
Dec°C
Tempering
Dec°F
Dec°C
Dec°F
The colours shown on the chart are approximate and assume the surface has been recently ground and
is viewed in dull light.
( Reproduced with permission from STEELMARK-EAGLE AND GLOBE.)
AWU Trade Manual
133
AWU Trade Manual
135
HARDNESS COMPARISON TABLE
B
Vickers
Steel
HV
kg/mm2
Brinell
HB
70
74
77
81
84
88
91
95
98
102
105
109
112
115
119
123
126
130
133
137
140
144
147
151
154
158
161
165
168
172
175
179
182
186
189
193
196
200
200
210
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
290
300
310
320
330
340
350
360
370
380
390
400
410
420
430
440
450
460
470
480
490
500
510
520
530
540
550
560
570
AWU Trade Manual
Rockwell
HRC
.."C"
359
368
373
385
393
400
407
416
423
429
435
441
450
457
465
474
482
489
496
503
511
520
19.2
21.2
23.0
24.7
26 1
27.6
29.0
30.3
31 5
32.9
33 8
34.9
36.0
37.0
38.0
38.9
39.8
40.7
41 5
42.3
43.2
44.0
44.8
45 5
46.3
47.0
47.7
48.3
49.0
49.6
50.3
50.9
51.5
52.1
52.7
Shore
B
Steel
Vickers
HV
Brinell
Rockwell Shore
HB
HRC
"C"
kg/mm2
28
29
30
31
33
34
35
36
37
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
203
207
210
214
217
221
224
228
231
235
238
241
245
248
252
255
259
263
266
270
273
277
280
284
287
291
294
298
301
305
308
312
315
319
322
326
329
580
590
600
610
620
630
640
650
660
670
680
690
700
710
720
730
740
750
760
770
780
790
800
810
820
830
840
850
860
870
880
890
900
910
920
930
940
527
533
533
543
549
555
561
568
574
581
588
595
602
609
616
622
627
633
639
644
650
656
661
665
670
677
682
53.3
53.8
54.4
54 9
55.4
55.9
56.4
56.9
57.4
57 9
58.7
58 9
59.3
59.8
60.2
60.7
61.1
61.5
61.9
62.3
62.7
63.1
63.5
63.9
64.3
64 6
65.0
65 3
65.7
66.0
66.3
66.6
66.9
67.2
67.5
67.7
68.0
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
83
84
85
86
86
87
87
88
89
89
90
90
91
91
92
92
137
WIRE AND SHEET SIZE
NOTE: The Birmingham Gauge is generally employed for uncoated plain carbvon steel sheet. The
Imperial Standard Wire Guage (SWG) is commonly used for all steel (incl. stainless) and aluminium
wires. It is also used for stainless steel, aluminium and other non ferrous sheets and tubes.
PLASTIC PRELIMINARY IDENTIFICATION
AWU Trade Manual
139
Measuring
141
HOW TO READ A VERNIER MICROMETER GRADUATED IN TWO
THOUSANDS OF A MILLIMETRE (0.002 MM)
Metric vernier micrometers are used like those
graduated in hundredths of a millimetre (0.01
mm), except that an additional reading in
two-thousandths of a millimetre (0.002 mm) is
obtained from a vernier scale on the sleeve.
The vernier consists of five divisions each of
which equals one-fifth of a thimble division-1/5
of 0.01 mm or 0.002 mm.
To read the micrometer, obtain a reading to 0.01
mm in the same way shown on the previous
page. Then see which line on the vernier
coincides with a line on the thimble. If it is the
line marked 2, add 0.002 mm; if it is the line
marked 4, add 0.004 mm, etc.
EXAMPLE-Referring to drawings A and B:
The 5 mm sleeve graduation is visible ............5.000 mm
No additional lines on the sleeve are
visible ..............................................................0.000 mm
line 0 on the thimble coincides with
the reading line one the sleeve ........................0.000 mm
The 0 lines on the vernier coincide
with lines on the thimble ..................................0.000 mm
The micrometer reading is ................................5.000 mm
EXAM PLE-Referring to drawing C:
The 5 mm sleeve graduation is visible ............5.000 mm
No additional lines on the sleeve are
visible ..............................................................0.000 mm
HOW TO READ VERNIER CALLIPERS (METRIC)
Each graduation on the bar is 1.00 mm. Every tenth graduation is numbered in sequence - 10 mm, 20
mm, 30 mm, 40 mm, etc. - over the full range of the bar. This provides for direct reading in
millimetres.
