Sociological Research Methods
Mickel Jackson
Lecture Outline
An Overview of Research Methods
Qualitative Methods
Quantitative Methods
Issues in Sociological Research (Ethics)
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Sociology and Common Sense
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Sociology and Common Sense
True or False:
Teenage pregnancies have increased dramatically
since the 1950s.
Actually, they decreased over past half century; teens less
likely to marry/start family. Percentage of teen pregnancies
involving unmarried teens increased dramatically (but even
that has been dropping since the early 1990s). (Kendall
1996)
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Introduction to Sociology: Sociological
Research Methods
The purpose of sociology is to answer questions about social
life and the social world.In order to do this, sociologists
develop theories, which is a general explanation of how or
why social life follows the pattern it does.Sociologists try to
ensure that their theories are based on sound
evidence.Sociologists have a variety of different methods that
they use to gather information about society.
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Introduction to Sociology: Sociological
Research Methods
What is Research?
Research is the systematic process of collecting and
analysing information (data) in order to increase our
understanding of the phenomenon with which we are
concerned or interested.
Research involves three main stages:
planning
data collection
analysis.
Macro and Micro Perspectives
Macro perspectives attempt to construct theories that place
emphasis on the wider societal constraints on individuals’ action.
Micro or Social Action Perspectives Social action theory
attempts to discover the assumptions underlying the routine taken for
granted action of everyday life. According to this approach, to
understand the working of society, the focus must be on the
individuals’ themselves to understand small-scale interaction in
society.
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Introduction to Sociology: Sociological
Research Methods
What is Social Research?
It is research involving social scientific methods, theories
and concepts, which can enhance our understanding of the
social processes and problems encountered by individuals
and groups in society.
It is conducted by sociologists, psychologists, economists,
political scientists and anthropologists.
It is not just common sense, based on facts without theory,
using personal life experience or perpetuating media myths.
Social research is a scientific
process
It involves the systematic collection of methods to produce
knowledge.
It is objective.
It can tell you things you do not expect.
It consists of theory and observation.
Sometimes called ‘soft sciences’ because their subject matter
(humans) are fluid and hard to measure precisely.
It is an empirical research – i.e. facts are assumed to exist
prior to the theories that explain them.
2 Forms of Social Research
Basic or Pure Research:
aim is to develop a body of general knowledge for the
understanding of human social behaviour by means of a
combination of empirical enquiry and application of theory.
Applied or Policy Oriented Research:
aim is to provide knowledge and information that can be used
to influence social policy.
SOURCES OF DATA
Primary vs Secondary Data
Primary Information collected first hand by sociologists themselves
for their own research purposes. Methods such as – participant
observation, social surveys and experiments
Secondary Information not collected not collected by sociologists
themselves for their own research purposes, but by other people
for non-sociological purposes. Sociologists tend to use this data as
it is cheap, readily available and covers large numbers. Sources such
as – Official statistics, the media and personal documents
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Introduction to Sociology: Sociological
Research Methods
Advantages and disadvantages of
primary vs. secondary data collection
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Introduction to Sociology: Sociological
Research Methods
The homelessness has increased significantly in Jamaica,
especially the urban areas. You have been tasked to research
the issue, what would be your approach?
An Overview of Research Methods
Quantitative research uses data that can easily be converted
into numbers, such as a survey or an experiment.
Qualitative research involves data that cannot easily be
converted to numbers, such as observation or informal
interviews.
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Introduction to Sociology: Sociological
Research Methods
Data Collection Tools
Questionnaire
Interviews
Focus Groups
Field Visits
Covert/Overt/Participant/Non-Participant Observation
Ethnography
An Overview of Research Methods
(cont’d)
After conducting a literature review, a researcher forms a
hypothesis (study time affects exam grade) stating a
potential relationship between two or more variables (study
time, exam grade).
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Introduction to Sociology: Sociological
Research Methods
An Overview of Research Methods
(cont’d)
These variables must be clearly defined so that they can be
measured.
Variables must be operationalized, that is defined in such a
way that can be measured.
Finally, data is collected and the hypothesis can be tested.
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Introduction to Sociology: Sociological
Research Methods
Qualitative Methods
One way to collect to data is through ethnography, a
naturalistic method based on studying people in their own
environment in order to understand the meanings they
attribute to their activities.
