The Johnstone Centre
Report Nº 196
The June 1846 Eruption of
Fonualei Volcano, Tonga
An Historical Analysis
by
Dirk HR Spennemann
Albury 2004
© Dirk H.R. Spennemann 2004
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CIP DATA
Spennemann, Dirk H.R. (1958–)
The June 1846 Eruption of Fonualei Volcano, Tonga. An Historical Analysis
/ by Dirk H.R. Spennemann
Johnstone Centre Report nº 196
Albury, N.S.W. : The Johnstone Centre, Charles Sturt University, 2004
1v.;ill.
ISBN 1 86467 145 9
DDC 551.2109612
LCC QE526.2.T* 2004
1. Volcanoes—Tonga—Fonualei. 2. Volcanic Ash—Tonga. 3. Tonga—History
ii
Contents
Contents...................................................................................................iii
Introduction ..............................................................................................1
The Island..................................................................................................1
Historic record of volcanic eruptions................................................ 3
Toku ................................................................................................. 3
Fonualei............................................................................................ 4
The Sources.............................................................................................8
The Samoan Reporter ....................................................................... 8
Other newspapers ............................................................................. 9
Missionary Accounts ......................................................................... 9
Naval Accounts................................................................................. 9
Whalers’ Logbooks............................................................................ 9
Commonly used source information.................................................9
The Eruption of 11 June 1846 ........................................................... 10
Toku or Fonualei?........................................................................... 12
Other Sources ................................................................................. 12
Ash or pumice ?............................................................................... 15
An Eruption in early October 1846 ................................................ 16
Later events .................................................................................... 16
Conclusions .......................................................................................... 17
Bibliography .......................................................................................... 19
Appendix 1:—Full Text from the Samoan Reporter .................... 24
Appendix 2:—Noon-time Positions of the three whalers .......... 26
Appendix 3:—Newspaper report of October 1846...................... 29
Appendix 4:—Newspaper report of June 1847............................ 30
iii
Introduction
This report forms part of a research program to demonstrate the use and value of
historic data in contemporary environmental and disaster management in the Pacific.
Hindcasting events based on historic records is a valid endeavour in order to add to
the database of occurrences. This is particularly the case with climatic events such as
typhoons, and geophysical events such as earthquakes, where the estimation of risk
is based on the understanding of the recurrence interval of the hazard. In the
absence of deep time scales in many parts of the Pacific, historic reanalysis of data is
a relevant tool.
This report compiles and discusses the historical evidence for an eruption of
Fonualei Island, northern Tonga Group, in June 1846 and expunges some erroneous
interpretation of data from the record.
The Island
The Tongan islands lie on the NNE-SSW trending, mostly submarine TongaKermadec Ridge, which constitutes a major bathymetric feature extending over
1300 km from New Zealand to Samoa, formed by the subduction zone of the
Pacific plate sliding under the Indo-Australian plate at a speed of ~100 mm per
annum (Lewis 1985). They consist of three types of islands running in two island
chains parallel to each other and the at times 10,500 m deep Tonga trench.
i)
An eastern chain of islands, sitting on the relatively shallow forarc platform
(the Tongan Frontal Arc), consists of reefal coral limestone underlain by
older volcanic rocks (Tongatapu, Ha'apai, Vava'u). In some instances the
underlying volcanic rocks are exposed, such as on Nomuka and 'Eua. On the
latter island these rocks are of Eocene origin.
ii)
A western chain of active volcanoes (e.g. Tofua, Late, Kao) sits on the
Tofoa Ridge and is separated from the chain of coral limestone islands by a
trough up to 1,800 m deep.
iii)
A chain of active submarine volcanoes, which erupt spasmodically and form
unstable islands consisting of volcanic ash and pumice (e.g. Fonuafo'ou
[Falcon or Jack-in-the-box I.], Metis Shoal), coincides with the chain of
visible volcanoes.
Traditionally, the islands of coralline origin, such as Tongatapu, the Ha’apai Group
and Vava’u, were the centres of human settlement, with smaller populations
resident on ‘Eua as well as Niuatoputapu and the smaller volcanic island of
Niuafo’ou (Spennemann 1988; 1992; 2002; 2003a). The soils of the main islands are
all derived from tephra.
1
Figure 1
Map of the
Tongan
Group
1 5º 00 ' S
1 5º 30 ' S
Niua Fo'ou
Tafahi
1 6º 00 ' S
Niuatoputapu
1 6º 30 ' S
1 7º 00 ' S
1 7º 30 ' S
Fonualei
1 8º 00 ' S
Toku
1 8º 30 ' S
Late
V AVA ' U G ROUP
1 9º 00 ' S
1 9º 30 ' S
Tofua
HA ' APAI G ROUP
2 0º 00 ' S
2 0º 30 ' S
2 1º 00 ' S
T ONGATAPU
'Eua
1 76 º0 0 ' W
2
1 75 º3 0 ' W
1 75 º0 0 ' W
1 74 º3 0 ' W
1 74 º0 0 ' W
1 73 º3 0 ' W
1 73 º0 0 ' W
On the larger islands multiple soil series can be found, caused by multiple deposition
events, thereby demonstrating multiple eruption events. Moreover, on the larger
islands the thickness of the younger soils decreases from west to east, indicating an
origin of the tephra from a source in the west, against the prevailing trade winds
(Cowrie 1980, Orbell 1971; 1977a–b; Wilson & Beecroft 1983; Wilson & Hewitt
1983).