The Vernier plate is graduated in 50 parts, each representing 0.02 mm. Every fifth line is numbered
in sequence - 0.10 mm, 0.20 mm, 0.30 mm, 0.40 mm, 0.50 mm - providing for direct reading in
hundredths of a millimetre.
To read the gage, first count how many mm’s lie between the 0 line on the bar and the 0 line on the
Vernier plate. Then find the graduation on the Vernier plate that EXACTLY COINCIDES with a line
on the bar and note its value in hundredths of a millimetre.
Add the Vernier plate reading in hundredths of a mm to the number of mm you counted on the bar.
This is your total measurement.
YOU ADD TO GET YOUR MEASUREMENT
A. 27.00 mm on the bar
B. .42 mm on the Vernier plate
27.42 mm is your measurement
( Material furnished courtesy of the L.S.Starrett Company,)
AWU Trade Manual
143
Mechanics
145
MECHANICS
AWU Trade Manual
147
BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS
AWU Trade Manual
149
Occupational
Health and Safety
151
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY
DUTY OF CARE
STATE, TERRITORY AND FEDERAL OHS LEGISLATION
The general objective of OHS law is to “secure the health, safety and welfare” of persons at work.
This is achieved through the practical task of eliminating or controlling hazards that may exist in the
workplace so as to prevent the occurrence of injuries and diseases.
Occupational health and safety (and welfare) legislation has been enacted by all states and territories
and for the federal jurisdiction, as follows:
New South Wales - 1983
South Australia - 1986
Federal - 1991
Western Australian - 1984
Northern Territory - 1986
Queensland 1995
Victoria - 1985
ACT - 1989
Tasmania - 1995
The requirements, in general, are;
•
duty of care,
•
OHS policy,
•
health and safety committees,
•
health and safety representatives,
•
reporting of accidents and dangerous occurrences,
•
assistance and enforcement to achieve legislative requirements,
•
inspectors, improvement notices and prohibition notices,
•
codes of practice.
Duties of Employers
The duty of care responsibility of employers under common law is reinforced by OHS legislation.
The legislation requires that employers take all reasonably practicable steps to protect the health and
safety of their employees and others at or near the workplace.
Guidance is provided in the legislation as to the employer’s responsibilities. In general these include
the following requirements:
•
provide a safe and healthy work environment including
and work practices,
•
ensure effective arrangements for the use, handling, storage and
transport of all products and substances.
•
provide information, instruction, training and supervision for
employees to ensure health and safety at work,
•
ensure safe entrance and exit for all persons to and from the
workplace,
•
develop, in consultation with employees, a written OHS policy
(federal, SA, NT, ACT, only and Tas if directed),
•
allow the setting up of an OHS committee and/or election of a
representative to assist in the establishment of systems of work
that are safe and without risk to health,
•
apply due diligence to the maintenance of such safe and healthy
systems of work.
Duties of Employees
The legislation also recognises the role and responsibility of employees in the achievement of a safe
and healthy work environment. Under the legislation, employees have a duty to take all reasonably
practicable steps to care for the health and safety of themselves and other persons at or near the
workplace.
In order to achieve this, it is generally recommended that employees should;
•
cooperate with the employer in the development and
implementation of a safe and healthy workplace,
•
report any hazards, hazardous situations or accidents to a
supervisor, OHS committee member or OHS representative,
•
use plant and equipment in accordance with instructions,
•
follow the workplace procedures for the safe handling, use
storage and transport of hazardous substances,
•
use protective clothing and equipment in the manner specified
in the work procedures, in training, or by the supplier,
•
be aware of emergency procedures,
•
never act in a foolish or unsafe manner.
