Jean Toomer's Sparta
Author(s): Barbara Foley
Source: American Literature, Vol. 67, No. 4 (Dec., 1995), pp. 747-775
Published by: Duke University Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2927894 .
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Barbara
Foley
JeanToomer'sSparta
ofCane havelongbeen awarethatthe
Students
ofToomer'stextis Sparta,seatofHancockCountyincen"Sempter"
histext'scloseconacknowledged
freely
tralGeorgia.Toomerhimself
inthefall
withthelocalewherehe hadlivedforthreemonths
nection
fortheSpartaAgricultural
principal
as substitute
of1921whileserving
Anderson,
In 1922ToomerwrotetoSherwood
Institute.
andIndustrial
andinthesouls
"Myseed was plantedinthecane-andcotton-fields,
town.My seed was
ofblackandwhitepeoplein thesmallsouthern
Toomer
Liberator,
to
the
letter
In
a
1923
downthere."
plantedinmyself
ofalmost
"Avisitto Georgialastfallwas thestarting-point
remarked,
ofworththatI havedone."To WaldoFrank,Toomerexeverything
inJuly
whenhe complained
thesiteofhisinspiration
identified
plicitly
Georgia
from
Sparta,
which
sprung
impluse
[sic]
of1922that"[t]he
toFrank,
In hisletters
andspentitself."
lastfallhasjustaboutfulfilled
basisofCane'sfinal
stressedtheautobiographical
Toomerparticularly
inAprilof1922that"Kabnis"was "thedirectresultof
section,noting
a tripI madedownintoGeorgiathispastfall"andthathe wishedit"to
life."
withSouthern
contact
recordofmyfirst
remainas an immediate
decisionduringa SouthLangstonHughesandZoraNealeHurston's
erntripto "visi[t]theacademywhereJeanToomerhad taughtfora
forCane"indicates
shortperiodandreceivedmuchoftheinspiration
been
awareofthetext's
have
Cane
enthusiasts
thatformanyyears
the
referent.
Subsequentcriticshavetakenas axiomatic
geographical
madeon Toomerby his visitto ruralGeorgia,
impression
profound
wherehe discovereda blackpeasantlifethatunleashedhis poetic
and inspiredone oftheclassictextsofmodernAfrican
imagination
American
letters.1
C)1995byDuke
4,December1995.Copyright
Volume67,Number
Literature,
American
Press.CCC 0002-9831/95/$1.50.
University
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Literature
748 American
in the
of Cane's grounding
Despitethiswidespreadrecognition
Toomer'srepreexplored
criticshavenotadequately
Spartaenvirons,
as littlemore
treated
ofSpartainhistext.Spartais routinely
sentation
bya light-skinned,
undergone
thana backdropto thesoul-searching
landedamongblackruralandsmall-town
artistsuddenly
middle-class
Spartainto
bywhichToomertransformed
folk;theactualprocedures
The resultofthisneglecthas
Sempterhavereceivedlittleattention.
it
thecategory
of"identity,"
rendering
beennotonlyto dehistoricize
the
butalso to downplay
ratherthansocialphenomenon,
a subjective
Manycritics
historical
reference.