Ethnography is often a two-part activity: active participation
in and observation of a naturally occurring setting, and a
written account (field notes) of what goes on there.
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Introduction to Sociology: Sociological
Research Methods
Qualitative Methods
In participant observation the researcher both observes
and becomes a member in a social setting.
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Introduction to Sociology: Sociological
Research Methods
Qualitative Methods
Interviews involve direct, face-to-face contact with
respondents, and often can generate large amounts of
qualitative data.
As in most research, the researcher identifies the target
population that she wishes to study, and then selects a
sample of people to be interviewed from that population.
Why use a sample?
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Introduction to Sociology: Sociological
Research Methods
Qualitative Methods (cont)
Interviews:
A closed-ended question imposes a limit on the possible responses:
for example, “Are you for or against couples living together before
they are married?”
An open-ended question allows the answer to take whatever from
the respondent chooses: “What do you think about couples living
together before they are married?”
Why use one over the other?
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Introduction to Sociology: Sociological
Research Methods
Quantitative Methods
Surveys are questionnaires that are administered to a sample
of respondents selected from a target population.
Survey research tends to look at large-scale social patterns
and employs statistics and other mathematical means of
analysis.
Most commonly used research method in sociology!
How come?
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Introduction to Sociology: Sociological
Research Methods
Quantitative Methods (cont)
Experiments are formal tests of specific variables and effects
that are performed in a controlled setting where all aspects
of the situation can be controlled.
Used to demonstrate cause and effect
Least commonly used method in sociology
How come?
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Introduction to Sociology: Sociological
Research Methods
Quantitative Methods (cont)
Many experiments involve using an experimental group,
which is the part of the test group that receives the
experimental treatment, and a control group, which is the
part of the test group that is allowed to continue without
intervention so that it can be compared with the
experimental group.
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Introduction to Sociology: Sociological
Research Methods
Existing Sources
Existing Sources refer to any data that has already been
collected by earlier researchers and is available for future
research.
This can include sources such as census data, newspapers,
photography, and cultural artifacts.
Using existing data is usually less involved than collecting
original data and also gives researchers access to distant
places and times.
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Introduction to Sociology: Sociological
Research Methods
What is Research Design?
A research design provides the framework for the collection
and analysis of data.
A choice of research design reflects decisions about the
priority being given to a range of dimensions of the research
process.
Involves research method.
Research method is simply a technique for collecting data. It
can involve a specific instrument such as a self-completion
questionnaire or a structured interview etc.
Research Design
This involves:
Defining the problem/research question
Review of related literature
Planning the research
•
•
•
What methodology will you use?
What data do you want to use/produce?
How feasible is your research approach?
Ethical considerations.
What do you need to think about
when Designing Research?
What is the purpose of the research?
What are your units of analysis?
What are your points of focus?
What is the time dimension?
Designing a research project:
conceptualisation
operationalisation.
Reliability, replication and validity.
Different Purposes of Research (1)
Exploratory
Goal is to generate many ideas.
Develop tentative theories and conjectures.
Become familiar with the basic facts, people and concerns
involved.
Formulate questions and refine issues for future research.
Used when little is written on an issue.
It is the initial research.
Usually qualitative research.
Different Purposes of Research (2)
Descriptive research
Presents a profile of a group or describes a process, mechanism or
relationship or presents basic background information or a context.
Used very often in applied research.
E.g.: General Household survey – describes demographic characteristics,
economic factors and social trends.
Can be used to monitor changes in family structure and household
composition.
Can also be used to gain an insight into the changing social and economic
circumstances of population groups.
Often survey research.
Different Purposes of Research (3)
Analytical (or explanatory)
goes beyond simple description to model empirically the
social phenomena under investigation.
It involves theory testing or elaboration of a theory.
Used mostly in basic research.
Different Purposes of Research (4)
Evaluation
characterised by the focus on collecting data to ascertain the
effects of some form of planned change.
Used in applied research to evaluate a policy initiative or
social programme to determine if it is working.
Can be small or large scale, e.g.: effectiveness of a crime
prevention programme in a local housing estate.
Defining the
Research Problem
State your research problem.
Are there any sub-problems?
What is the background (literature review) on this problem?