Duties of Manufacturers, Suppliers and Installers of Plant and Substances
Such persons should provide and install equipment that has been tested and found to be safe when
installed and used as specified. All safety aspects for any plant should meet the requirements of
legislation, regulations, codes of practice and equivalents.
All hazardous substances should be appropriately packaged. Data sheets should be provided noting
the safe usage, handling and storage requirements for such substances and include first-aid
instructions and measures to ensure safety in case of accidents.
AWU Trade Manual
153
FIRST AID
Under the provision of the OH&S act, all persons are required to render assistance in an incident
requiring First Aid.
First Aid training is available through organisations specialising in this area.
Level 1. First Aid Certificate.
An eight hour course. Suitable for a small number of people eg. an office.
Level 2. First Aid Certificate.
A twenty four hour course. This is the base level required for up to fifty persons. Over
fifty persons requires additional first aid coverage.
Level 3. First Aid Certificate.
This certificate is the requirements for more than 250 persons.
General Principles of First Aid
Danger.
Check for danger to yourself and others before attempting to assist.
Response.
Determine the level of consciousness by speaking, and then touching the injured person if safe to do
so.
Airway.
Check if the injured person can breathe and remove any obstruction to breathing.
Breathing.
Look, listen and feel if the person is breathing. Commence resuscitation if necessary.
Circulation.
Check for a pulse. Commence CPR if pulse absent.
155
Refridgeration
157
159
Sawing
161
POWER HACKSAW BLADES
CUTTING COMPOND AND SPEED SELECTION
CUTTING COMPOUNDS
K - Kerosene
S - Soluble Oil (1 part to 40 parts water)
O - Sulphur base oil thinned with kerosene to density of water
D - Dry (No cutting fluid required)
SPEEDS
Speeds shown above apply ONLY WHEN GENERAL FLUID IS USED - if cutting dry reduce speed
by 40% - 50%. Speeds given apply to machines in good working order.
HAND HACKSAW BLADE SELECTION
Teeth per 25 millimetre.
( Reproduced with permission from STANLEY TOOLS )
163
Screw Threads
165
THREAD FORMS COMPONENTS & TAP LIMITS
Sutton Tools
Thread Systems
The ISO standard is the international standard intended
to be adopted throughout the world to unify and
rationalise screw threads at an international level. The
ISO standard recognises two groups of screw threads,
(a) ISO metric, a complete thread system in metric
units and (b) ISO inch Unified which is covered by
British Standard BS 1580 and American Standard
ANSI - B1 -1 - Unified screw thread systems. The
Whitworth and BA screw threads are obsolescent but
still widely used during the period of transition.
All measurements must have a controlling point or
base from which to start. In the case of a screw thread,
this control point is called BASIC or theoretically
correct size, which is calculated on the basis of a full
thread form. Thus, on a given screw thread, we have
the Basic Major Diameter, the Basic Pitch Diameter,
and the Basic Minor Diameter. The Basic Profile is the
profile to which the deviations, which define the limits
of the external and internal threads, are applied.
While it is impossible in practice to form screw threads
to their precise theoretical or BASIC sizes, it is
possible and practical to establish limits to which the
deviation must not exceed. These are called the
“Maximum” and “Minimum” Limits. If the product is
no smaller than the “Minimum Limit and no larger
than the “Maximum Limit, then it is within the size
limits required. This difference between the Maximum
and Minimum Limits is the TOLERANCE. In actual
practice, the Basic size is not necessarily between
Maximum and Minimum Limits. In most cases, the
Basic Size is one of the Limits. In general, tolerances
for internal threads will be above Basic and for external
threads, below Basic.
Basic Profile for ISO Inch (Unified) and ISO Metric
The basic form is derived from an equilateral triangle
which is truncated 1/8 of the height at the major
diameter and 1/4 of the height at the minor diameter.
The corresponding flats have a width of P/8 and P/4
respectively. Fig. 1.
In practice major diameter clearance is provided by the
tap beyond the P/8 flat on internal threads and beyond
the P/4 flat on external threads. These clearances are
usually rounded.