Historic record of volcanic eruptions
Possible volcanic ash deposits have been found in one archaeological site on
Tongatapu (site TO-Pe-5/TO.5; Poulsen 1987, vol. I p. 33-34) as well as on a site
‘Eua (Spennemann 2002). While on ‘Eua the spatial position of the site in relation
to palaeo shore lines (Spennemann 1997) and the topography of the island may
indicate an massive erosion event and land clearing (Spennemann 2002), the
evidence for Tongatapu suggests a different origin, possibly an airfall ash deposit.
The lie of the land is too flat to allow for erosion to deposit the 5mm thick layer of
bright brown tephra. The layer is lacking in the northern part of the site, which
could have been exposed to wave decay. If the interpretation as a volcanic ash
deposit is correct, then we can date a small ash shower to between 3200BP (the
establishment of the shoreline; Spennemann 1987) and about 350 and 550 AD (a
fire place Poulsen 1987; Spennemann 1989; Spennemann & Head 1998).
Stratigraphically it is closer to the latter date. The thickness suggests a substantial ash
shower.
With the advent of European visitation we have records for volcanic eruptions, the
earliest being the eruption of Tofua noted by Cook on his third voyage (1777). Well
known are also the various eruptions of Niuafo'ou (cf. Rogers 1987) and the erratic
occurrence and disappearance of Fonua-fo'ou.
Volcanic eruptions have been recorded for Late Island (1854), Tofua Island (1774,
1906, 1959), Fonuafo'ou (pre-1781, 1885, 1927), Fonualei (this report) and
Niuafo'ou (1886, 1929, 1943, 1946, 1947). In addition to these, various submarine
eruptions have been recorded (compiled after Wood 1932; Lewis 1978; 1979), some
of which have generated unstable ash-derived islands such as Fonuafo'ou or Falcon
I. (< 1781, 1884-1887, 1927-1930) (Compiled after British Admiralty 1889; 1896;
Firth & Davidson 1944:28; Hoffmeister & Ladd 1928; Lewis 1978; Marden
1968:367; Thomson 1926:367; Wharton 1890).
Toku
Toku, located at 18º15' S 174º18' W, is a small volcanic island. It has an area of 0.4
km2 and a total elevation of 16m (UNEP 1988) Wood (1932, p. 107) gives an area
of 150 acres with a maximum elevation of 86 feet.
The Pacific Islands Pilot (1956, p. 424) describes Toku as a small and low island.
3
In the 1830s Toku had served as a refuge island for refugees from the village of
Ha’amea on Tongatapu, who had left due to fighting. The people lived on Toku but
had gardens on Fonualei. Following the eruptions discussed in this report, the
people of Toku resettled to Utulei on Vava’u (Wood 1932, p. 74).
In 1889-90 J.J. Lister travelled to some of the islands on HMS Egeira. According to
Lister (1891, map) Toku was 82 high.
Fonualei
Fonualei is located at 18° 01' 0S 174° 10' 60W. The island is a stratovolcano with a
maximum elevation of 180 m. Wood (1932, p. 107) gives an area of 465 acres with
a maximum elevation of 600 feet.
Francisco Antonio Maurelle was the first European was to sight Fonualei on 26
February 1780 (Maurelle 1798, p. 269). The French Explorer La Perouse acquired a
copy of Maurelle’s observations and quotes him extensively as follows:
“On the 26th of February I saw a small island, and stood towards it in the hope of
being able to come to an anchor there, and procure water. The crew leaped for joy,
as if this island were to put an end to all their restrictions. Their hilarity equalled
the distredd to which they had been reduced; but it was of short duration.: for when
we arrived within two miles of it, we saw clearly, not only that there was no
anchorage, but even that a boat could not land on it. It was beside perfectly barren
on it’s mountain, which was by no means small, not a single tree was to be seen.
The island, from the anguish of our disappointment, we called Amargura,
Bitterness.” (Maurelle 1799, pp. 277-278; 1807, pp. 277-278).
La Perouse himself sighted Toku and Fonualei on 27 December 1787, but his
descriptions are very brief:
“I saw Morel’s Margoura bearing west from me and coming nearer I sighted a
second very flat island, covered in trees, which this navigator had not seen; by
contrast Margoura is fairly high and it is likely that both are inhabited; after
taking our bearings I made for Vavao Island…” (La Perouse 1799, p. I 122123; 1807, pp. I 122-1-123; 1995, p. 434).
Fonualei was also seen by Captain Edwards of HMS Pandora, searching for the
Bounty mutineers. Edwards called the island ‘Gardner’s Island’ (Finlay 1863, p.
403). Fonualei was visited on occasion by whalers, but it is not known if any of
them actually landed. Between 23 and 26 of October 1836 the whaler Richard
Mitchell, sailing in company with the whaler Independence, was in the waters around
Fonualei, sighting the island on the 23rd, 24th and 26th (Smith 1839). On no occasion
was an attempt made to land.
In 1848 the island was visited, again without an attempt to land, by Captain Worth
commanding HMS Calypso (Finlay 1863, p. 403).
The Pacific Islands Pilot describes Fonualei as follows:
4
“Fonualei.-Fonualei (Fanua lai), an island about 11 miles north-north-westward of
Toku (Lat. 18' 09' S., Long. 174' 11' W.), rises to a sharp and well defined
summit, 600 feet (182m9) high, which falls abruptly to the sea on its southern
side in light-grey-coloured cliffs. The coast is cliffy, except on the north-western
side, where there is a small bight with a sand and shingle beach, on which landing
is possible in fine weather. There is a narrow fringing reef on the northeastern,
southern, and western sides.
