UNIT 1- CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1.1
Origins of Medical Science
1.
1.2
Anatomy and Physiology
2.
1.3
1.5
1.6
Explain how anatomy and physiology are related. (p. 11)
Levels of Organization
3.
1.4
Identify some of the early discoveries that lead to our current understanding of the
human body. (p. 10)
List the levels of organization in the human body and the characteristics of each.
(p. 12)
Characteristics of Life
4.
List and describe the major characteristics of life. (p. 14)
5.
Give examples of metabolism. (p. 14)
Maintenance of Life
6.
List and describe the major requirements of organisms. (p. 14)
7.
Explain the importance of homeostasis to survival. (p. 15)
8.
Describe the parts of a homeostatic mechanism and explain how they function
together. (p. 16)
Organization of the Human Body
9.
Identify the locations of the major body cavities. (p. 18)
10.
List the organs located in each major body cavity. (p. 18)
11.
Name and identify the locations of the membranes associated with the thoracic
and abdominopelvic cavities. (p. 20)
12.
Name the major organ systems, and list the organs associated with each. (p. 22)
13.
Describe the general function of each organ system. (p. 22)
1-1
UNIT 1- CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1.7
Life-Span Changes
14.
1.8
Identify changes related to aging, from the microscopic to whole-body level. (p.
27)
Anatomical Terminology
15.
Properly use the terms that describe relative positions, body sections, and body
regions. (p. 27)
1-2
UNIT 1- CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
1.1.
ORIGINS OF MEDICAL SCIENCE
A.
Study of anatomy and physiology is an ever-developing science with a long
history.
1.
B.
1.2
Greek and Latin form the basis for the language of anatomy and physiology.
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY:
A.
ANATOMY = the study of the structure (morphology, form) of body parts.
B.
PHYSIOLOGY = the study of the function of body parts.
C.
These two sciences are closely related.
D.
1.3.
See Fig 1.1, page 10 which dates back to 1543 AD.
1.
Every living organism’s structures’ are organized in a particular
fashion, in order to carry out a specific function.
2.
Structure determines function/ Anatomy determines physiology.
3.
See Fig. 1.2, page 11.
Scientists use many tools to study anatomy. See Clinical Application 1.1, page
13: Ultrasonography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging: A Tale of Two Patients.
LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION:
See Fig 1.3, page 12, and Table 1.1, page 14.
A.
Atom [i.e. Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), or Oxygen (O)]. An atom is defined as the
smallest particle of an element, and they are composed of subatomic particles.
Atoms combine with (react with) other atoms to form a…
B.
molecule [i.e. molecular oxygen (O2), carbon dioxide (CO2), water (H20)]. A
molecule is defined as a particle composed of 2 or more joined atoms. Molecules
combine with other molecules to form a...
C.
macromolecule (i.e. carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids).
A
macromolecule is defined as a large molecule. Macromolecules combine with
other macromolecules to form an...
1-3
UNIT 1- CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
1.3.
LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION (continued):
D.
organelle (i.e. cell membrane, nucleus, ribosomes). An organelle is defined as a
small organ of a cell, composed of two or more macromolecules, which performs
a particular function. Organelles collectively compose a...
E.
cell. The cell is defined as the basic unit of structure and function of living
organisms!
Each cell has a set of organelles and performs a particular function (i.e. a red
blood cell has a biconcave shape and is anucleate. This structure increases its
surface area, allowing for the transport of more oxygen.
Some cells have all of the machinery that they need to live. See the amoeba, a
single-celled organism in Fig 1.4, page 15.
Similar cells with some extracellular material are arranged into a...
1.4.
F.
tissue (i.e. epithelia, connective, muscle, nervous). A tissue is defined as a group
of similar cells that performs a specialized function. Two or more tissues
combine to form an...
G.
organ (i.e. skin, heart, brain). An organ is defined as a structure consisting of a
group of tissues that performs a specialized function. Two or more organs
combine to form an...
H.
organ system (i.e. integumentary, cardiovascular). An organ system is defined as
a group of organs that act together to carry on a specialized function. The eleven
organ systems collectively form the...
I.
human organism. An organism is the most complex level of organization and is
defined as an individual living thing.
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE
A.
Ten processes:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
See Table 1.2, page 14.
Movement
Responsiveness
Growth
Reproduction
Respiration
Digestion
Absorption
Circulation
Assimilation
Excretion
1-4
UNIT 1- CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
1.5.