ISO Metric Tolerance Positions
Three tolerance positions are standardised for bolts and
two for nuts. These are designated e, g and h for bolts
and G and H for nuts. As in the ISO System for limits
and fits, small letters are used to designate tolerance
positions for bolts and capital letters are used for nut
tolerance positions. Also the letters h and H are used
for tolerance positions having the maximum metal limit
coincided with the basic size, i.e., with a fundamental
deviation of zero. Fig. 2.
ISO Metric Tolerance Grades
A series of tolerance grades designated 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8
for nut pitch diameters. An extended series of tolerance
grades, designated 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,8 and 9, for bolt pitch
diameters.
An important factor here is that for the same tolerance
grade the nut pitch diameter tolerance is 1.32 x the
corresponding bolt pitch diameter tolerance.
Size and recommendations of fits can be obtained from
the Australian Standards AS 1275 or AS 1721.
ISO METRIC TAP CLASS & TOLERANCE
Sutton Tools
The ISO metric system of tap tolerances
comprises three classes of tap sizes which are
calculated from the Grade 5 nut tolerance,
irrespective of the nut grade to be cut as
follows:
ISO, Class 1 - Class 2 - Class 3
The tolerances of these three classes are
determined in terms of a tolerance unit t, the
value of which is equal to the pitch tolerance
value TD2 grade 5 of nut (extrapolated up to
pitch 0.2mm): t = TD2 grade 5
t = TD2 grade 5
The value of the tap pitch diameter tolerance is
the same for all three classes 1, 2 and 3: it is
equal to 20% of t.
AWU Trade Manual
The position of the tolerance of the tap with
respect to the basic pitch diameter results from
the lower deviation the values of which are (see
figure 3):
for tap class 1: + 0.1 t
for tap class 2: + 0.3 t
for tap class 3: + 0.5 t
Choice of tolerance class of the tap with respect
to the class of thread to be produced.
Unless otherwise specified, the taps of classes 1
to 3 will generally be used for the manufacture
of nuts of the following classes:
ISO, Class 1: for nuts of limits 4H and 5H
ISO, Class 2: for nuts of limits 6H and 5G
ISO, Class 3: for nuts of limits 7H - 8H and 6G.
167
UNIFIED SCREW THREAD TOLERANCING SYSTEM
Sutton Tools
This system is well known. It has now been
accepted by ISO as the recommended
tolerancing for ISO inch threads down to 0.06
inch nominal diameter. The arrangement of the
allowance and the various classes of pitch
diameter tolerance for a normal length of
engagement of the mating threads is shown in
this diagram.
The pitch diameter tolerance for Class 2A bolts
is shown as 100 units, and the fundamental
deviation and other tolerances are shown as
percentages of the Class 2A tolerance. Fig. 4.
UNIFIED TAPS.
The American “H” System
This system provides for a range of pitch
diameters for each size of tap: the height limit
of pitch diameters being the basic pitch diameter
plus increments or units of .0005”. It is
designated by the letter “H” followed by a
numeral indicating the number or units applying
to the particular “H” size. The tap
manufacturer’s tolerance is applied as minus.
Normal “H” Limits
This is the limit which will normally be
supplied. Alternative “H” limits other than those
shown in the price list can be made to special
order.
The “G” designates a ground thread
finish
For taps up to and including 1 “ diameter
G H1 - Basic plus .0005
G H2 - Basic plus .001 “
G H3 - Basic plus .0015”
Tolerance
G H4 - Basic plus .002”
-.0005”
G H5 - Basic plus .0025”
G H6 - Basic plus .003”
For taps over 1 “ diameter up to and
including 2”diameter
G H4 - Basic plus .002”
G H6 - Basic plus .003”
Tolerance
G H8 - Basic plus .004”
-.001”
Relation of Tap Pitch Diameter Limits to Basic
Pitch Diameter
The chart below shows the relationship between
the tap pitch diameter limits and basic (nominal
pitch diameter).
ISO PIPE TAP THREAD SYSTEMS
Sutton Tools
The International Standard Pipe Tap Thread
System (ISO) has been derived from the original
Whitworth gas and water pipe tap threads,
formerly known as BSPF (Fastening) and BSPT
(Taper), these systems have been so widely used
throughout Europe and the United Kingdom that
they have been metricated, whilst still retaining
the whitworth thread form.