natureandextentofCane'sspecific
theincursions
ofhisrealmdefying
treattheSouthofCaneas a mythic
of
thehistorical
particularity
tory.Butevencriticswhoacknowledge
tangled
Toomer'sSempter-itsracialviolence,economicexploitation,
ofGeorcolorprejudice-seethesefeatures
andintra-racial
religiosity,
landscape
a vividphysicaland sociological
gia lifemoreas providing
a knowledge
essentialtotheprojectofdecodingthe
thanas supplying
hermeneuticsof Cane.2
to theeconomyof
ElsewhereI haveexaminedCane'srelationship
HancockCountyandto certainepisodesofracialviolencecontempoto theNAACP's antilynchraneouswithToomer'svisit-inparticular,
ing campaignof the early1920s and to the case of the notorious
Monticello,
Georgia,"DeathFarm,"whereelevenblackdebtpeons
ownera meresix monthsbeby a whiteplantation
weremurdered
innearbySparta.I havearguedthat,despitehis
foreToomer'sarrival
therelationof
laborprocessesand romanticize
to fetishize
tendency
workers
totheland,Toomerengageswiththeactublackagricultural
thanis often
alitiesofSouthernracismin Canefarmoreconcretely
subtext
accomsupposed.In thisessayI proposetotracethepolitical
ofa seriesofactualSpartainToomer'sfictional
treatment
panying
note,Toomerhad
bothwhiteandblack.As hisbiographers
habitants,
forcreating
namesto suit
a "penchant
acquiredfromhisgrandfather
to namestheperson,occasion,andmood";in Canecloseattention
tocontemporaneous
boththosealluding
peopleandplacesandthose
insightinto
important
referents-offers
playinguponpasthistorical
ofcontextintotext.Throughnomenclature,
Toomer'stransposition
Toomergave reinto impulsesrangingfromthe satiricalto the inof
ofhistorical
features
oftherelation
an examination
surrectionary;
features
ofSempterrevealsToomer'spronounced
Spartato fictional
as wellas a strong
tocontrolling
elites,bothblackandwhite,
antipathy
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Toomer's
Sparta749
hierwithrebelsagainstthedominant
veiled)sympathy
(ifsomewhat
in a denselysymbolistic
modernist
archy.Toomermayhavewritten
myth
forhistory.3
idiom,buthe didnotsubstitute
* * .
W.E. B.
meas onewhoknowshisGeorgia,"
"Toomerdoesnotimpress
Du Boiswrotein 1923,"buthe does knowhumanbeings."Du Bois's
intohumanbeToomer'sinsight
waslargely
inaccurate:
"impression"
Many
to his Georgiasetting.
haviordidnotprecludeclose attention
hislocalitiesare portrayed
withconsiderable
ofCane'srepresented
The "dull silver .
toricalverisimilitude.
.
. tower"that Kabnis sees
belongstothehighacrossthevalleybetweentheschoolandSempter
thehilly
thatto thisdaydominates
towered
Victorian-era
courthouse
centerofSparta.BroadStreet,thesiteofFredHalsey'swheelwright
and Tom Burwell's
wanderings,
business,Esther'sphantasmagoric
town.
captureby a lynchmob,was and is themainarterythrough
Moon"
The wellwhichservesas a gathering
placein"Blood-Burning
is one ofthreethatweresituatedalongBroadStreetin 1920sSparta.
a closereplicaofthe"Old
shopis,moreover,
Halsey'swheelwright's
thatstoodright
RockShop,"a formerstagecoachstopand smithy
offBroadStreetfrom1819to 1927and was, accordingto one local
A traveler
to Spartain the
"ofmuchinterest
to visitors."
historian,
early1920sdescribedthe"OldRockShop"as havingwalls"ofplaster
blackened by manysmokes and perhaps a fireor two. .. .speedily
thebareredgranite,
sturdy
todecay,butunderneath
falling
show[ing]
were"brokeninmanyplaces,"
andageless."The panesandwindows
old
and"[l]eaningagainstthesidesofthebuilding[were]numerous
This accountcorresponds
wagonwheels,ancientas theshopitself."
inmanyparticulars
ofHalsey'sshop:"The
withToomer'sdescription
cement
wallsto withina fewfeetofthegroundare ofan age-worn
mixture.... Inside,theplasterhas fallenawayingreatchunks,leaving
the laths, grayed and cobwebbed, exposed.... The shop is filled
and woodenlitwithold wheelsand partsofwheels,brokenshafts,
ter.... A windowwithas manypanesbrokenas whole,throwslight
on thebench."4
oftheimmediate
environsofSempteralso
Toomer'sdescriptions
withtheSpartaarea.