Northward of the peak, which is the summit of a small ridge running east and
west, covered with vegetation, the land slopes down. It rises again on the western
side of the island to a wide, barren, lava-streamed ridge, 500 feet (152m4) high;
on the eastern side a lower ridge, from which a faint column of smoke was observed
to rise, in 1898, follows the coast, terminating in a summit, 370 feet (112m8)
high, near the northern end of the island.
The hills form the walls of a crater, a small portion of which has been blown out on
the north-western side, thus giving access to the crater from the beach on that side.
The valley so formed in the interior is cultivated, but no inhabitants are permitted
by the Tongan Government to reside there on account of its liability to eruption.
The island is visited occasionally by natives from Vava'u” (Pacific Islands Pilot
(1956, p. 425)
Bryan et al (1972) provide a map of Fonualei (Figure 2)
Eruptive History of Fonualei
According to the published record, the eruptive history of Fonualei commenced in
1847 “when the island was in part destroyed by the eruption of its crater” and
“ashes were thrown in large quantities on passing ships 500-600 miles to the N.E.
(Findlay 1871, p. 456). Findlay’s notes were carried through to the early geological
references, such as Lister’s ‘Notes on the geology of the Tonga Islands’ (1891) and
from there found their way into standard references.
The current appearance of Fonualei is defined by a caldera that is breached on the
eastern side, while capped on all other sides by volcanic ash intermixed with
pumiceous fragments (Bryan et al 1972). Rough, blocky lava flows, extending from a
cone in the caldera to the northwest and east have been attributed to the 1846/47
eruption events (US Naval Oceanographic Office 1952., p. 159 cited after Bryan et
al. 1972). Additional flows and ash deposits can be attributed to the 1939 eruption,
while the 1943 event was reputedly more limited.
5
Figure 2. Map of Fonualei in 1971
(Source: Bryan et al 1972)
Figure 3. The central crater of Fonualei photographed in 2003
(photo Dick Watling, Source: courtesy Birdlife International)
6
18º00' S
FONUALEI
TOKU
18º10' S
18º20' S
18º30' S
VAVA'U
Neiafu Harbour
18º40' S
18º50' S
19º00' S
174º30' W
174º20' W
174º10' W
174º00' W
173º50' W
Figure 4 Map of Vava’u, Toku and Fonualei
7
According to the Smithsonian website,
“The small, less than 2-km-wide island of Fonualei contains a fumarolically active
crater, which is breached to the SW with a fresh lava flow extending to the sea and
forming a rugged shoreline. Steep, inward-facing scarps mark the rim of a partially
exposed caldera which contains a pyroclastic cone that is breached to the east and
forms the 180-m-high summit of the island. Blocky lava flows from this cone fill
much of the northern caldera moat and reach the sea through notches in the
northern and eastern caldera rims. In contrast to the basaltic and andesitic rocks
of other islands of the Tonga arc, Fonualei lavas are of dacitic composition.
Eruptions have been recorded since 1791, with the two largest taking place in
October 1846 and July 1847. Lava flows occurred in both these years; in 1846
explosive eruptions produced large pumice rafts, and the following year ashfall
damaged crops on the island of Vavau (56 km away) and fell on vessels up to 950
km distant. In 1939 explosive and effusive activity occurred from summit and
flank vents, and water spouts were reported 1.6 km SE of the island.”
The Sources
The data presented here on derive from a number of sources, whaler’s logbooks and
newspaper items. Fonualei and Toku are of minor importance in the Tongan
settlement history, and thus do not figure in the main reports such as Mariner’s
account (Martin 1817).
The Samoan Reporter
Well before the first commercial newspaper was published in Apia in 1878 the
London Missionary Society published a news sheet between 1845 and 1860, The
Samoan Reporter (Spennemann 2003b). Appearing biannually, the Samoan Reporter
was a four, and on occasion six page paper set out in three columns and printed
locally at the London Missionary Society’s printery at Leulumoega on Upolu,
Samoa.1 It carried missionary news, some general news items, as well as a serialisation of ethnographic observations.
The main account of the eruption (see Appendix 1) was first published in that
source.
1
In total twenty-one issues are extant.—Printed by John Bettrige Stair: nº 1, March 1845;
nº 2, September 1845; nº 3, March 1846.—Printed by James Povey Sutherland: nº 4,
September 1846; nº 5, March 1847; nº 6, September 1847; nº 7, March 1848; nº 8, September 1848; nº 9, March 1849.—Printed by Samuel Ella: nº 10, November 1849 (6
pp); nº 11, July 1850; nº 12, January 1851; nº 13, July 1851; nº 14, September 1852; nº
15, January 1854 (6 pp); nº 16, December 1854 (6 pp); nº 17, January 1856; nº 18,
January 1857; nº 19, October 1857 (6 pp); nº 20, lacking nº 21, March 1860 (6 pp);
8
Other newspapers
Reports on the success and failure of whalers operating in the Pacific were
important news items for the newspapers in whaling ports of New England. Many
of these papers relied on letters sent by captains or crew of the whalers, and also
material abstracted from Sydney and Honolulu newspapers. In addition, copying of
text items from other New England papers was common, with or without crediting
the sources.
As part of a labour-generation scheme during the New Deal period, refernces to
American activities in the Pacific have been extracted from these papers. They have
were published in 1967 (Ward 1967).
Missionary Accounts
We have in hand one published account by the Wesleyan missionary Walter Lawry
(1850, p. 14) who visited the island en route to Fiji. Because it is ‘off the beaten
track’, little has been recorded by standard missionary sources.