These popular thread systems are the basis for
the ISO parallel “G” series and the taper “R”
series, these systems are endorsed and in
agreement with the current British and
Australian standards.
For comparison, the pitch diameter tolerance
zones are given for both the parallel and taper
systems.
“G” Fastening Parallel Pipe Threads - ISO 228, AS1722 PT2 and BS2779. This parallel thread
system has only one positive internal thread tolerance and two classes of external tolerances. This
series constitutes a fine series of fastening connecting pipe threads for general engineering purposes,
the assembly tolerances on these threads are such as to make them unsuitable for pressure tight seal
by the threads themselves. For the conveying of fluids, the seal may be produced by gaskets, flanges,
or “0” rings etc.
“R” Sealing Taper Pipe Threads - ISO 7, AS1722 PT1 and BS21. The taper rate is 1-16 on
diameter. This series is for tubes and fittings where pressure tight joints are made by threads, these
threads therefore must have a full form profile (no truncations). The series include a taper external
thread (R) for assembly with either taper internal (Rc) or parallel internal (Rp) threads. The Rp series
has a unilateral tolerance (+/-) which normally requires a special below basic low limit tap, to allow
for sizing deviations at the start of the internal thread, the size is gauged at this position, with an Rc
taper gauge. The low limit Rp tap size, allows a minimum accommodation length to be machined,
with an equivalent material saving possible.
AWU Trade Manual
169
ISO PIPE TAP THREAD SYSTEMS
Sutton Tools
ALL SIZES ARE “SUGGESTED SIZES” ONLY AND MAY BE VARIED
TO SUIT INDIVIDUAL REQUIREMENTS
1S0 METRIC
(Coarse)
Tap Pitch Tapping
Size mm Drill mm
M2
0.4
1.6
M2.5 0.45
2.05
M3
0.5
2.5
M3.5 0.6
2.9
M4
0.7
3.3
M4.5 0.75
3.7
M5
0.8
4.2
M6
1.0
5.0
M7
1.0
6.0
M8
1.25
6.8
M9
1.25
7.8
M10 1.5
8.5
M11 1.5
9.5
M12 1.75
10.2
M14 2.0
12.0
M16 2.0
14.0
M18 2.5
15.5
M20 2.5
17.5
M22 2.5
19.5
M24 3.0
21.0
M27 3.0
24.0
M30 3.5
26.5
M33 3.5
29.5
M36 4.0
32.0
M39 4.0
35.0
M42 4.5
37.5
M45 4.5
40.5
M48 5.0
43.0
M52 5.0
47.0
METRIC CONDUIT
Tap
Size
M16
M20
M25
M32
M40
M50
Pitch
MM
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
Tapping
Drill mm
14.5
18.5
23.5
30.5
38.5
48.5
Tap
Size
M8
M10
M12
M12
M14
M16*
M18
M20*
M22
M24
METRIC
(Fine)
Pitch Tapping
mm Drill mm
1.0
7.0
1.25
8.8
1.25
10.8
1.5
10.5
1.5
12.5
1.5
14.5
1.5
16.5
1.5
18.5
1.5
20.5
2.0
22.0
*METRIC CONDUIT
SPARK PLUG
Tap
Size
M10
M12
M14
M18
Pitch Tapping
MM Drill mm
1.0
9.0
1.25
10.8
1.25
12.8
1.5
16.5
Always wear eye
protection when using
cutting tools
UNC
Unified National Coarse
Tap
T.P.I. Tapping
Size
Drill mm
3(.099) 48
4(.112) 40
5(.125) 40
6(.138) 32
8(.164) 32
10(.190)24
12(.216)24
1/4
20
5/16
18
3/8
16
7/16
14
1/2
13
9/16
12
5/8
11
3/4
10
7/8
9
1”
8
1-1/8
7
1-1/4
7
1-1/2
6
2.0
2.25
2.6
2.75
3.4
3.8
4.4
5.1
6.6
8.0
9.4
10.8
12.2
13.5
16.5
19.5
22.0
25.0
28.0
34.0
NPT-NPTF
(Taper) DRYSEAL
Tap
Size
1/8
1/4
3/8
1/2
3/4
1”
1-1/4
T.Pl.