toanyonefamiliar
wouldhavebeenrecognizable
house,squatThe schoolhouse
whereKabnisteaches-a "largeframe
inthebrochure
featured
thebuilding
tingonbrickpillars"-replicates
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750 American
Literature
forthe 1921-1922schoolyearat theSpartaA and I. At thetimeof
Toomer'svisit,thereexistedon thewesternend ofSpartaa black
"a colonycomposedofsuperannucalledDixie,originally
community
atedslaves,"whichbecame"quitea populousvillage"aftertheCivil
War.Dixie was reachedby a road calledthe Dixie Pike,whichap"grownfroma goatpathinAfrica"
pearsin Caneas thethoroughfare
whereCarmadrivesherwagon.The SpartaA andI was locatedwest
andslightly
southofDixie,justoutsideSparta,andToomerprobably
regularly
traveledalongthe Dixie Pike on his wayintotown-as is
in "Fern"that"[i]fyouwalked
comment
suggestedbythenarrator's
up the Dixie Pike mostanytimeofday,you'dbe mostliketo see
on therailingofherporch."5
[Fern]resting
listless-like
The Ebenezerchurchmentioned
severaltimesinCanecorresponds
Colored
Sparta-born
withtheEbenezerchurchofwhichtheprominent
churchman
Lucius
was
an
Methodist
Holsey
early
Episcopal(CME)
afterToomer's1921
pastor.Erectedin 1879and demolishedshortly
visit,the Ebenezerchurchwas locatedin the PoweltonRoad area
northeast
ofthetowncenter.Itwas adjacenttoboththeroadandthe
railroadlineleadingoutoftheeast end ofSparta.The roadto PulandBarlotravelin"Becky"is similar
vertonalongwhichthenarrator
wheretherailroadand theroadstill
to theactualroadto Culverton,
runcloselyparallelforseveralhundredyards.On tripsto Culverton
Toomerhimself
musthaveseenthe"narrow
stripoflandbetweenthe
railroadandtheroad"on whichhe locatedBecky'spublicly
exposed
shack;fromthisspothe couldhaveheardthetollingofthebell of
nearbyEbenezerchurch.6
thefictional
"factory
town"thatfurnishes
the siteofTom
Finally,
in
Moon"corresponds
Burwell's
closelywith
lynching "Blood-Burning
also
the Montourvillage,a pre-CivilWar cottonmillcommunity,
knownas the"Old Factory,"
whichwas originally
withintheSparta
Montour
factory
grounds
citylimits.In theearly1920stheforty-acre
rallies;thefacwerefrequently
fairsandpolitical
usedforagricultural
had notbeen used formanyyearsand
however,
torybuildingitself,
likethoseusedto
stoodina stateofdisrepair,
fullofrotting
floorboards
inwhichBurwellis burnedalive.In hisdescriptions
buildthebonfire
anditsimmediate
ToomerwasclearlydrawofbothSempter
environs,
knowledgeable
ingindetailuponhismemoriesofSpartaandinviting
readerstorecognizefamiliar
terrain.7
Toomeralso assignedto severalof Cane's whitecharactersthe
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Toomer's
Sparta751
Althoughsome ofthesenames
namesofactualSpartainhabitants.
mentioned
onlyin passing,a number
are givento minorcharacters
In "Esther,"
suggesta commonsatiricintent.
ofToomer'sreferences
areassignednamesassociatedwith
twowhitecharacters
forinstance,
who is said to
Spartafamilies."Old LimpUnderwood,"
prominent
have"hatedniggers"butwho,as a consequenceofBarlo'spreachto findthathe helda blackmanin his
ing,"wokeup nextmorning
whoselandmark
family,
belongstotheUnderwood
arms,"presumably
andwas
century
househad stoodin Spartasincethemid-nineteenth
bytheagedCarrieUnderwood.
atthetimeofToomer'svisitinhabited
voice"(21),
whoparkshiscarto"awaittheprophet's
BankerWarply,
Robinsonand
banking
firm
maytakehisnamefromtheAtlanta-based
bondsto a nearbyDavisboro
whichtransferred
Wardlaw,
Humphrey
fundscandal.This scandal,a notoribankduringtheSpartasinking
and suicide,resultedin
embezzlement,
adultery,
involving
ous affair
"one of
a 1921trialthatwas, accordingto theAtlantaConstitution,
themostimportant
[cases] to be triedin HancockCountyin many
justaroundthetimeToomerarrived
years."Reachingitstermination
in Sparta,thisnewsworthy
trialcouldnothave escapedhis notice.
ofthelaw) and
The writer's
possibleplayupon"Wardlaw"(protector
ofthelaw) can be takenas a glancingallusionto
(distorter
"Warply"
thisscandal.8
takeon resonancein thecontextofthe
references
Suchhistorical
on race relations.