Naval Accounts
In addition to the Missionary accounts we have a number accounts by British naval
commanders, such as Erskine’s 1853 publication on his voyage in HMS Havannah,
Whalers’ Logbooks
The greatest number of European vessels plying the Pacific Ocean at that time were
whalers. The logbook entries range from the laconic, just stating position and winds,
or banale information (“arrived 'Eua, off 'Eua, departed 'Eua”) to truly elaborate
multi-page descriptions of islands and their inhabitants. Usually such entries are
confined to the first year of the log-book keeper’s voyage. Logbooks were kept by
Captains, but also by some of the mates for future reference when they were to have
their own command. Each logbook provides the position of the vessel ‘shot’ at
noon. Thus a ship’s day ran from noon to noon, broken up into three watches or
‘parts’ (‘first,’ ‘middle,’ ‘latter’). Depending on the habit of the logbook keeper, the
noon-time position would be recorded at the beginning or the end of a day. Care
must be exerted to interpret these data correctly. If entered at the beginning, the
position can be taken at face value for the calendar day (unless the logbook keeper
forgot to take leap years into account or made other mistakes). If entered at the end
of a day, the noon-time position actually refers to noon of the day following the date
of the entry.
Commonly used source information
The mian source, which was drawn on by many geological reports, is the entry by
Alexander Findlay in his Directory for the navigation of the South Pacific Ocean:
9
“In April 1847 Amagura was destroyed by the eruption of its crater, which
according to the Rev. Mr Lawry was heard at Niua Fo, 160 miles distant, and it
damaged the crops and trees at Vavu, 35 miles off. Ashes were thrown in large
quantities on passing ships, 500 and 600 miles to the NE.” (Findlay 1863, p.
403; 1871, p. 456; 1874, p. 456; 1877, p. 511).
This, however, is a misrepresentation of the true facts, which shall be discussed
below.
The Eruption of 11 June 1846
Perusal of The Samoan Reporter of March 1847 finds the following statement on a
volcanic eruption on an island northwest of Vava’u (Mills 1847a, for full text see
Appendix 1):
“… a new Volcanic Eruption at a small uninhabited Island… Toku is the proper
name, but known on the Charts as Amagura. …
On Tuesday the 9th of June [1846], and two following days, severe shocks of
Earthquakes were felt at Vavau, during every 15 or 20 minutes. They could be
easily perceived on board the vessel lying at anchor in the harbour. On the night of
the 11th bright flashes of light were perceived in the direction of Toku, reflected
against the heavens, but at a very high angle.
On the morning of the 12th every thing was covered with a thin dust… A strong
suffocating smell of sulphur was perceived.
Mr. Williams left Vavau on the 13th the Island of Toku lying nearly in their
course. As they approached it, they could perceive immense volumes of smoke and
dust ascending, as they came still nearer to it, they could form some idea of the
immense extent of the crater, which is described as being of very great diameter.
… About 2 o'clock, on the morning of the 12th, and at least 3 degrees in a N. E.
direction from Toku, Captain Samson of the "Charles W. Morgan," … entered a
shower of ashes. … so soon as they got into it, … the deck began to be covered with
the fine dust. …So soon as the sun arose, the dust appeared of a dark red colour,
rolling over like great volumes of smoke, presenting an awful appearance ; at 8
o'clock it was so dark that candles had to be lighted in the cabin ; at 11a. m. it
began to clear a little, the sun appearing occasionally. By noon they had got out of
it, being then in 171º 45 W. and 11º 2 S. having sailed across the shower at least
40 miles. Captain Cash of the Ship “Massachusetts” got into the shower about the
same time, though at least 60 miles to the East of Captain Samson, and not far
from Savage Island [Niue, Ed.].
…The dust is of a dark gray slatey colour. Of specific gravity 1.076. containing a
large proportion of Sulphur, and so much of free Sulphuric acid as to give it a
sharp taste. It also contains a small proportion of iron.”
10
The reference to the chemical composition of the ash as included in the account
shows that Captain Samson had the presence of mind to collect a sample. We do not
know who analysed it and whether it was sent to other analysts.
The same text (as shown in appendix 1) also appeared in the Honolulu-based paper
The Friend of October 1847, which reprinted the Samoa Reporter item in full (Mills
1847b). The Samoan item was also independently picked up and abstracted by New
England newspapers, such as the Boston Daily Evening Transcript (Anon 1847a).
The evidence in The Samoan Reporter can be collaborated by a consultation of the
logbook of the Charles W. Morgan (Vincent 1848). The Charles W. Morgan had come
to Tonga to trade for live stock and provisions, and had achieved this on 2 June
1846 on 'Eua, an island just east of Tongatapu (Vincent 1848), then a favoured spot
for whalers to replenish their supplies (Spennemann 1987a–b). The Charles W.
Morgan then made sail for the Central Pacific, sailing to the east of Tongan Chain.
Based on the noon-time positions reported in the logbook (see Appendix 2) the
track of the vessel can be plotted (Figure 7).
Figure 5 The Charles W. Morgan at Mystic Seaport, Conneticut.2
On 12 June the Charles W. Morgan encountered the ash cloud. The logbook entries
read (spelling retained):
“Friday June the12 1846 | Begins with fine trades from S.E and steering | by
this wind N.N.E. the middle part the |same and nothing of note | Lat 18..02
Long 171..20 W | to day we got in to a Sand Mist and saild in it 9 | hours it
2
Sorce: www.worldshiptrust.org/AwardCharlesMorgan.html
11
being very thick & fild the rigging & sails full | & the ship lookd anough to
frighten any one
Saturday June the13 1846 | Begins with light trades from E.N.E | heading to the
North at 4 A.M. the Ship got in to a Sand Mist and we saild | through it 9 hours
it being very thick | Lat 17..22 S Long 171..20 W.”