MAINTANENCE OF LIFE
A.
B.
Requirements of Organisms See Table 1.3, page 15.
1.
Water for most metabolic reactions, lubrication, etc.
2.
Food for energy
3.
Oxygen for cellular respiration
4.
Heat to maintain 37oC body temperature, enzyme action
5.
Pressure for breathing and blood circulation
Homeostasis
1.
See Fig 1.6, page 16.
Definition = the tendency of an organism to maintain a relatively stable
internal environment despite external changes.
o This is done by keeping conditions in a homeostatic range compatible
with life, near a “set point” value.
2.
Most life processes and metabolic reactions work to maintain homeostasis.
3.
Most homeostatic mechanisms are regulated by negative feedback (see
example below), which bring conditions back toward set point.
4.
Sometimes conditions are purposely moved away from the set point. This
is called positive feedback.
a.
Examples include “fight-or-flight” and blood clotting discussed in
chapters 13 and 14, respectively.
5.
All homeostatic mechanisms have three components in common.
a. Receptors – sense change in environment
b. Control Center – regulates set point of variables
c. Effectors – organs that acts in response to changes
1-5
UNIT 1- CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
1.5. MAINTANENCE OF LIFE
B.
Homeostasis
6.
See Fig 1.7 and Fig 1.8, page 17.
Add arrows to negative feedback loop below.
Example of negative feedback = maintenance of body temperature at
98.6oF/37oC.
Targets/ Effectors:
Sweat Glands (activate and perspire);
Superficial blood vessels (dilate);
Heart (rate increases);
Diaphragm (breathing rate increases).
Control Center: Hypothalamus
Heat is released.
Stimulus:  body temperature
 body temperature
Normal Body Temperature – Set Point
37oC
Stimulus:  body temperature
Control Center: Hypothalamus



 body temperature
Heat is conserved or produced
Targets/Effectors:
Sweat glands (are inactivated);
Superficial blood vessels (constrict);
Skeletal muscles (contract involuntarily, i.e.
shivering occurs).
7.
8.
9.
Organ Systems contribute to homeostasis. See Fig 1.9, page 18.
See Appendix C, Laboratory Tests of Clinical Importance, pages 927-929.
Examples of positive feedback = blood clotting, “fight-or-flight” response,
et cetera.
1-6
UNIT 1- CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
1.6.
ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY
A.
Body Cavities: See Fig 1.10, page 19.
HUMAN BODY
AXIAL PORTION
head
neck
trunk
APPENDICULAR PORTION
arms
legs
MAJOR CAVITIES
DORSAL CAVITY
VENTRAL CAVITY
CRANIAL CAVITY
THORACIC CAVITY
brain
VERTEBRAL CANAL
spinal cord
lungs
mediastinum:
thymus
heart
esophagus
trachea
* Note that the diaphragm muscle separates the thoracic from abdominopelvic cavities.
ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY
ABDOMINAL CAVITY
PELVIC CAVITY
liver
gallbladder
stomach
spleen
small intestine
large intestine
urinary bladder
internal reproductive
organs
*
Note that the kidneys, adrenal glands, pancreas, and ureters are behind the
abdominopelvic cavity. This is referred to as RETROPERITONEAL.
*
See Reference Plates One through Seven, pages 38-44, illustrating the above organs.
1-7
UNIT 1- CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
1.6
ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY
B.
Cavities in the Head: See Fig. 1.11, page 20.
1.
Oral cavity
2.
Nasal cavity
3.
Orbital cavities
4.
Middle ear cavities
5.
Paranasal sinuses (Frontal and Sphenoidal sinuses are pictured here)
C.
Thoracic and Abdominopelvic Membranes
1.
Serous Membrane = a soft, thin, pliable layer of tissue that either:
a.
covers a vital (visceral) organ = VISCERAL MEMBRANE or
b.
lines a body cavity = PARIETAL MEMBRANE.
2.
There is a space between a visceral and parietal membrane into which
SEROUS fluid is secreted for lubrication.
3.
There are specific names for the membranes around the heart, lungs, and
abdominal organs:
a.
Serous Membranes of the LUNGS: See Fig 1.12, page 21.
o
The membrane that covers the lung is called visceral
pleura.
o
The membrane that lines the thoracic cavity is called
parietal pleura.
o
The space between these two membranes is called the
pleural cavity, and it is filled with serous fluid.
b.
