Second Continental Congress
Background Information
Director: Todd Zubatkin
© 2008 Institute for Domestic & International Affairs, Inc. (IDIA)
This document is solely for use in preparation for Rutgers Model
Congress 2008. Use for other purposes is not permitted
without the express written consent of IDIA. For more
information, please write us at idiainfo@idia.net
Policy Dilemma ______________________________________________________________ 1
Chronology __________________________________________________________________ 3
Early and French and Indian War Years______________________________________________ 3
1764-1766: Currency and Stamp Act _________________________________________________ 5
1767-1769: Townsend Acts and Ideological Statements __________________________________ 7
1770-1772: Tensions Increase and the “Boston Massacre” _______________________________ 8
Boston Tea Party and its Repercussions______________________________________________ 10
1774-1775: First Continental Congress ______________________________________________ 11
Lexington and Concorde __________________________________________________________ 12
Actors and Interests __________________________________________________________ 13
Great Britain ____________________________________________________________________ 13
Boston/Colonial Radicals __________________________________________________________ 14
Colonial Loyalists ________________________________________________________________ 15
Colonial Moderates_______________________________________________________________ 15
Businesses ______________________________________________________________________ 16
France _________________________________________________________________________ 17
Possible Causes _____________________________________________________________ 18
Economic Causes ________________________________________________________________ 18
Acts and Taxes __________________________________________________________________ 19
Perceptions of the Situation ________________________________________________________ 20
Lexington and Concorde __________________________________________________________ 21
Issue Linkages ______________________________________________________________ 22
Projections and Implications___________________________________________________ 24
Conclusion _________________________________________________________________ 25
Discussion Questions _________________________________________________________ 27
For Further Reading _________________________________________________________ 28
Works Cited ________________________________________________________________ 28
Works Referenced ___________________________________________________________ 30
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Policy Dilemma
The issues facing the delegates gathered in Philadelphia for the second Continental
Congress are some of the most difficult ones facing such a body.
The delegates,
representing their respective colonies from much of the American portion of the British
Empire, are first there to discuss the current state of affairs that affected the colonies as a
whole. Delegates debated the legitimacy of this body to represent the colonies as a
whole, but more importantly the issue of what the colonies would do about the current
state of affairs involving them and the mother country, Britain.1 There are many factors,
consequences, sides and point of views in this discussion. Two extremes will guide the
entire debate over the course of the Congress’s tenure: to remain loyal to Britain or to
declare the colonies independent either as separate entities or as one new nation.
At issue with these two extremes were the points creating the two sides. There is a
very important, long history between the colonies and the government in London. These
issues derived from the colonies sense of purpose, the identity of the individual persons
who lived in the colonies, the regions and thus politics of each individual colony as well
as the pervasive thinking at the time.
Known as the Enlightenment, one cannot
emphasize enough the affect this thinking had on the delegates to the Congress.
Nevertheless, the issues facing the Congress are ones of the utmost importances to the
colonies and the persons in residing in the colonies. History has lead up to the current
state of affairs that have lead to the current situation of possible hostilities of the colonies
and the greater British Empire. These range from economical, political, intellectual and a
general feeling that members of the colonies felt towards the British government. Some
of the most important historical factors that lead to this are the Navigation Acts passed
and later enforced by the British Parliament that greatly affected economic aspects of the
colonies as well as a plethora of other acts passed by the British Parliament.2 Another
1
Gerald A. Danzer, J. Jorge Klor de Alva, Larry S. Krieger, Louis E. Wilson and Nancy Woods, The Americans
(Mcdougal Little, 2005), 103.
2
George Elliot Howard, Preliminaries of the Revolution 2763:1775 (New York: Harper and Brothers Publishers
1905), 52-57.
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would be political and intellectual reasons such as the fact that residents in the colonies
did not believe that laws passed by the Parliament, as well as governments set up by the
Parliament had any legitimacy in passing and enforcing those laws when London was
such a long distance away.3 Furthermore, the ideals of the Enlightenment such as the
ideas of social justice and contractual governments were prevalent in the thoughts of
members of the colonies.4 Another very relevant issue that is facing the Congress is that
fighting has broken out between the British and members of the colonies in the form of
organized conflict. The conflicts taking place such as the fighting at Lexington and
Concorde and the recent rejection of the Olive Branch Petition give a clear picture of
some specific consequences that include death and imprisonment.5 The fighting, along
with the other issues that have currently arisen that have taken place, are very important
considerations.
The decisions that the Second Continental Congress is contemplating will
integrally change every facet of life in the colonies they represent, as well as foreign
policy changes, and potential implications for future generations. Since fighting has
already broken out between the British army and colonial forces, some serious
considerations must be taken into account. As a result, the main choice that the Congress
will decide upon is whether to continue to fight the British as a united force or not, or to
attempt to negotiate with the British to avoid further fighting and attempt to address the
Colonies’ and the British’s grievances. Therefore, this debate had implications for many
parties. The decisions of the Congress will affect the following aspects in many ways:
political, social, economical, intellectual, governmental, and even cultural. Moreover, the
causal reasons behind the Congress’s debate are taxation, business, safety/security, just
government, representation and ideology. Nevertheless, the core issue is the question of
legitimate political authority and if Britain has that authority. Because of the broad range
of possible consequences as well as the sheer number of them, the discussions about what
3
Ibid 111.
Danzer, 97.
5
Ibid 100.
4
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to do about the current state of affairs of the colonies colonial governmental rule that is
apart of the greater British Empire’s government located in London and thus the issue of
legitimate governmental authority.
Chronology
Early and French and Indian War Years
Following the Europeans learning that the continents of North and South America
exist, Europeans sent many expeditions to learn about the area that was at the time
unknown to them in the sixteenth century. Many of the English settlers settled in areas
that would later became the colonies that the delegates at the Congress represented. Most
of the eastern seaboard inland from the Appalachian Mountain range were British
colonies from settlement or later conquered by England.6
One of the most important ways in which the English gained domination over
eastern area of North America was through a series of imperial wars between Britain and
France. France and Britain both were rival powers during much of the early eighteenth
century for various political and geopolitical reasons and this rivalry spilled into the
French and British colonies in North America. France controlled most of what today
would be eastern Canada and the area west of the Appalachians in the Ohio River valley
down from the St. Lawrence River.7 The British colonies were the southern border of the
Great Lakes of Ontario, up to Massachusetts and down to the colony of Georgia, all of
which were on the eastern seaboard and east of the mountain range.8 Due to a variety of
factors such as the fur trade and problems with Indian tribes from both sides had the most
important imperial wars about the colonies. This war, known as the French and Indian
War, which started in 1750, was an imperial war in which the main battleground was the
North American colonies of both powers. The war greatly affected the people living in
the colonies.9
6
Alan Brinkley, The Unfinished Nation (New York: McGraw-Hill Inc, 1993), 18-21, 44.