From perusal of the logbook it would appear that the Charles W. Morgan
encountered two distinct ash clouds. Given that the time spent in the ash cloud on
both days was nine hours, it is most likely that this is a double reference to the same
day, the 12th of June.
While logbooks exist for a number of voyages of the whaler Massachusetts,
mentioned in the Samoan Reporter, no logs for 1846 are available. Thus the positions
and experience of the Massachusetts encountering the ash cloud cannot be assessed.
Yet the experience cannot have been very remarkable, for when 17 June 1846 the
Massachusetts arrives on Upolu, the log of the whaler Christopher Mitchell narrates
events aboard the Massachusetts, mainly a whale hunting incident, but makes no
reference to an ash cloud (Ackley 1848).
Toku or Fonualei?
The account in the Samoan Reporter specifically mentions that the island erupting was
Toku or Amargura using both names synonymously. Yet, so far no record for an
eruption of Toku can be found in the records. What is described in the
volcanological literature, however, is an eruption on Fonualei in October 1846 and
one in June 1847. It appears that these two events have been extracted from G.
Ward’s collection of US newspaper reports on American activities in the Pacific (see
Appendix 3 and 4). The reference to the 1847 eruption seems to derive from a
summary (Anon 1847a) and a full reprint (Mills 1847b) of the account originally
published in the Samoan Reporter of March 1847, as well as a summary of the events
published in Findlay’s widely used Directory for the Navigation of the South Pacific Ocean
(Findlay 1863, p. 403). As both the extract and the reprint make no reference to a
year, a casual reader is forced to assume that both accounts refer to June 1847.
Consulting indices of Pacific Islands (Brigham 1900, p. 67; CIA 1957, p. 359),
Amargura is clearly a synonym for Fonualei, so named by Francisco Antonio
Maurelle in 1780.
Other Sources
A perusal of a list of known shipping in the Tonga Group (Spennemann 1987b; in
prep) showed the presence of other vessels in the area at roughly this point in time.
The eruption may have been preceded by earthquakes, but no major fumarolic
activity. The whaler Alfred of New Bedford, Captain John Davenport, saw the
island during the day and night of 20 May 1846. The log makes no comment on
smoke or eruptions (Davenport 1849).
12
One further whaler’s log can be drawn on, and this one provides significant
additional information. The whaler Minerva, commanded by Captain Joseph Bailey,
was also replenishing at ‘Eua in mid June 1846, Like the Charles M. Morgan it made
sail for the Central Pacific, on the 21st passing some 10 nautical miles north of
Vava’u. On the 22nd of June they reached a small volcanic island. As the Minerva
recorded its noon time positions at the end of the log-book day, the position of the
log entry for the 21st was in ‘real time’ just before noon on the 22nd. The Minerva’s
position was 18º05' south, with no longitude given. The logbook entry for the 22nd
of June reads:
“Monday June 22nd
Steering in SW for Amagura. At 3 | lowering away a boat and went on shore to
see a volcano. It was | about 160 feet high and as much in diameter looking like a
large pile | of stones with an immense fire under it. There was eruption every | few
minutes when immense bolies [?] of steam and stones were thrown | to a great
height. We ventured within about 25 feet of it between | spells. There was water
flowing almost round it. The whole island | was volcanic. One place a quarter of a
mile from the crater | the smoke was flung out. Ground covered with sulphur |
Middle part steering S by W. Main Top G[allant] sail set. 15º39' 175º20'.”
(Bailey 1846).
Again, Amargura is specifically mentioned. Most significantly. however, are the
dimensions of the volcano. The island is described as 160 feet high and about the
same in diameter. All accounts of Fonualei describe the island as about 580 to 600
feet in height. There can be little doubt that the island could have grown through
subsequent uplift or volcanic activity.
The Wesleyean missionary Walter J. Lawry conducted a tour of inspection of the
Wesleyan missions in Tonga and Fiji in 1847. The volcanic eruption was significant
enough to figure in the published account:
“Tuesday August 17th, 1847 At sea en route to Niua… Funua-lei presented
the most awful and terrific appearance in the form of a natural phenomenon, that it
had hitherto fallen to my lot to witness. It was a circular and rather high volcanic
island, about ten miles round, until, of late, when it became so frightfully convulsed
that it was turned inside out, and split in two parts! God had sent such clear
warnings by the heavy earthquakes which preceded this eruption, that the people
had left the place and had gone to Vava’u, where they are now living. To us on out
ship’s deck it presented an appearance of desolation, which filled us with awe, and
caused a sigh to escape from every beholder. The sailor, the native Teacher, the
Missionary all exclaimed, “Come and see the desolations which the Lord hath
made!” The idea it impressed upon our minds was that of a ruined world. It
smelled very strongly of sulphur, and exhibited rents, and piles of burnt sand and
vitrified matter, as if the bowels of the earth had been turned outside. Volumes of
smoke were pouring forth at twenty places, sometimes closing here and opening
there. The openings of crater after crater were seen in all directions, and the sea,
for a great distance, was discoloured by the floods of lava poured forth. The light of
13
the flame caused quite an illumination at Vava’u, distant thirty-five miles; and the
noise of this fiery disgorge was distinctly heard for three successive days at Niua
Fo’ou, distant one hundred and thirty miles! The dust and vitrified matter were
discharged from this deep volcano to such a height, that we saw much of it and its
withering effects, thirty-five miles off, at Vava’u, where the damage was very
considerable, both to the trees and to the crops generally.”
[An excerpt from the text printed in the Samoan Reporter is omitted,
Ed.]