What is good about tackling this problem? Why should we be
interested in answering the research question?
Discuss your problem with peers and experts.
Have you looked at this problem from all sides to minimize
unwanted surprises?
Think through the process. Are you capable of addressing the
issue? Can you foresee any pitfalls in data collection and analysis?
What tools are available for you to use?
What research procedure will you follow?
Designing the Research
After stating your research problem, you need to think about
what approach you will use to the problem.
Will it be quantitative or qualitative?
Units of Analysis
The unit of analysis is the major entity that you are analyzing in your study. It is the
‘what’ or ‘who’ that is being studied.
Can be
•
individuals,
•
groups,
•
organizations,
•
social artifacts
•
(ie. products of social beings, for example, books, poems, paintings,
automobiles, buildings, songs, pottery, jokes and scientific discoveries).
•
behaviours
(eg: social interactions, such as friendship choices, court cases, traffic accidents.
Weddings (as a unit of analysis) –
might be characterised as being religious or secular or ethnically or religiously
mixed resulting in divorce or not or they could characterised by descriptions of
one or both of the marriage partners.
Points of Focus
1.
2.
3.
4.
Characteristics
Orientations
(attitudes, beliefs, prejudices, personality traits)
Organizations
(would be in terms of policy, procedures etc
Social interactions, actions.
Other things to Note
Time dimension – cross-sectional or longitudinal
Conceptualisation – i.e. you must specify the meanings of the concepts
and variables to be studied.
Operationalisation – how will we actually measure the variables under
study?
Reliability – are the results repeatable? – relevant to quantitative social
research.
Replication - can others replicate the results?
Validity – will examine later but are the results a true reflection of the
world? Internal (are they measuring the underlying
pheonomen)/external (generalise to the population)
Ethical Issues
Informed Consent.
Respect for privacy.
Confidentiality and anonymity of data.
What is permissible to ask?
No harm to researchers or subjects.
No deceit or lying in the course of research.
Consequences of publication.
Issues in Sociological Research (cont’d)
Most sociologists believe that they should not allow their
personal beliefs to influence their research.
Max Weber wrote the classic sociological statement on this
issue.
He coined the phrase value-free sociology, an ideal whereby
researchers identify facts without allowing their own
personal beliefs or biases to interfere.
How likely is this?
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Introduction to Sociology: Sociological
Research Methods
To attain their goal of
objectivity and accuracy
in their research,
sociologists must put
away their personal
opinions.
Issues in Sociological Research (cont’d)
Most universities where research is conducted also have an
institutional review board, a group of scholars within a
university who meet regularly to review and approve the
research proposals of their colleagues and make
recommendations for how to protect human subjects.
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Introduction to Sociology: Sociological
Research Methods
Lesson Quiz
1. The individuals that a sociologist interviews as part of a
research project would be a part of the:
a. sample.
b. experimental group.
c. dependent variable.
d. control group.
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Introduction to Sociology: Sociological
Research Methods
Lesson Quiz
2.The following question, “What do you think about couples
living in sin?” would be an example of a/an:
a. leading question.
b. informed question.
c. double-barreled question.
d. closed-ended question.
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Introduction to Sociology: Sociological
Research Methods
Lesson Quiz
3. What would the independent variable be in an experiment
where a sociologist is testing whether or not watching
television impacts a student’s grade on an exam?
a. the student
b. the researcher
c. the exam grade
d. the watching of television
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Introduction to Sociology: Sociological
Research Methods
4.Who coined the phrase “value-free sociology?”
a. Karl Marx
b. Max Weber
c. Emile Durkheim
d. W.E.B. DuBois
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Introduction to Sociology: Sociological
Research Methods
Lesson Quiz
5.Each academic discipline has developed its own
__________ to provide guidelines for researchers to
consult as they design a research project.
a. review board
b. code of ethics
c. Nuremberg code
d. research review board
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Introduction to Sociology: Sociological
Research Methods
Research Design Exercise
Draft an outline proposal on one of the following:
Single motherhood
Teenage sexuality
MSM and HIV/Aids
Discuss the outline proposal with the following in mind:
•
•
•
•
How would you clarify the reasons for planning the study?
What does the study aim to achieve?
How will it be done?
Will the findings be useful?