Brinkley, 21.
8
Danzer, 67.
9
Brinkley, 87-93.
7
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The French and Indian War was the first imperial war in which a major focus was
not only the European arena, but also the overseas colonies of Britain and France. This
included Africa, India, the Caribbean and North America. As a result, for the first time
ever in the history of North America, the English mobilized large quantities of soldiers
inside the thirteen colonies. Due to the war, in 1757, Britain brought the war in North
America under its control and began to enlist colonists, which angered the colonists.
Moreover, the fact that Britain started to care about North America more brought about
many changes for the English colonists.10
The reason in which these changes took place was a change in attitude after the
British victory in the French and Indian War. Even though the French had completely
withdrawn from North America, making the colonies safe from French attacks, the
British government had spent a considerable amount of time and money protecting the
colonies during this war. As a result, the laws and taxes that had been passed before,
such as the Navigation Acts which were passed in 1660 which can be paraphrased to say
that “no goods or commodities whatsoever should be imported or exported from any
colonies or plantations in Asia, Africa, or America, that belonged to, or might in the
future be acquired, by the King of England, except that were shipped as English owned
vessels of which the master and three-fourths of the crew were English” along with new
ones that where soon to be passed were imposed on the colonists.
11 12
This was a
dramatic change in life for the citizens of the colonies and created quite a response.
Nevertheless, there were a number of specific instances where the new policy of the
British made a significant impact.
The Proclamation Line of 1763 was the first and most important major aspect of
British law that began to anger the colonists. This line forbade the colonists from settling
in the area west of the Appalachian Mountains. Since one of the most important reasons
why many colonists fought with the British during the French and Indian War was to get
10
Ibid 89-92.
Oliver M. Dickerson, The Navigation Acts and the American Revolution (Philadelphia: University of
Pennsylvania Press, 1951) 7.
12
Howard, 66.
11
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land as land surveyors were common, the fact that this policy was enacted was a serious
hindrance to personal colonial interests, although Britain had little ability to enforce the
ban. 13
1764-1766: Currency and Stamp Act
Starting in 1764 (a year after the French and Indian War was over with the signing
of the treaty of Paris), the British parliament began passing new laws in order to raise
revenue for their government, both because of the war and the need for funding the large
numbers of British troops were still stationed in North.14 For example, the cost annually
for the ten thousand British Regulars stationed in North America was 220,000 and the
national debt of Britain had increased from 75,289,673 to 129,586,673 in 1764.15 The
British Parliament began with the Sugar Act and the Currency Act. The Sugar Act
increased revenue for the government by making current duties in non-British goods
shipped from Britain to the colonies. In addition, coinciding with this act was the fact
that the British began enforcing the old duties and attempting to put a stop to illegal
smuggling. The second act, the Currency Act forbade the colonies from making their
own respective currency. Both of these acts, as well as an increase in enforcement of
laws angered the colonies, specifically Massachusetts. In Massachusetts, a town meeting
took place where participants spoke out against being taxed without proper representation
in the body government that imposed those taxes as well as calls for united protest of all
the colonies. Also and just as significant was the fact that the colonies began to stop
using imported goods from Britain, thereby hurting British businesses (which held
significant sway with Parliament), as well as lowering the amount of money that the
British government got from these duties.16
13
Danzer, 88.
Ibid 86.
15
Edmund S. Morgan and Helen M. Morgan, The Stamp Act Crisis (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company,
1953), 36-37.
16
The Library of Congress, “America During the Age of Revolution, 1764-1775:1764-1765”, The Library of
Congress http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/collections/continental/timeline.html (accessed 3 October 2007)
14
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Tensions escalated in 1765. The passage of the Quartering Act and the Stamp Act
seriously angered the colonists. The Stamp Act, the first direct tax on the colonies made
it illegal for any colonist to use certain types of official papers without first being
“stamped” or affixed, to indicate that the tax had been paid. The documents consisted of
newspapers, almanacs, pamphlets, broadsides, legal documents, dice and playing cards.
In order for the documents to be stamped, a fee had to be paid, or the paper was more
expensive than normal thus making it so that the colonies were giving additional money
to Britain.17 The other act, the Quartering Act, required that the colonies provide supplies
and barracks for British Regulars and Officers. These two acts were some of the most
important acts in angering the colonists to organize protests. For example, angry citizens
in New England created “The Sons of Liberty”, a secret organization that sought to
intimidate the customs workers and other individuals who were enforcing or collecting
British policies of taxation and anti-smuggling.18
In addition, a very significant event in colonial government was when the
Massachusetts state assembly called for an organization of all of the colonies to discuss
the Stamp Act. This organization, known as the Stamp Act Congress, had representatives
from nine of the thirteen colonies and was the first organization of all the colonies
together. The formation of this stemmed from the colonies realization that one colony
protesting Parliament would do very little, but many colonies would have considerable
more advantage.19 The Stamp Act Congress, which consisted of twenty-seven members
in the summer of 1765 debated and issued a petition known as the “Declaration of Rights
and Grievances” which claimed that the American colonists were equal to British
citizens. The Stamp Act Congress also protested the Stamp Act, protested the fact that
since Parliament did not have colonial representation, it did not have the right to tax the
17
Ibid.
Ibid.
19
Morgan, 138.
18
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colonies and asked for its repeal. 20 The importance of the Stamp Act Congress cannot be
underestimated in precedent nor it what it symbolized.
In 1766, developments from Parliament significantly altered the role of British
authority in taxing and governing the colonies. While the Stamp Act was repealed by
Parliament in 1766 (mainly because British business interests were being hurt by the
practice of non-importation), Parliament passed the Declaratory Act. Parliament took
this course of action because its members believed that the colonies resisted British rule
in general, instead of only opposing certain provisions of the Stamp Act. Parliament may
also have wanted to respond to the “Declaration of Rights and Grievances”. This act,
passed on the same day on the repeal of the Stamp Act, proclaimed the authority of
Parliament to make laws regarding the colonies “in all cases whatsoever”.21 By issuing
this, it cast serious doubt on the colonies’ idea that they deserved to have a say in the
laws that affected them, as well as their rights as citizens. In New York, the state
assembly refused to comply with the Quartering Act, and after a skirmish, the assembly’s
powers were suspended.22
1767-1769: Townsend Acts and Ideological Statements
In 1767, another series of taxes passed on the colonies called the “Townshend
Acts”. These acts taxed glass, lead, paint, paper and tea.23 Once again, these acts passed
without the input of the colonies in terms of representation. Colonies used their standard
response to the new taxes: invocation of non-importation to protest this tax. Within
colonies in 1767, however, other significant events occurred in terms of colonists talking
about their civil liberties. A widely reproduced pamphlet called “Letters from a Farmer
in Pennsylvania to the Inhabitants of the British Colonies” circulated through colonial
newspapers.