For many weeks before, as well as at the time of this disruption, the earthquakes
for a space of fifty miles around, and especially at Vava’u, were truly terrific, and,
even now, they seldom miss shaking every moon. About a year since, this oceanic
mountain was covered with verdure, and abounded with fruit-trees; but, behold, it
has now become a bare mass of lava and burnt sand, reduced from a fine cone to a
divided an ghastly heap of scoria and black powder, without a leaf of a blade of
grass of any kind, and all things living are destroyed. Such at present is Funua’lei,
a monument to God’s power to create and destroy.” (Lawry 1850, p. 14)
John Elphington Erskine, commander of HMS Havannah, visited Vava’u on 30 and
31 July 1848. He comments:
“Earthquakes are very common; and there are several active volcanoes in the
neighbouring islands. Amargura, or Fonua-lai, in about 18ºS latitude, is said to
have been so shaken by an eruption in June, 1846, that canoes can now sail in and
out of the crater; and the Revd. Lawry describes the islet, which until that year was
covered with verdure and abounded with fruit, as reduced in August, 1847, to a
huge mass of lava and burnt sand without one leaf of blade of grass of any kind.
All things that had life had been utterly destroyed, the inhabitants having, however,
warned by violent earthquakes which preceded the eruption, happily escaped
previously to Vava’u. Mr Lawry adds that the noise of the fiery disgorge was
distinctly heard at Niua Fo’ou, distant one hundred and thirty miles; and that its
withering effects on the trees and crops, which it damaged considerably, were
experienced at Vava’u, thirty-five miles off [Erkine footnotes that the
distance was 60 miles, Ed.]. An American ship, the Charles W. Morgan had
sailed through a shower of ashes for forty miles, getting out of it in lat 11º02' S
and long 171º45' W; and another (the Massachussetts), at the same time,
although sixty miles further to the eastward, had the deck covered with ashes,
which the crew were obliged to clear from time to time.” (Erkine 1853, p. 120).
14
1 5º 00 ' S
Eruption heard on
Niua Fo'ou
1 6º 00 ' S
1 7º 00 ' S
felt range of
the earthquakes
1 8º 00 ' S
14-6-1846
Fonualei erupts on
11th at night
13-6-1846
Massachussetts
encounters ash shower
on the morning of the 12th
Charles W. Morgan
encounters ash shower
at 4 am on the 12th
Vava'u covered
in fine ash on 12th
1 9º 00 ' S
NIUE
12-6-1846
2 0º 00 ' S
2 1º 00 ' S
2 2º 00 ' S
1 76 º0 0 ' W
1 75 º0 0 ' W
1 74 º0 0 ' W
1 73 º0 0 ' W
1 72 º0 0 ' W
1 71 º0 0 ' W
1 70 º0 0 ' W
Figure 6 Spatial arrangement of the pertinent observations.
Ash or pumice ?
The above quoted log book of the Charles Morgan makes mention of the pumice
cloud that was traversed on 12 June 1846. Other whalers in the area were the
Minerva, as mentioned (Bailey 1846), as well as the Charles (Coane 1848). The latter
sailed through the area formerly covered by the ash cloud in July, some four weeks
after the eruption (Figure 6). It’s log makes no reference of pumice rafts or the like.
This is not surprising, however, given that the pumice would have fallen closer to
the volcano and given that in this area an ocean current runs to the west-northwest. In view of the current, the logbooks of those whalers were also checked
15
1 69 º0 0 ' W
which are known to have been in waters immediately to the west of the volcano
(according to Langdon 1984). Consulted were the logs of the whalers Alfred
(Davenport 1849), Kingston (Ellis 1848), Canton Packet (Shearman 1849) and Clifford
Wayne (Wady 1847; Holland 1847). No reference to pumice rafts was found.
An Eruption in early October 1846
There is one further account worth commenting on. On 9 October 1846 the whaler
Columbine, Captain Stratton, encountered a pumice raft at 17º22' S and 174º27' W.
On 10 October they sighted Amagura and saw the erupting volcano. Upon arrival in
Vava’u they were told that several earthquakes had been felt a week before the
eruption and that on the day of the eruption the trees had been covered with ash
(Anon 1846a–b; for full text see Appendix 3). The reference to the earthquakes and
the ashfall on Vava’u all resemble the account for the above mentioned eruption of
11 June 1846. It is possible that the volcano still displayed activity by October 1846
and that the account for Vava’u refers to the original event.
Unfortunately, the logbook of the Columbine does not seem to have survived.
On 20 March 1853 the whaler Levant of Sag Harbour passed the island, but did not
note anything that would warrant a log book entry (Cooper 1855).
By 1890 the island was described as 600 feet high without any reference to
vegetation, while Toku was described as ‘wooded’ (British Admiralty 1896).
Later events
Intermittent fumarolic activity was noted for June 1863. The log of the New
Bedford whaler Plover notes that the island was seen on 10 and 11 June 1863. For
the latter date the entry states
‘Amagura still in sight, bearing SSE distance 20 miles. Today we saw smoke on
the island.” (Macy 1864).
As the island was uninhabited, and from that distance, it can only infer volcanic
activity.
When visited by H.M.S. Penguin in November, 1898, discoloured water was noted
northward and north-eastward of the island.
In June, 1939, the island was showing ‘considerable' volcanic activity, with steam
continually issuing from the summit and a column of yellow and brown smoke
emitted at 10minute intervals.
16
Conclusions
The review of the historic evidence for the 1846-47 eruptions showed that a major
eruption occurred on 9 June 1846 with destruction of part of the crater. A major
ash cloud was emitted, projecting above the trade winds. A minor eruption was
noted in October 1846. It is possible that other smaller eruptions occurred during
that and subsequent years that went by unnoticed.