In "Esther"thepreacherBarlo
tale'scommentary
ofslavery-namely,
offers
one ofCane'smostexplicitdenunciations
manwhohad
Barlo'ssermonaboutthe"big an blackan powerful"
white-ant
biddies"whotookhim
hisfeet"tied... tochains"by"little
to a "newcoast [that]wasntfree."The "newcoast"is stillnotfree,
to
the sheriff
sinceBarlo'smagneticdisplayofblackprideprompts
"swea[r]inthreedeputies"and"whiteandblackpreachers[to]confellow."
ofthevagrant,
usurping
feras to howbestto ridthemselves
Toomer'sassigningthe namesofSparta'swhiteeliteto spellbound
betweenthe
ofBarlo'sfictional
audienceimpliesa continuity
members
white-ant
whokidnapped
Barlo'sfolkheroandthe"little
slavetraders
thishero'sdescendants.9
biddies"whopoliceandcontrol
is
to superiority
Toomer'scritiqueofthewhiteelite'spretensions
pairappearfurthered
byhischoiceofthenameStonefora father-son
sketches.In "Becky"itis JohnStonewhosecretly
ingintwodifferent
the bricksand lumberout ofwhichBecky'sramshackle
furnishes
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752 American
Literature
houseis built.In "Blood-Burning
Moon,"TomBurwellworksfor"ole
Bob Stone,
Stone."Moreover,
JohnStone'sson,Northern-educated
is drawnto Louisaas mantowomanratherthanmasterto servant"Whynigger?
Whynot,justgal?"-butregretsthe"sneaking
thathe
andreflects
thathis"friends
had to go through"
up North"wouldbe
forhistori"incredible,
repulsed"
byhisbehavior.
He consoleshimself
a reminder
cal loss-"His family
hadlostground"-with
ofcontinuing
hegemony:
"Hell no,his family
stillownedtheniggers,practically."
Bothfatherand son end up destroying
the ruralpoorwhoselives
theytouch.Beckyis buriedbeneathJohnStone'sbrickswhenher
a victimofBurwell'sjealous
chimney
collapses.Bob Stone,himself
Burwell'slynching
rage,precipitates
by a groupof"whitemen...
" [W]hite-ant
about... likeantsupona forage."
biddies"are
rush[ing]
once againassociatedwiththesuppression-here,
themurder-ofa
blackmale.10
powerful
Readersfamiliar
withthe HancockCountyofthe earlytwentieth
wouldreadilyrecognizeJohnand Bob Stoneas membersof
century
theStonefamily
basedinLinton,
a smalltownabouttenmilessouthof
ofdoctorswhose
Sparta.The Stoneswerea four-generational
family
Dr.JohnStone,hadmovedsouthfrom
buildmalefounder,
Vermont,
housethatwasoneofHancock
ingin1837the"elegantandromantic"
at thetimeofToomer'svisit.John
landmarks
County'sarchitectural
doctorwhois said
Stone'sson,Dr. RobertGlennStone-a country
to have "keptthe oathofHippocrates"
for"richand pooralike"had twosons who bothbecamedoctors:JohnJulian(b. 1874) and
for
RobertGlennJr.(b. 1881).JohnJulian,the probableprototype
theinfluToomer'sJohnStone,performed
... serviceduring
"untiring
enzaepidemicof1917-1918"
andtookas hismottothedictum,
"One's
couldbe paintedevenina cabin."RobertGlennStoneJr.