27
18
18
14
14
11-1/2
11-1/2
Tapping
Drill mm
8.4
11.0
14.5
17.5
23.0
29.0
37.5
Taper pipe threads of
improved quality are
obtained when taper is
pre-formed using Sutton
Taper Pipe Reamers.
ISO PIPE TAP THREAD SYSTEMS
Sutton Tools
ALL SIZES ARE "SUGGESTED SIZES” ONLY AND MAY BE VARIED
TO SUIT INDIVIDUAL REQUIREMENTS
UNF
Unified National Fine
Tap
T.P.l. Tapping
Size
Drill mm
3(.099)
56
2.1
4(.112)
48
2.35
5(.125)
44
2.65
6(.138)
40
2.9
8(.164)
36
3.5
10(.190) 32
4.1
12(.216) 28
4.6
*3/16
32
4.0
1/4
28
5.5
5/16
24
6.9
3/8
24
8.5
7/16
20
9.8
1/2
20
11.5
9/16
18
12.8
5/8
18
14.5
3/4
16
17.5
7/8
14
20.5
1”
12
23.5
*1”
14
24.0
1-1/8
12
26.5
1-1/4
12
29.5
1-1,12
12
36.0
*UNS
BSW
British Standard
Whitworth
Tap
T.P.l. Tapping
Size
Drill mm
*3/32 48
1.9
1/8
40
2.55
*5/32 32
3.2
3/16
24
3.7
*7/32 24
4.5
1/4
20
5.1
5/16
18
6.5
318
16
8.0
7/16
14
9.3
112
12
10.5
9/16
12
12.2
5/8
11
13.5
3/4
10
16.5
7/8
9
19.5
1”
8
22.0
1-1/8
7
25.0
1-1/4
7
28.0
1-1/2
6
34.0
1-3/4
5
39.0
2” 4-1/2
45.0
*WHIT FORM
Taper pipe threads of improved quality are obtained
when taper is pre-formed using Sutton Taper Pipe
Reamers.
NP5F
(Straight) DRYSEAL
Tap
T. P. 1. Tapping
Size
Drill mm
1/8
27
8.5
1/4
18
11.0
3/8
18
14.5
1/2
14
18.0
( Reproduced with permission from
SUTTON TOOLS Pty Ltd.)
AWU Trade Manual
Rc-BSPT
150 Rc Taper Series
Tap
Size
Rcl/8
Rc1/4
Rc3/8
Rcl/2
Rc3/4
Rc 1”
Rcl-1/4
Rcl-1/2
Rc 2”
T.P.I.
28
19
19
14
14
11
11
11
11
Tapping
Drill mm
8.2
10.8
14.5
17.5
23.0
29.5
38.0
43.5
55.0
BSF
British Standard Fine
TapT.P.l. Tapping
Size
Drill mm
3/16
32
4.0
1/4
26
5.4
5/16
22
6.8
3/8
20
8.3
7/16
18
9.8
1/2
16
11.0
9/16
16
12.7
5/8
14
14.0
3/4
12
16.5
7/8
11
19.5
1”
10
22.5
1-1/8
9
25.5
1-1/4
9
29.0
1-1/2
8
34.5
1-3/4
7
40.5
Always wear eye
protection when using
cutting tools.
G-BSPF
ISO G Parallel Series
Tap
Size
G1/8
G1/4
G3/8
G1/2
G5/8
G3/4
G7/8
G 1”
G1-1/4
G1-1/2
G 1-3/4
G 2”
T.P.I.
28
19
19
14
14
14
14
11
11
11
11
11
Tapping
Drill mm
8.8
11.8
15.0
19.0
21.0
24.5
28.0
30.5
39.0
45.0
51.0
57.0
171
Welding
WELDING SYMBOLS
AWU Trade Manual
ELECTRIC ARC WELDING ELECTRODE SECTION
173
AWU Trade Manual
(Reproduced with permission from WELDING INDUSTRIES OF AUSTRALIA)