17
Table 1. Summary of eruptive events for Fonualei based on data provided by the Global
Volcanism Program, Department of Mineral Sciences, National Museum of Natural History
and as added to or amended by this report
Start Date: <1780 (1770s?)
Dating Technique: Historical Records
Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI): ?
Start Date: 1791 Dating Technique: Historical Records
Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI): 2
Start Date: 1846 Jun 9 Dating Technique: Historical Records
Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI): 4?
Lava Volume: 5.5 ± 5.0 x 107 m3
Tephra Volume: 5.5 ± 5.0 x 108 m3
Start Date: 1846 Oct Dating Technique: Historical Records
Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI): 3
Start Date: 1906 Mar Dating Technique: Historical Records
Start Date: 1939 Jun Dating Technique: Historical Records
Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI): 2
Area of Activity: Summit, west and SE
sides
Start Date: 1951 Aug 21 Dating Technique: Historical Records
Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI): 2
Area of Activity: North-central part of the
island
Start Date: 1957 Jun Dating Technique: Historical Records
Start Date: 1974 Feb 16 Eruption is Uncertain
Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI): 2
18
Stop Date: Unknown
Eruptive Characteristics:
Central vent eruption
Lava flows
Stop Date: Unknown
Eruptive Characteristics:
Central vent eruption
Explosive eruption
Stop Date: after 1846 Jun 22
Eruptive Characteristics:
Central vent eruption
Explosive eruption
Lava flow(s)
Damage (land, property, etc.)
Evacuation
Stop Date: Unknown
Eruptive Characteristics:
Central vent eruption
Explosive eruption
Lava flow(s)
Stop Date: Unknown
Eruptive Characteristics:
Unknown
Stop Date: Unknown
Eruptive Characteristics:
Central vent eruption
Flank (excentric) vent
Submarine eruption (?)
Explosive eruption
Lava flow(s)
Stop Date: Unknown
Eruptive Characteristics:
Central vent eruption
Explosive eruption
Lava flow(s)
Stop Date: Unknown
Eruptive Characteristics:
Unknown
Stop Date: Unknown
Eruptive Characteristics:
Phreatic explosion(s) (?)
Fumarolic activity
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23
Appendix 1:—Full Text from
the Samoan Reporter
The following is the full text of :
Mills, William (1847) Volcanic eruption at the Vava'u Islands. The Samoan Reporter
nº 5, March 1847, p. 2 cols. 2–3.
VOLCANIC ERUPTION AT THE VAVAU ISLANDS.
The following are a few particulars relating to a new Volcanic Eruption at a small
uninhabited Island, belonging to the Vavau groupe. Toku is the proper name, but
known on the Charts as Amagura. They have been furnished principally by J. C.
Williams Esq. U. S. Consul, and Cap. Samson, Ship Charles W. Morgan."
The Island of Toku lies about 60 miles in a N. W. direction from Vavau. It is of
Volcanic formation, but there is no recorded -eruption for a very long period.
On Tuesday the 9th of June, and two following days, severe shocks of Earthquakes
were felt at Vavau, during every 15 or 20 minutes. They could be easily perceived on
board the vessel lying at anchor in the harbour. On the night of the 11th bright
flashes of light were perceived in the direction of Toku, reflected against the
heavens, but at a very high angle.
On the morning of the 12th every thing was covered with a thin dust, the trees and
grass presenting a strange appearance. The Samoan natives who were with Mr.
Williams, remarked, that the dew in that country was somewhat different from that
at their own Island! A strong suffocating smell of sulphur was perceived.
Mr. Williams left Vavau on the 13th the Island of Toku lying nearly in their course.
As they approached it, they could perceive immense volumes of smoke and dust
ascending, as they came still nearer to it, they could form some idea of the immense
extent of the crater, which is described as being of very great diameter.
The most interesting fact connected with this Eruption, is, the very great distance to
which the ashes were carried, and in a direction contrary to what might be expected
during the regular N. E. trades. About 2 o'clock, on the morning of the 12th, and at
least 3 degrees in a N. E. direction from Toku, Captain Samson of the "Charles W.
Morgan," when on his way from Eooa, one of the Tonga Islands, to this groupe
[Samoa, Ed.] entered a shower of ashes. At the time, it was blowing a double reefed
topsail breeze from the N. East, but it was a beautiful clear star light night.
Before they entered, it appeared like a squall, so soon as they got into it, the eyes of
the men on watch were filled, and the deck began to be covered with the fine dust.
Captain Samson put the ship about, but being persuaded that there was no land
near, he continued his course.
24
So soon as the sun arose, the dust appeared of a dark red colour, rolling over like
great volumes of smoke, presenting an awful appearence ; at 8 o'clock it was so dark
that candles had to be lighted in the cabin ; at 11a. m. it began to clear a little, the
sun appearing occasionally. By noon they had got out of it, being then in 171º 45 W.
and 11º 2 S. having sailed across the shower at least 40 miles. Captain Cash of the
Ship “Massachusetts” got into the shower about the same time, though at least 60
miles to the East of Captain Samson, and not far from Savage Island.
The ashes penetrated every crevice of the ship, and fell in such quantities, that
Captain Samson believes tons fell on the deck, which had to be cleared from time to
time.
The question is, how could such a shower be carried so far, right in the teeth of the
prevailing winds? It can only be explained I think, by supposing, that the ashes had
been thrown at once with great force, and to a very great height, into a upper
current of air, and after' being borne several degrees to the east, then fallen into the
under stratum, and so carried back again towards the Island from whence they came.