This pamphlet, written by a man named John Dickinson, stated that
Parliament did not have the legal authority to tax the colonies, proclaimed that the
20
Morgan, 138-154.
The Library of Congress, “America During the Age of Revolution, 1764-1775: 1766-1767”, The Library of
Congress http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/collections/continental/timeline1b.html (Accessed 3 October 2007)
22
Ibid.
23
Ibid.
21
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Townshead Acts were unconstitutional and denounced the suspension of the New York
Assembly as a hazard to colonial liberties.24
In 1768, Samuel Adams wrote a statement approved by the Massachusetts House
of Representatives in which he attacked Parliament’s constant and persistent need to tax
the colonies without having colonial representation. The statement also made clear for
the colonies to unite to resist by all of the North American colonies.25 This statement was
not unique since many other colonies issued similar statements, but the one from
Massachusetts was the most famous and drew harsh repercussions. The Royal Governor
of the colony, in response to this statement dissolved the state’s legislative bodies and
British troops began arriving in Boston and stationed themselves in Boston.26 The
assumption that the colonies were rejecting British rule in general as opposed to specific
grievances further motivated the British.27 Nevertheless, in response to the acts by the
British, the colony of Virginia in a solid show of solidarity with a New England colony
by a colony from the South passed a series of resolutions that condemned the British
actions vis-à-vis Massachusetts. Furthermore, the Virginia’s House of Burgesses (the
legislative body responsible for the passage of the resolutions condemning the actions of
the British) passed another resolution stating that only the colonies’ governor and
legislature had the authority to tax its citizens and also sent a formal letter to King George
III finishing it briefly before being dissolved by the British Royal Governor.28
1770-1772: Tensions Increase and the “Boston Massacre”
The 1770’s were a pivotal decade in the lead up to the Second Continental
Congress.
24
Once again, due to the effective policy of non-importation, Parliament
The Library of Congress, “America During the Age of Revolution, 1764-1775:1766-1767”, The Library of
Congress http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/collections/continental/timeline1b.html (Accessed 3 October 2007).
25
The Library of Congress, “America During the Age of Revolution, 1764-1775:1768-1769”, The Library of
Congress, http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/collections/continental/timeline1c.html (Accessed 3 October 2007).
26
Ibid.
27
John Ferling, A Leap in the Dark: The Struggle to Create the American Republic, (Oxford: University Press,
2003), 53-54.
28
The Library of Congress, “America During the Age of Revolution, 1764-1775:1768-1769”, The Library of
Congress,http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/collections/continental/timeline1c.html (Accessed 3 October 2007).
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repealed the Townshead Tax for all of the items except tea.29 The early 1770’s were a
decade where more violence began to emerge between the colonists and the British. One
such event was in New York where a riot broke out between citizens and British troops
after a broadside attack on the New York Assembly for complying with the Quartering
Act. While there were a number of injuries because of this riot, there were no resultant
deaths.30
Another event, famously known as the Boston Massacre was one of the
pinnacle events leading to the state of affairs that exist at the start of the Second
Continental Congress. In Boston, due to the presence of British soldiers as well as the
continued duties on items that lead to more non-importation, a crowd of colonists began
to harass certain workers, yell in the street and attack houses labeled with the sign of
“importer” (people who broke the agreement on non-importation).31 Three very tense
days followed with sporadic fighting between workers with unemployed workers as well
as with some British soldiers. Then on 5 March 1770, fighting broke out between 300
angry Bostonians, who were hurling rocks, snow and chunks of ice at a small group of
British soldiers, and a group of British soldiers who in response, fired into the crowd
without order to do so.32 Five colonists died because of this. The killing of five colonists
added further dimensions to the tension between the British and the colonists: where at
first, the colonists believed the British violated their liberties and rights, they now feared
that their lives were in danger.
This event was widely circulated throughout the
colonies.33
Colonies besides Massachusetts saw conflict between their ideas of liberty and the
British government’s method of rule. In 1772, there was a further attack of British
customs near Providence, Rhode Island.
The Royal Governor in the course of the
investigation offered a reward for the discovery of the perpetrators. This did not anger
the colonists as much as the fact that the trial of the men was to take place in England as
29
The Library of Congress, “America During the Age of Revolution, 1764-1775: 1770-1772”, The Library of
Congress, http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/collections/continental/timeline1d.html (Accessed 3 October 2007).
30
Ibid.
31
Ferling, 74.
32
Ibid 76.
33
Ibid 77.
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opposed to Rhode Island.34 The colonists did not view this as fair. In addition, in 1772,
there were developments of uniting the colonies. Colonists created several committees of
correspondence to communicate their positions to the other colonies.35
Boston Tea Party and its Repercussions
In 1773, Parliament passed the Tea Act, which lowered the tax on imported British
Tea, thus making it impossible for colonial tea companies to compete. As a result, the
imported market had a monopoly on tea in the colonies.36 The colonists planned a
boycott as an extension of their plan of non-importation. Nevertheless, on 16 December
1773, a group of men dressed as Native Americans (members of the Sons of Liberty)
sneaked onto a loading dock in Boston Harbor and dumped the tea from the containers
into the harbor.37 This act of defiance seriously angered the British government and the
Royal Governor of Massachusetts.
The response to the Boston Tea Party from the British Government was a series of
acts known as the Coercive Acts, or to the colonists, the Intolerable Acts.38 These acts
did a number of things to the colony of Massachusetts. First, the Boston Port bill
effectively shut down the Boston Harbor by preventing any ship for loading or unloading
in the harbor. The Administration of Justice Act, in an attempt to protect British officials,
made it possible to transfer any perpetrator of a riot or revenue collection to England,
similar to the case in Rhode Island a year previous. The Massachusetts Government Act
also de facto shut down the Massachusetts Charter by making it that the British Crown
controlled the election of most Massachusetts officials. In addition, General Gage was
not appointed to the position of royal governor of Massachusetts.39 Lastly, while not
directly part of the Coercive Acts, Parliament expanded the Quartering Act to force any
34
The Library of Congress, “America During the Age of Revolution, 1764-1775: 1770-1772”, The Library of
Congress,http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/collections/continental/timeline1d.html (Accessed 3 October 2007).