Serous Membranes of the HEART: See Fig 1.12, page 21.
o
The membrane that covers the heart is called visceral
pericardium.
o
The membrane that lines the pericardial cavity is called
parietal pericardium.
o
The space between these two membranes is called the
pericardial cavity, and it is filled with serous fluid.
c.
Serous Membranes of the ABDOMINAL ORGANS:
See Fig 1.13, page 21.
o
The membrane that covers the liver, stomach, etc. is called
visceral peritoneum.
o
The membrane that lines the abdominal cavity is called
parietal peritoneum.
o
The space between these membranes and between the
organs and abdominopelvic wall is called the peritoneal
cavity, and it is filled with serous fluid.
1-8
UNIT 1- CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
1.6
ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY (Keyed at the end of this outline)
D.
Organ Systems: See Table 1.4, page 25 and Figures on pages 22-25 in textbook.
MAJOR ORGANS IN
SYSTEM NAME
SYSTEM
FUNCTION(S)
1-9
UNIT 1- CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
1.7
LIFE-SPAN CHANGES
A.
Aging is the process of becoming mature or old.
B.
Aging occurs from the microscopic to whole-body level.
1.
Programmed cell death begins in the fetus, although is not apparent until
later decades. Examples of aging include the following:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
2.
Changes at tissue level explain familiar signs of aging.
a.
b.
c.
3.
decreased production of collagen and elastin – stiffening of skin
diminished levels of subcutaneous fat –wrinkling
fat to water proportions change in tissues – altered drug
metabolism in elderly
Changes at cell level occurs.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
4.
3rd decade: gray hairs, faint facial lines, minor joint stiffness
4th decade: maternal age significant in chromosomal disorders of
offspring, hair and facial changes continue
5th decade: hair color fades, facial wrinkles appear, hypertension,
hypercholesteremia, heart disease, and Type II diabetes may appear
6th decade: waning immunity may require immunizations against
influenza, pneumonia, and other infectious diseases
7th decade: continuation of above and….
impaired cell division – reduced wound healing
inappropriate cell division – cancers
repair of damaged DNA declines – cancers
reduced energy extraction from nutrients
reduced breakdown of worn cell parts
damaging oxygen free radical increase - lipofuscin and ceroid
pigments accumulation
accumulation of a protein called amyloid may occur in the brain
and lead to Alzheimer’s disease in some individuals
generalized metabolic slowdown- diminished tolerance to cold,
weight gain, and fatigue
Due to the above changes at the molecular, cellular, and tissue levels,
consequently the effects of aging occur at the organ and organ system
level, as well.
1-10
UNIT 1- CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
1.8
ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY
A.
Definition = a language used to describe the relative position of body parts;
needed for communication.
B.
Anatomical Position = standing erect, face forward, upper limbs at sides, and
palms forward. See Fig 1.21a, page 28.
C.
Relative Position: See Fig 1.21, page 28.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
D.
Superior = above; Inferior = below
Anterior = front; Posterior = back
Ventral = front; Dorsal = back
Medial = center; Lateral = side
Ipsilateral = same side; Contralateral = opposite side
Proximal = closer to trunk; Distal = farther from trunk
Superficial/peripheral = surface; Deep = internal
Body Sections (cuts, planes)
See Fig 1.22 and Fig 1.23, page 29.
1.
Sagittal cut: divides body/organ into right and left portions.
a.
midsagittal (median) = equal right and left portions.
Also see Human Cadaver Plates Eight -Twelve, pages 45-48.
2.
Transverse Cut (or horizontal): divides body/organ into superior and
inferior portions.
Also see Human Cadaver Plates Thirteen – Twenty, pages 49-52.
.
3.
Coronal Cut (or frontal): divides body/organ into anterior and posterior
portions.
Also see Human Cadaver Plates Twenty-One through Twenty-Five, pages
53-56.
E.
Sections/Cuts of Cylindrical Structures (i.e. blood vessels, nerves, etc.)
See Fig 1.24, page 30.
1.
Cross-section: cut at 90 degrees to longitudinal axis of structure
2.
Oblique section: cut at angle across an object
3.
Longitudinal section: cut along longitudinal axis of structure
1-11
UNIT 1- CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
1.8
ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY (Keyed at the end of this outline)
F.
Body Regions
See Fig 1.25a, page 31.
1.
Abdominal regions
2.