The dust is of a dark gray slatey colour. Of specific gravity 1.076. containing a large
propor-' tion of Sulphur, and so much of free Sulphuric acid as to give it a sharp
taste. It also contains a small proportion of iron. No doubt a minute analysis would
give the usual combinations of Silica, and several of the Sulphates usually found in
Volcanic dust.
Wm. MILLS.
25
Appendix 2:—Noon-time
Positions of the three whalers
Given below are the noon time positions of the whalers Charles W. Morgan, Charles
and Minerva if they fall within the area of sea bounded by 15 and 22º S and 169 and
176º W (see map). A ship’s day ran from noon-to-noon. Positions could be ‘shot’
when the sun was at its zenith. The logbook of the whalers Charles W. Morgan,
Charles and Minerva all report the daily positions at the end of each entry, thus the
actual days of the positions are a date ahead of the logbook date
Table A2–1: Noon time positions and wind conditions for the whaler Charles W. Morgan
Date
Log
Actual
2 June 3 June
3 June 4 June
4 June 5 June
5 June 6 June
6 June 7 June
7 June 8 June
8 June 9 June
9 June 10 June
10 June 11 June
11 June 12 June
12 June 13 June
13 June 14 June
14 June 15 June
15 June 16 June
16 June 17 June
17 June 18 June
18 June 19 June
19 June 20 June
20 June 21 June
21 June 22 June
22 June 23 June
23 June 24 June
24 June 25 June
25 June 26 June
26
Noontime Position
off 'Eua, Tonga
off 'Eua, Tonga
22º56' S 174º33' W
off 'Eua
off 'Eua
24º09' S 172º30' W
24º20' S 172º10' W
22º30' S 172º20' W
20º30' S 172º10' W
19º22' S 171º39' W
18º02' S 171º20' W
17º22' S 171º20' W
No position given
No position given
14º50' S 169º18' W
—
14º 55’S 169º18’W
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
Winds
First Part
SE Fine
E
EGale
NE Squalls
NE Strong
NE Fresh
SW squall
SE light
SE fine
ENE light
WSW light
ESE
Table A2–2: Noon time positions and wind conditions for the whaler Minerva
Date
Log
Actual
2 June
3 June
4 June
5 June
6 June
7 June
8 June
9 June
10 June
11 June
12 June
13 June
14 June
15 June
16 June
17 June
18 June
19 June
20 June
21 June
22 June
23 June
24 June
25 June
3 June
4 June
5 June
6 June
7 June
8 June
9 June
10 June
11 June
12 June
13 June
14 June
15 June
16 June
17 June
18 June
19 June
20 June
21 June
22 June
23 June
24 June
25 June
26 June
Noontime Position
Winds
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
22º18' S 174º06' W
21º17' S
off 'Eua
21º21'S
21º 20'
WSW light
SSW light
SE light
off 'Eua
20º 38'S
19º 25'S
18º 05'S
15º 39'S 175º 20'W
—
—
—
—
SSE gale
SE strong
SE strong
E strong
SSW strong
SE
27
Figure 7 Noon time positions of the whalers Charles, Charles W. Morgan and Minerva
28
Appendix 3:—Newspaper report
of October 1846
The following is the full text of :
Anon. (1846a) Volcanic eruption at the Friendly Islands. Boston Daily Journal 22
April 1847, p. 15 col. 1 (cited in Ward 1967, vol. 2 Fonualei 1).
VOLCANIC ERUPTION AT THE FRIENDLY ISLANDS
Capt. Stratton, of the Columbine, arrived at Sydney, states that, on the 9th of
October, in lat. 17 deg. .22 min. S., Ion. 17 deg, 4 min. 27 sec. fell in with a great
quantity of pumice stone. On the 10th, made the island of Amargura, Friendly
Islands, saw the volcano in full play, throwing up an abundance of smoke and stone.
The fire was not perceptible during the day, but at night the effect was awfully
grand. On the 11th arrived at Vavon [Vava'u Ed.], and was told that a week before
the eruption took place several shocks of earthquakes were felt, and that the trees,
the morning after the eruption, were covered with sulphur.
29
Appendix 4:—Newspaper report
of June 1847
The following is the full text of :
Anon. (1847) Volcanic eruption in the Pacific. Boston Daily Evening Transcript 24
September 1847, p. 18 col. 4 (cited in Ward 1967, vol. 2 Fonualei 2).
VOLCANIC ERUPTION IN THE PACIFIC
A new volcanic eruption has occurred upon a small uninhabited island belonging to
the Tavau [Vava'u Ed.] group of which an account has been published at Samoa, by
J. C. Williams Esq., U.S. Consul, and Capt. Sampson of New Bedford. The island is
named Toku, and is 60 miles N.W. from Tavau. On the 9th of June severe shocks of
an earthquake were felt at intervals; at Tavau, on the night of the 11th, a very bright
light was seen in the direction of Toku. The next morning everything was covered
with dust and the air had the smell of sulphur. On the 13th, Mr. Williams left Tavau
and approached Toku. Immense volumes of smoke and dust were perceived, and on
the morning of the 12th, Capt. Sampson, of the C.W. Morgan, whaler, on his way
from one of the Tonga Islands, entered the shower of ashes. Capt. Cash of the ship
Massachusetts, got into the shower about the same time, though at least 60 miles
east of Capt. Sampson, and not far from Savage Island. The ashes penetrated every
crevice of the ship, and fill in such quantities that Capt. Sampson believes tons fell
on deck, which had to be cleared from time to time.
30