35
Ibid.
36
The Library of Congress, “America During the Age of Revolution, 1764-1775: 1773-1774”, The Library of
Congress,http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/collections/continental/timeline1e.html (Accessed 3 October 2007).
37
Danzer, 99.
38
The Library of Congress, “America During the Age of Revolution, 1764-1775: 1773-1774”, The Library of
Congress,http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/collections/continental/timeline1e.html (Accessed 3 October 2007).
39
Danzer, 99.
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household to quarter British troops.40 All of these combined seriously angered the
colonists of Massachusetts, as well as other colonies as well.
1774-1775: First Continental Congress
In response to the Coercive/Intolerable Acts, the colonies began to work together
in organized protest. As a result, a congress of the colonies was suggested to have
delegates from all of the colonies to discuss the current situation as well as ways to
organize a united colonial resistance.
The Continental Congress took place on 5
September 1774 in Philadelphia, and delegates from all the colonies except Georgia met.
Fifty-six delegates in total met and discussed a variety of subjects. Grievances were
discussed as well as possible ways protest Britain.41 Various proposals were debated
such as pseudo-independence known Dominion Status as a compromise submitted to the
British government. This measure, which only just failed, would have gave the colonies
a form of independence by having the “American Branch” of government that would be a
“third branch” of Parliament equal to the House of Commons and Lords.42 The Congress
passed a Statement of Rights and Grievances that said that Parliament could regulate
trade for it was necessary to secure certain advantages, but that Parliament did not have
complete authority.43 In addition, the Congress decided that if Britain did not meet their
demands, they would reconvene in May 1775, which was the reason for the Second
Continental Congress.44
The Congress, however, did pass an act known as the
Association of 1774, which was the name for a new non-importation agreement that also
stipulated that local governments should enforce this ban.45 While Congress convened,
further events were happening in New England. In Boston, the British Military were
fortifying the city. Meanwhile, the colonists were organizing themselves by having the
militiamen that had existed for many years were readying for any fighting. Militiamen
40
The Library of Congress, “America During the Age of Revolution, 1764-1775: 1773-1774”, The Library of
Congress, http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/collections/continental/timeline1e.html (Accessed 3 October 2007).
41
Ibid.
42
Ferling, 118-119.
43
Ferling, 120.
44
Danzer, 99.
45
Claude H. Van Tyme, The Causes of the War of Independence (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1922), 441-442.
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amassed supplies in preparation and some militias created the Minute Men, a special
group whose job was to respond and fight quickly and at any time. 46
Lexington and Concorde
Peace was in New England, but there was still much tension in 1775. Parliament
passed the Restraining Act as punishment through the expansion of Parliament’s
regulation of the colonies. The Act made it impossible for any New England colony to
trade with any other state besides Britain.47 The British troops however, sensed that they
needed to intimidate the New England colonists who were preparing for fighting. The
British military was seizing supplies, but one specific plan to intimidate the colonist and
to seize a large cache of supplies from the Massachusetts militia at Concorde.48 The
Boston Committee of Safety (the body that oversaw the militia and minutemen) learned
of this plan and sent Paul Revere, Samuel Prescott and William Dawnes to alert and
gather the minutemen to stop the British.49 On 19 April 1775, about seventy minutemen
met 700 British Regulars at Lexington, a town between Boston and Concorde. No battle
happened, but some shots were fired and several minutemen were killed. The British
marched on to Concorde where they were met by several thousand militiamen and
colonists armed to fight. Being severely outnumbered, and thus vastly underestimating
the attitude of the colonists, the British turned back while suffering casualties.50 Thus,
their plan to intimidate the colonists failed and open fighting had broken out between the
British military and the Massachusetts militia, although not open war. Soon thereafter,
another Congress of the colonies met known as the Second Continental Congress on May
10 in Philadelphia.
46
The Library of Congress, “America During the Age of Revolution, 1764-1775: 1773-1774”,The Library of
Congress, http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/collections/continental/timeline1e.html (Accessed 3 October 2007).
47
The Library of Congress, “America During the Age of Revolution, 1764-1775:1775”, The Library of Congress,
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/collections/continental/timeline1f.html (Accessed 3 October 2007)
48
Danzer, 100.
49
Ibid, 100-101.
50
Ibid, 102.
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Actors and Interests
Great Britain
The government of Great Britain, made up of two main bodies that have a power
structure of sharing power through politics of the Monarchy represented during this time
by King George III, and the Parliament is one of the most important actors of the debate
on declaring independence of the colonies.51 Britain was in the midst of several imperial
wars with France and was the most powerful country in the world.52 Britain, because of
being the ruling country over the colonies and other factors, was an actor that has a
number of different interests.
During the French and Indian War, one of the primary reasons that Britain got
involved in the war in North America was to keep its empire.53
This ideology is
extremely important since the beginning of tension after the end of the French and Indian
War. Britain was very proud of the empire it had and the policy of the country was to
keep and expand the empire. There were benefits to having an empire such as getting
recourses that Britain did not have otherwise as well as other benefits economically such
as new trading partners. In addition, the British government needed the tax revenue due
to the cost of supporting an empire, especially since some of that money funded the army
stationed in the colonies.54 As a result, Britain did not want to give up control of the
colonies and felt necessary to do this for the protection of its empire as well as for
economic variables.
Another main interest of Britain was its view of the colonies and the perception of
rebellion towards the empire. The colonists would often proclaim that they are English
and thus entitled to the same rights as all English people. The British believed that the
actions of the colonists in resisting Britain’s rule amounts to rebellion against Britain in
51
Bernard Donoughue, British Politics and the American Revolution: The Path to War, 1773-75, (London:
Macmillan & Company Limited, 1964), 10.
52
Robert W. Tucker and David C. Hendrickson, The Fall of the First British Empire: Origins of the War of
American Independence, (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982), 9.
53
Donoughue, 42.
54
Danzer, 88.