Abdominal Quadrants:
See Fig 1.25b, page 31.
1-12
UNIT 1- CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
1.8
ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY
G.
Surface Anatomy (Landmarks): See Fig 1.26, page 32.
1.
Anterior Landmarks:
Above the Waist
cephalic=head
frontal=forehead
orbital=eye
otic=ear
nasal=nose
oral=mouth
buccal=cheek
mental=chin
cervical=neck
acromial = shoulder
axillary=armpit
brachial=upper arm
antecubital=anterior elbow
antebrachial=forearm
carpal=wrist
metacarpal=hand
palmar = palm
digital=finger
mammary=breast
sternal = breast bone
pectoral = chest
umbilical=navel
abdominal = abdomen
Below the Waist
inguinal=groin
coxal=hip
genital=reproductive organs
femoral=thigh
patellar=knee cap
sural=calf
tarsal=ankle, instep
pedal = foot
digital=toe
2.
Posterior Landmarks
Above the Waist
Below the Waist
occipital= base of skull
sacral=between hips
acromial=shoulder
gluteal=buttocks
vertebral=spinal column
perineal=between anus & other openings
dorsum=back
popliteal=back of knee
cubital=elbow
plantar=sole
lumbar=loin
calcaneal=heel
OTHER INTERESTING TOPICS:
A.
THE WHOLE PICTURE. See page 9.
B.
CAREER CORNER: Emergency Medical Technician. See page 11.
B.
Some Medical and Applied Sciences, pages 30-32.
C.
Reference Plates: Human Organism, pages 38-44.
D.
Human Cadaver Reference Plates, pages 45-56.
CHAPTER SUMMARY – see pages 33-34.
CHAPTER ASSESSMENTS – see page 35.
INTEGRATIVE ASSESSMENTS/CRITICAL THINKING – see page 36.
1-13
UNIT 1- CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
SYSTEM NAME
MAJOR ORGANS IN SYSTEM
FUNCTION(S)
INTEGUMENTARY
Skin, hair, nails, sweat glands,
sebaceous glands
protection, regulation of body
temperature, synthesis of Vitamin D, etc.
SKELETAL
Bones, tendons, ligaments,
cartilages
support, protection, movement, Ca++
store, hematopoiesis
MUSCULAR
Skeletal Muscles
movement, heat production, etc
NERVOUS
Brain, spinal cord, nerves
coordination of body parts; information
processing
ENDOCRINE
Endocrine Glands that secrete
hormones
maintenance of homeostasis. Fight-orflight, fluid and electrolyte balance
CARDIOVASCULAR
Heart, blood vessels
transport of nutrients, wastes, O2 and
CO2
electrolyte maintenance,
LYMPHATIC
Bone marrow, lymph nodes,
thymus, spleen
Control disease, etc
RESPIRATORY
nose, nasal cavity, sinuses,
pharynx, larynx, trachea,
bronchial tubes within lungs,
alveoli
exchange of gases (O2 and CO2),
maintenance of blood pH and
electrolytes; voice production
URINARY
kidneys, ureters, urinary
bladder, urethra
Excretion (removal of metabolic wastes
from blood), maintenance of blood (i.e.
pH, pressure, etc.), maintenance of
electrolytes
DIGESTIVE
Oral cavity, pharynx,
esophagus, stomach, small and
large intestine, salivary glands,
liver, pancreas, gall bladder
male: testes, epididymis, vas
deferens, prostate, seminal
vesicle, bulbourethral glands,
urethra, penis, scrotum
breakdown of food into substances that
can be absorbed (for energy)
female: ovaries, fallopian tubes,
uterus, cervix, vagina, labia,
clitoris
Female: house developing embryo/fetus
REPRODUCTIVE
production, maintenance and transport
of gametes; production of sex hormones
1-14
UNIT 1- CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Abdominopelvic Areas
Nine Regions
RIGHT
HYPOCHONDRIAC
REGION
EPIGASTRIC
REGION
LEFT
HYPOCHONDRIAC
REGION
RIGHT LUMBAR
REGION
UMBILICAL
REGION
LEFT LUMBAR
REGION
RIGHT ILIAC
REGION
HYPOGASTRIC
REGION
LEFT ILIAC
REGION
Four Quadrants:
RIGHT UPPER
QUADRANT
LEFT UPPER
QUADRANT
RIGHT LOWER
QUADRANT
LEFT LOWER
QUADRANT
1-15