masterpiece
practicedfirstwithhis brotherand thenwithhis fatherin Georgia
butmovedback northafterWorldWarI. ToomeralteredtheStone
genealogybymakinghis Bob Stonetheson ratherthanthebrother
it is clearthatthe Stonesof Hancock
ofJohnStone.Nonetheless,
withtheirhistorical
linksto bothNorthandSouthandtheir
County,
careersofsocialservice,furnished
Toomerwithappropriate
targets
forhis commentary
on theinevitably
destructive
effects
ofrace and
classprivilege.1"
whiteSparCane'smostresonant
echoofthenameofa prominent
is hischoiceofthename"Burwell"
forToomer'sblack
tan,however,
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Sparta753
Toomer's
Moon."WilliamHix Burwell,describedby
heroin "Blood-Burning
ForrestShiversas a "windbagpolitician,"
HancockCountyhistorian
theinfamous
TomWatsoninan electiontotheGeordefeated
Populist
in 1918andwas servingas Speakerof
gia House ofRepresentatives
a
theHousewhenToomervisitedSpartain 1921.He was,moreover,
whohad formedtheSpartaTelephone
wealthySpartabusinessman
house on a Spartastreet
Companyin 1902and builta neo-Georgian
forourpurposeshere,in
Mostsignificantly
namedafterhis family.
to raisecapitalto rebuild
unsuccessfully
1900Burwellhad attempted
theMontourtextilemill.WilliamH. Burwellhad thusaspiredto be
cotton
on thesiteoftheantebellum
factory
theownerofa renovated
millwhereTomBurwellis lynchedinToomer'stext.12
Moon"forits
"Blood-Burning
Criticshavebothpraisedandfaulted
AlainSolardarguesthat
ofTomBurwell'slynching.
treatment
mythic
unfolds,
as thenarrative
abouta lynching:
thestoryis onlyincidentally
presenceofa visionary
giveswaytothehaunting
ofreality
the"outline
necessity
world."DonaldGibsonagreesthatan auraofsupernatural
the omnipresent
surrounds
imageofthemoonbutcomplainsofits
" [T]heorientation
sinceits
ofthetaleis unworldly
effects:
reactionary
eventspointawayfromthenaturalworldtowardforcesoutsidetime
can onlygivetheimreferent
andhistory....The tale'ssupernatural
in
pressionthatthetwovyingmalesare actingoutrolesdetermined
assessa context
farlargerthaneitherknows."Despitetheirdiffering
bothSolard
fatalism,
mentsofthe implications
ofToomer'smythic
ofcausalityis essentially
and Gibsonholdthatthetale'sarticulation
ahistorical.13
Toomer'sdecisionto namehis blackheroafterone of Georgia's
makesitdifficult
toread"Bloodbest-known
whitepoliticians,
however,
personaliMoon"as whollyremovedfromcontemporaneous
Burning
ties and events.At theveryleast,Toomer'splaywiththe nameof
andStoneWardlaw,
Burwell-likehisuse ofthenamesUnderwood,
in
ofhisnoseatthe"whiteant-biddies"
thumbing
signalsthewriter's
Toomer'ssympathetic
identification
Sparta'slocalelite.Italsoconveys
ofSparta'sslaves.UnlikesomeotherHancock
withthedescendants
ownedslaves,the Burwellsdid
Countyfamiliesthathad formerly
branchin Sparta.HenceanyblackBurnothavean elitemixed-race
duringhis stayin Sparta
wellsthatToomermighthaveencountered
field
dark-skinned-and
probably
wouldhavebeen,likeTomBurwell,
laborersas well.TomBurwellis, then,notmerelya blackmanwho
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Literature
754 American
of
has a quarrelwitha whitemanovera womanbutan instrument
of
Tom's
The
situation
of
his
forebears.
revengeagainsttheenslavers
factory
thata descendantof
lynching
in theruinsofan antebellum
onlyreinforces
thoseenslavers
hadhopedtobringbackintooperation
While
pastandpresentexploitation.
thispointand,aboveall,connects
Gibsonmaybe rightthatTomandBob actouttheirroles"ina context
farlargerthaneitherknows,"thislargercontexthas less to do with
ofclassand
hierarchy
fatalistic
lunaromensthanwiththecontrolling
motifthetale'srecurrent
race.In thisconnection,
Redniggermoon.Sinner!
moon.Sinner!