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total, not simply against certain acts or ideals.55 Therefore, Britain, the government especially King George III - and many of the citizens, were highly suspicious of the
colonists and the actions they were taking. Due to these feelings, Britain felt justified in
passing laws like the Intolerable Acts and stationing a military force in the colonies. 56
Overall, the interests of Britain were to preserve the empire with all of the colonies
following British rule unquestioningly. Britain wants to continue to have good trade with
the colonies for their own interest with continued ability to create laws such as the stamp
act. Britain wants to continue to get tax from the colonies in order to continue its empire,
since it wants to protect what it sees as holdings in North America from the French and
other powers and wants the colonies to pay in part for that protection. It does not want to
cede ultimate authority to the colonies and will not tolerate open rebellion from the
colonies and will divide the colonies, kill and arrest colonists, and use Indians and other
foreigners as help.57
Boston/Colonial Radicals
A large driving force in not only creating and sustaining the current tension
between Britain and the colonies were the colonial radicals. These colonists, largely
from New England colonies such as Massachusetts, are highly against Britain. They
have been trying for many years to convince the colonies that Britain will not give them
liberty and are often unwilling to compromise on their stance of opposition to Britain and
staying as colonies within the empire. The radicals, such as the Sons of Liberty from
New England who have continued to be against British policies, are also a very powerful
group within the Congress and the colonies due to their membership being of powerful
people such as John and Sam Adams.58
The radicals have a very ideological approach to the tension, but they are
understanding and not shortsighted. The radicals, while wanting liberty and the ability to
55
Andrews, 42.
Donoughue, 41-42.
57
Andrews, 212.
58
William Z. Foster. Outline-Political History of the Americas. (New York: International Publishers, 1951) 128.
56
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govern by the rules of (what was then) modern political thought, believe that
independence is the only option, or the only option that is correct.
They believe
themselves to be “English” and thus entitled to the liberties of all English which is why
the radicals are not completely in favor of war, but believe it is necessary and inevitable.
Moreover, the radicals, after the fighting at the Boston Massacre and the events at
Lexington and Concorde have further enhanced the position that independence of the
colonies is the best position. Therefore, the radicals want full independence from Britain.
Others claim, however that the radicals are trying to create more tension than there is and
bring about war.
Those people believe that the radicals engineered the Boston
Massacre.59
Colonial Loyalists
Another sizeable bloc of delegates, but less powerful in the Congress, were
colonists were loyal to Britain. This group was against independence from Britain,
against war, and generally in favor of the status quo where Britain is the governing power
of the colonies and may make up to half of the population.60 The loyalists in many ways
are just as ideological as the radicals are, but they hold the polar opposite position. The
loyalists feel a strong pull towards Britain and do not want to fight Britain’s army, nor do
they want to break away from Britain due to trade, personal benefits from the current
governing system or the ideology behind staying with a current government. Many who
once were loyalists were now moderates.
Colonial Moderates
Colonial Moderates make up a powerful group within the Congress and the
colonies. There are many in the Congress that are not completely in favor of declaring
independence from Britain like the radicals, or staying loyal to Britain like the loyalists,
The moderates still feel a deep tie to Britain, have strong economic benefits, especially
59
60
Ferling, 90.
Danzer 106, 108.
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the mid-Atlantic colonies.61 The moderates are not ideologues like the radicals in their
support of liberty and the propaganda that is often used. Moreover, the moderates want
to secure rights for the colonists, but would be in favor of going to war if that is the only
option, but are also in favor of peace.62 The current situation, especially with the
outbreak of violence has moved many moderates to support more action by the colonies
in favor of the radicals instead of the loyalists, but this could change, although some such
as John Dickinson favored reconciliation still.63 For example, Lord North has sent a
group of measures known as the “Conciliatory Measures” in a hope to divide the
moderates, or have them move towards wanting reconciliation, although this measure
reached the colonies after Lexington and Concorde.64
Businesses
Mercantilism governed business in this period.
This system is where a
government has strict control over the entire economy in an effort to make the wealthy
keep their wealth or get wealthier. This system, where both the colonies and the British
business wish their government to give their respective businesses advantages, is a
primary cause for the tension that currently exists.65
Britain’s business interests
understand that trade with the colonies is important, and that in some ways is essential.66
British business interests wishes for continued trade with the colonies. This is evident
from that British business was against the acts of Parliament when the colonies practiced
non-importation. Furthermore, Britain’s business does not want the colonies to have an
advantage in business, so in that regard, they wish Britain to have authority over the
colonies and enforce its laws, such as the monopoly created for the East India Tea
61
Ferling, 110.
Ibid, 113.
63
Brinkley, 113.
64
Ibid, 109.
65
Merriam Webster, “Merriam Webster’s Online Dictionary” Merriam Webster, http://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/mercantilism (Accessed 21 January 2007).
66
Charles M. Andrews, The Colonial Background of the Revolution (New Haven and London: Yale University
Press, 1924), 103
62
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Company. British business also wants the acts enforced that give the advantage.67 Also,
British business wants to make sure that the colonies do not trade with countries other
than England for that would hurt them as evidenced from the Navigation Acts and other
acts preventing the colonist from doing that. Therefore, British business, while wanting
to avoid angering the colonies to move into non-importation, wants Britain to have
authority of the colonies in order for continued trade with them and not countries such as
France or the Dutch, and to create laws that give them the advantage.
Colonial business had their interests as well. First, merchant trade comprised
much of the economy of New England colonies. As a result, things such as the closing of
ports such as with Boston, was of chief concern. Moreover, other colonies want a more
unified economic policy because other colonies have previously ignored non-importation
calls in order to boost their economy.68 Moreover, taxes passed by Parliament affected
colonial businesses since it made their products more expensive, thus hurting business.
For example, the Stamp Act hurts merchants that trade overseas since if the merchant left
port without their clearance papers “stamped”, the captain was subject to punishment.69
As a result, colonial business wants to have a power in creating laws affecting them,
which may mean they support independence, or at least the authority to determine these
laws. The interests of colonial business was chiefly important since the vast majority
colonists were involved in business. Furthermore, trade between Britain and the colonies
was one of the key determiners of the value of Britain to the colonies.70 The interests of
both Britain and colonial business in many ways mirror each other, however. They both
want what is best for them, which is more control over the market.
France
The French are a consistent rival of Britain and as such, their main policy
prerogatives are to improve their standing positively, but in this case, France wants to
67
Andrews, 87.
Ferling, 109.
69
C. A. Weslager. The Stamp Act Congress. (Cranbury: Associated University Press, 1976) 40.
70
Andrews, 112-113.
68
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help itself by hurting its rival. France is an imperial power that rivals Britain, albeit not
as strong as Britain having just lost the majority of their holdings in North America in the
French and Indian War, but still a very powerful nation.71 The colonies and Britain are
aware of France during any discussion of possible decisions. The British do not want the
French to ally with the colonies and the colonies want to have support from France. In
addition, France is a Roman Catholic Monarch while the colonies are predominantly part
of the Church of England.72 France, however, will not ally with the colonies simply
because the colonies may be moving against Britain; France will need some definitive
reasons that the colonies can win, are willing to fight, and will support France against
Britain.73
France, also, is a major player economically and can be a major trading partner
with the colonies. France has the ability to do a substantial more amount of trade with
the colonies if certain laws were not keeping the colonies from doing that. Therefore,
this factor of increased trade with the colonies also is an important factor for the France,
and of course, with the colonies as well since they would need to trade with a country like
France to keep their economy strong if they decided to break away from Britain.
Nevertheless, the most important factor that France plays in the current situation is a
nation that is a powerful rival of Britain, and support from France will be an important
aspect in any decision the colonies make, and further, Britain will wish to keep France
from supporting the colonies.
Possible Causes
Economic Causes
The meeting of the Continental Congress and the debate on how best to approach
the current situation involving Britain has a strong economic cause. Like most things in a
society based on trade, economic issues are an extremely important aspect of day-to-day
71
Brinkley, 122.
Ferling, 117.
73
Brinkley, 122.
72
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life in the 18th century. The colonists wished to have the best possible economic situation
for them, while the British and thus their government, had their own interests at stake
when developing policy to protect industry.
The British industry was a very powerful aspect of British life and further, trade
and commerce were an issue of vast importance to all sectors of British government and
life. As a result, the British would protect this industry, even if it were to the detriment to
any of its colonies because it was more important to the Empire. Furthermore, the British
would obviously protect their home industry if threatened by outside competition,
including those of its own colonies. This fact angered the colonies since it negatively
affected their industry and thus the lives of the colonists. This fact is quite possibly the
root of the aggravation the colonist felt towards the taxes and other acts such as the
Navigation acts passed because these taxes and acts negatively affected the economy of
the colonies. If they did not, it is possible that the colonies would not have opposed the
power of the Parliament to pass such laws.
Acts and Taxes
A strong possibility of causing the tension between the colonies and Britain are the
acts and taxes that Parliament put into law. Colonists saw Acts such as the Stamp Acts,
the 1763 Proclamation line, and the Intolerable Acts, as outrageous.
Opposition to
Britain formed to protest these Acts. It is therefore plausible that if these acts never
passed Parliament, the colonies may not have ever opposed Britain. Furthermore, the
some colonists, as seen by the “Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania to the Inhabitants
of the British Colonies”, did not believe that Parliament, or any outside government had
the authority to create these taxes.
The British, seeing these acts as legal and justifiable see resistance to these acts as
the cause for many of its other actions such as creating the Intolerable Acts and removing
the government from many of the colonies. Moreover, the very act of resisting these acts
has created much of the tension in Britain’s opinion because it believes Parliament has
the authority to pass these laws and resisting them is akin to rebelling against the ideals of
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British government. Parliament has the authority to make these laws Britain’s opinion
and opposing these laws means opposing the rule of law, which Britain finds
unjustifiable. In fact, it is possible that if the Parliament did not pass laws that dealt with
the daily lives of the colonists, there would never have been any tension or debate on
authority.74
Perceptions of the Situation
One of the principle fundamental causes that helped precipitate many of the other
problems between the British and the colonies was perception. By having the same event
appear different to the two most important actors to the current point, other problems
arise and reconciliation becomes more of an issue.
The most fundamental of the
difference in perception is what each side believes the other wants and further, the logic
and reasoning dictating that want.
One area in which there exists a problem is how many in the British government
view the issue of a lack of representation. One of the most common complaints by the
colonists was the lack of representation in Parliament and thus, an inability to dictate
policy that directly affected the colonies.
The rallying cry of “no taxation without
representation” was commonplace. Colonists had grown accustomed to the ability to
dictate their own laws via local governing boards elected by and responsible to the
locality.75
This position perplexed members of Parliament because their role in
Parliament was to represent the entirety of the Empire and not a particular area of
interest. Moreover, the laws and acts that Parliament passed did so with the intention of
being good for the Empire as a whole and not simply for the British Isles. Therefore, the
British did not see the validity in the argument of the colonists.76 The colonists saw
Parliament differently and believed that Parliament, because Britain was so far from the
colonies and further, the issues facing the colonies were drastically different from Britain
and thus Parliament did not represent many interests unique to the colonies. The
74
Andrews, 135.
Brinkley, 104-105.
76
Brinkley 105.
75
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differences in life in the colonies versus England further emphasize the difference in
interests. The colonies had plentiful land and had the ability for social mobility, while
Britain had little land and almost no social mobility.77 Moreover, many in Britain see the
colonies as simply a land that nets supplies and materials for Britain.78 Furthermore,
another strong difference in perception was the reason that Britain see the colonies
rebellion for. Many in Britain believe that the “defiance” of the colonies “as something
akin to a challenge to the reputation and dignity” of Britain.79
Lexington and Concorde
Fighting having already broken out in Massachusetts has drastically changed the
debate on the debate. British regulars have already shot and killed colonists in the
“Boston Massacre”, along with the fact that troops are stationed in various colonies.
fighting breaking out between militia, which are, for the most part, indistinguishable from
regular colonists is one of the most important proximate causes of the situation. While
news of the fighting did not automatically bring about war, there is no doubt that
organized fighting has major implications.
The fighting that broke out at Lexington and Concorde surprised Britain and the
British army stationed in the colonies. The British did not expect the amount of support
that the radicals have, nor did expect the animosity that exists by most people within
Massachusetts.80
Since Britain vastly underestimated these facts, Britain’s opinion
towards the likely hood of war increased. Britain, already thinking that the colonies were
rejecting British rule overall, viewed the battle, the defeat and the enormous support that
they did not expect as proof that the colonies were ready to go into open revolt and in
fact, wanted to do so. Therefore, Lexington and Concorde has made war more likely.
The event of Lexington and Concorde also was significant to the colonists. The
radicals called the event further proof that war was inevitable by pointing to the mass
77
Ibid, 55, 71.
Andrews, 143.
79
Tucker, 382.
80
Donoughue, 269-270.
78
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support and that the British were willing to use more force against the colonies, such as
they did after the Boston Massacre. Nevertheless, the fact that organized fighting had
broke out did not lessen the tension, nor did it make many colonists more appreciative
towards the British position. Furthermore, it unified more colonists towards the idea that
the British wanted to exert authority on them without their consent through force. Rumor
has it that Samuel Adams remarked that these events were “a glorious day for America.81
Issue Linkages
Due to the magnitude of the issues facing the Congress, there are few issues not
linked with the debate. In fact, all possible outcomes will affect every facet of colonial
life, whether Congress decides on a possible declaration of independence, continued
status quo relations with Britain, cessation to British authority, request for partial
autonomy or some other possible resolution. The first of these will induce a drastic
change in life for the colonists if war comes. War would profoundly affect the daily life
of colonists because of the number of men needed to fill the ranks of the militias.
Serving in a militia can have the obvious result of fighting which can result in injury or
even death. Furthermore, extended militia duty will undoubtedly change family life in
both the family dynamic and the income of families having to cope with their primary
wage earner, the male, off fighting a war.
Economic impact is another major linkage of the debate over tensions with
Britain, besides the one discussed previously.
Due to the actions of the British
government and the colonies, the decision of the Congress will have severe economic
ramifications for both the British and the colonials. Both actors fight over the taxes
imposed on the colonies by Parliament for economic reasons: the British for national debt
and their markets, the colonies for their industries and markets, too. Moreover, if the
tensions escalate into open and organized war, then the industries of many colonists will
suffer due to the need for many business owners to fight in the militia. Furthermore,
warfare may lead to increase production of food, clothes and arms for the colonies, which
81
Danzer, 102.
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will benefit some industries, and hurt others, as wartime economies differ greatly in
spending then peacetime economies. Lastly, some trade with Britain will undoubtedly
halt during war, and this will affect colonial economic activity, however, the current
policies are affecting colonial activity negatively such as the closing of Boston Harbor.
The relation with Indian tribes also link with this debate. While relations with
Indian tribes is always an important issue for the colonies in terms of security and
acquisition of land, the subject of Indians is less important here, but still relevant. One of
the purposes of the British troops in North America was protection from Indians, and thus
if war breaks out, Indians could use this as an opportunity to attack the colonies such as
with previous rebellions like Pontiacs Rebellion in the early 1760’s.82 Moreover, it is
quite possible that Britain will ally itself with some tribes, although it is also possible that
the colonies could individually ally with Indians as well. Nevertheless, relations with
Indians should be an important issue vis-à-vis the current situation.
Relations with France are also quite important. The tensions between the colonies
and Britain more than likely has not gone unnoticed by other European nations, and thus
the colonial relations with these states will be effected. Increased trade with France may
result, due to their rivalry with Britain. This increased trade could also offset losses from
decreased trade with Britain. Furthermore, the colonies may seek closer relations with
France because of French military strength. France is a much more powerful nation than
the colonies, particularly due their navy. The threat of the French lending military
assistance could provide an enormous advantage for further discussions with Britain or
independence. In fact, many understand that gaining allies will be vital if there is an open
war with Britain.83
The last and most important linked issue is the idea of legitimate rule and laws.
One of the principle complaints of the colonists from the early 1760’s, through the Stamp
Act Congress and through all of the taxes and acts passed by Parliament is the issue of
legitimate rule. The colonies consistently have made the point that Parliament does not
82
83
Danzer, 88.
Brinkley, 122.
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have the authority to pass these acts. As a result, the issue of independence has a main
link with the entirety of the Congress’s debate. If the Congress declares independence
for the colonies, or even if some colonies declare independence, then the Congress is
making the clear point that Parliament does not have the authority to rule the colonies.
This course of action is the preferred course of the Colonial Radical but is an
unacceptable policy choice for Britain and Colonial loyalists.
Furthermore, while
business interests and the moderates are less certain of their position on legitimate
authority, the authority issue has all actors involved. Nevertheless, the issue of legitimate
authority is one of the most important linked issues with the issue of what to do with the
current situation with Britain.
Projections and Implications
Without any tangible solution to the current dispute between Britain and the
colonies, quite a few possible scenarios may take place. One likely possibility open to
the Congress it the break up of the Congress. Since the first Stamp Act Congress, all or
most of the colonist have been working together without precedent. The coming together
of the colonies has shown many their strength and commonality.
Furthermore, the
colonies have more in common in many ways with each other than they do with Britain,
as life is vastly different in the colonies than in Britain. The colonies, for example, are
significantly more rural, there is no aristocracy, land is plentiful and there is the
possibility of an Indian attack. If the colonies cannot come to any sort of resolution about
what to do about the tension between Britain and the colonies, then this newfound
relationship will break apart.
Furthermore, the likelihood of war does decrease to nothing if the Congress
decides on no action. Areas such as New England have some that are very set on a
course towards war in their opinion that war is inevitable. While these areas will not go
to war if the Congress decides on peace action, there is a possibility that war will occur if
these areas are in complete control of their own polices. If there is war between only
select colonies and not the colonies as a whole, or if there is any policy decision by an
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individual or select group of colonies, the position of the colonies as a whole will
decrease and these decisions have the possibility to affect the non-participating colonies,
too. Moreover, a war with Britain by a select number of colonies, rather than a unified
force of all thirteen colonies, will prove disastrous.
If the Congress does nothing, it is certain that Britain will continue its current
policies and in fact might get more forceful. Britain has already used force during the
course of the tension and has passed, in the colonies views, unfair and unjustified acts.
This will not cease because of no action by the Congress. There is likelihood of more
embargos, more troops, and more arrests and less control for other colonies if the
Congress does nothing. Britain might see the Congress failing to act as a sign of unrest
and disconformity among the colonies and move is even more forceful in subduing what
it sees as a growing rebellion, especially after the events of Lexington and Concorde.
Furthermore, Britain could use the disconformity to divide the colonies as a “divide and
conquer” mentality by isolating the more radical colonies and colonists such as
Massachusetts. Nevertheless, no action by the Congress will not weaken the position of
Britain and will more than likely embolden the King and Parliament.
There is however, one very clear thing that will happen if the Congress does
decide to act in favor of war and Independence: Britain will almost certainly decide to
declare war as well. Britain has made it clear that it will not tolerate rebellion and protest
of its laws, so Britain will meet open rebellion and independence head on in warfare.
Britain does not recognize many of the complaints of the colonists and it can be inferred
that Britain will not tolerate independence of its empire. Therefore, not only will Britain
react harshly to a declaration of independence, but there is also the likelihood that many
Congressional members and colonial government figures will be determined as traitors if
this comes to fruition.
Conclusion
The issue of legitimate authority is one of the most important issues requires more
discussion and deliberation within the Congress, although with the outbreak of fighting in
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Lexington and Concorde, war aims will also be an important issue. The fact that fighting
has broken out between the colonies and the mother country is of paramount concern. A
series of events brought the colonists and Britain to this point. The French and Indian
War, which created the need for Britain to enforce previous laws and thus tax the
colonists with acts such as the Stamp Act and thus created initial resentment helped
precipitate this conflict, even with its repeal due to further acts such as the Declaratory
Act. The late 1760’s which had more acts and tension lead to the 1770’s which had
important events such as the Boston Massacre and the creation of the Continental
Congress have also lead to this point, but the most recent event of fighting at Lexington
and Concorde is the most important event due to how recent it is. Nevertheless, all of the
past events lead towards the one main purpose of debate, should the colonies break off
from Britain, the mother country that shares so many cultural bonds. Furthermore, the
debate over what equates proper representation, the need for representation and the
question of legitimate governmental authority are all issues that debate must address.
This debate also has its specific actors. The radicals and the moderates, and to
some extant, the loyalists are all powerful factions within the colonies. Britain is also a
very important actor, due to its current military power and the aforementioned ties. Other
nations, such as France and the possible help it may provide must also factor into the
decision making process, as well as the underlying business interests of the colonies. The
debate that is to take place at the Congress that could perhaps result in war and
reconciliation is linked to a plethora of other issues such as security and business interests
and if the Congress does nothing, there is are a number of possible events, such as the
colonies breaking apart to rebel themselves while others create individual reconciliations.
Nevertheless, the issues facing the Congress will affect all of the colonies and its people.
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Discussion Questions
• What are the main issues that have brought tensions to where they are?
• What are the rights of man?
• When does a government have legitimate authority?
• What is representation and how is legitimate representation determined?
• Should the colonies declare independence from Britain? And if so, how should
this be done and what is the plan for accomplishing this? Should outside help,
such as France be approached? If so, how?
• How will any course of action affect business interests, security and the life of the
colonists?
• If war is declared, what should the aims be? Full independence? More rights
within the British Empire?
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For Further Reading
Ferling, John. A Leap in the Dark: The Struggle to Create the American Republic,
Oxford: University Press, 2003.
Works Cited
Andrews, C. M. The Colonial Background of the Revolution New Haven and London:
Yale University Press: 1924.
Brinkley, A. The Unfinished Nation,New York: McGraw-Hill Inc, 1993.
Danzer, G. A., Klor de Alva, J. J., Krieger, L. S., Louis E. Wilson, L. E., and Nancy
Woods, N. The Americans. Mcdougal Little, 2005.
Dickerson, O., M. The Navigation Acts and the American Revolution. Philadelphia:
University of Pennsylvania Press, 1951.
Donoughue, B. British Politics and the American Revolution: The Path to War, 1773-75,
London: Macmillan & Company Limited, 1964.
Ferling, John. A Leap in the Dark: The Struggle to Create the American Republic,
Oxford: University Press, 2003.
Foster, W. Z. Outline-Political History of the Americas. New York: International
Publishers, 1951.
Howard, G. E., Preliminaries of the Revolution 1763-1775, New York: Harper and
Brothers Publishers 1905.
Merriam Webster, “Merriam Webster’s Online Dictionary” Merriam Webster,
http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/mercantilism
Morgan E., S and Morgan, H., M. The Stamp Act Crisis New York: Macmillan
Publishing Company, 1953.
The Library of Congress. “America During the Age of Revolution, 1764-1775:17641765.” The Library of Congress
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/collections/continental/timeline.html
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The Library of Congress. “America During the Age of Revolution, 1764-1775:17641765.” The Library of Congress
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/collections/continental/timeline1b.html
The Library of Congress. “America During the Age of Revolution, 1764-1775:17641765.” The Library of Congress
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/collections/continental/timeline1c.html
The Library of Congress. “America During the Age of Revolution, 1764-1775:17641765.” The Library of Congress
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/collections/continental/timeline1d.html
The Library of Congress. “America During the Age of Revolution, 1764-1775:17641765.” The Library of Congress
Congress,http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/collections/continental/timeline1e.html
Tyme, C. H. V. The Causes of the War of Independence New York:
Houghton Mifflin, 1922.
Tucker, R. W. and Hendrickson, D. C. The Fall of the First British Empire: Origins of
the War of American Independence, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press,
1982.
Weslager C. A. The Stamp Act Congress. Cranbury: Associated University Press, 1976.
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Works Referenced
Andrews, C. M. The Colonial Background of the Revolution New Haven and London:
Yale University Press: 1924.
Brinkley, A. The Unfinished Nation,New York: McGraw-Hill Inc, 1993.
Danzer, G. A., Klor de Alva, J. J., Krieger, L. S., Louis E. Wilson, L. E., and Nancy
Woods, N. The Americans. Mcdougal Little, 2005.
Davidson, P. Propaganda and the American Revolution:1763-1783. Chapel Hill:
The University of North Carolina Press, 1941.
Dickerson, O., M. The Navigation Acts and the American Revolution. Philadelphia:
University of Pennsylvania Press, 1951.
Donoughue, B. British Politics and the American Revolution: The Path to War, 1773-75,
London: Macmillan & Company Limited, 1964.
Ferling, John. A Leap in the Dark: The Struggle to Create the American Republic,
Oxford: University Press, 2003.
Foster, W. Z. Outline-Political History of the Americas. New York: International
Publishers, 1951.
Howard, G. E., Preliminaries of the Revolution 1763-1775, New York: Harper and
Brothers Publishers 1905.
Merriam Webster, “Merriam Webster’s Online Dictionary” Merriam Webster,
http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/mercantilism
Morgan E., S and Morgan, H., M. The Stamp Act Crisis. New York: Macmillan
Publishing Company, 1953.
Ramsey, D. The History of the American Revolution Volume I. New York: Russell and
Russell, 1968. First Published in 1789.
Ramsey, D. The History of the American Revolution Volume II. New York: Russell and
Russell, 1968. First Published in 1789.
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The Library of Congress. “America During the Age of Revolution, 1764-1775:17641765.” The Library of Congress
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/collections/continental/timeline.html
The Library of Congress. “America During the Age of Revolution, 1764-1775:17641765.” The Library of Congress
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/collections/continental/timeline1b.html
The Library of Congress. “America During the Age of Revolution, 1764-1775:17641765.” The Library of Congress
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/collections/continental/timeline1c.html
The Library of Congress. “America During the Age of Revolution, 1764-1775:17641765.” The Library of Congress
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/collections/continental/timeline1d.html
The Library of Congress. “America During the Age of Revolution, 1764-1775:17641765.” The Library of Congress
Congress,http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/collections/continental/timeline1e.html
Tyme, C. H. V. The Causes of the War of Independence New York:
Houghton Mifflin, 1922.
Tucker, R. W. and Hendrickson, D. C. The Fall of the First British Empire: Origins of
the War of American Independence, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press,
1982.
Weslager C. A. The Stamp Act Congress. Cranbury: Associated University Press, 1976.