Blood-burning
doorComeoutthatfact'ry
specific
reading.Is the"Sinner"bidden
toa historically
is susceptible
to comeoutofthefactory
anyperson-blackorwhite-whoignores
thefatalistic
omenoftheredmoon,as bothSolardandGibsonargue?
Burwellclan,burdened
Or is the"Sinner"a memberofthehistorical
crimes,who is beingcalledto accountat the
with"Blood-burning"
As NellieMcKaycomments,
whenTomBurwell
gatesofhis domain?
edificeofwhitepower
ofthecrumbling
floorboards
dies,"therotting
14
withhim."
arebeingdestroyed
whitefamilies
reto Sparta'sprominent
Cane'smultiple
references
his
is
clues-Toomer
up
veal that-at leastforreadersable to pick
on racialand class inequalities,
a pointedcommentary
past
offering
andpresent.Indeed,once one recognizesToomer'sveiledhistorical
ifnotimpossible,
to read Cane as an
allusions,it becomesdifficult,
moldsinofSouthern
life:historicity
lyricalrepresentation
abstractly
Butwe haveas yetexaminedonlythetipofthehistorical
terpretation.
is significantly
deepenedand
iceberginCane.Toomer'ssocialcritique
ofimportant
blacks,
extended
Sparta-area
byhisallusionstoa number
loath
bothcontemporaneous
andearlier.
Toomerwasclearly
Although
his veiledreferences
to thesefigures
to declareopenpartisanship,
fortheblackinsurgent
admiration
andantipathy
conveyunambiguous
theonly
totheUncleTom.Membersofthewhiteelitedo notfurnish
forToomer'ssatire.
targets
The singlemostimportant
playuponnamesin Cane is contained
overpossiblewordinthebook'stitle.Variouscriticshaveruminated
betweencanethe
plays.CharlesScruggshas suggesteda connection
he and othershavedisplantand cane thewalkingstick.Moreover,
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Toomer's
Sparta755
son ofAdamand Eve, who,in
cerneda pun on Cain,the fugitive
the"race"of
is saidtohavefounded
biblicalinterpretation,
proslavery
usedtheexpression
ofToomer'sgeneration
Americans
slaves.African
likeCain"to denotehardlabor.AlainLocke,playingon a
"working
associatedwiththebiblicalCain,wrote
ofvengeancecommonly
motif
punthatI hopethe
toToomerin 1922,"I cannotresistthewretched
withToomer'sidiosyncratic
bookwillraiseCane."Scholarsfamiliar
callinghisbook
spellinghavealso notedtheoddityofhis repeatedly
composedalmosta decadelater.Ina
writings
Caininautobiographical
autobiography,
inToomer'sunpublished
notetoonesuchmisspelling
thereasonfor
"I
cannot
explain
forexample,DarwinTurnerremarks,
The reference
spellingerrorinthetypedmanuscript.
thisinteresting
obviouslyis to Cane.""5
beenunawareofan
TurnerandotherCanecriticshaveapparently
incidentin local HancockCountyhistorythatToomer,throughhis
maywellhave heardspocontactswithSparta'sblackcommunity,
an 1863slaverebellionlargely
kenofduringhis 1921visit-namely,
executedfor
by one JohnCain,a slavesubsequently
masterminded
inthe
bytrade,servedas lieutenant
role.Cain,a painter
hisleadership
In newspaper
coverageoftherebels'
insurgents.
groupofthirty-four
tohavedeclaredthat"theyoughttobe freeand
trial,he wasreported
Hisplanwasto
wouldhavetofight
fortheirfreedom.
thatthecompany
houses'andtakearms
toSparta,into'private
theirwaythrough'
'fight
then'fire'Spartaand head fortheYankeetroops."
and ammunition,
KentLeslienotes,"all
failed,Georgiahistorian
Whentheinsurrection
fouroftheringleaders
[DickShaw,SpencerBeasley,MackSimmons,
andCain]weretriedintheSuperiorCourtofHancockCounty-and
and sentencedto
to incitean insurrection
convictedof attempting
judge emphasizedthat
thefour,thepresiding
hang."In sentencing
lawsenacted"forno otherpurpose,butkeepingthe
he was enforcing
16
slaveinsubordination."
during
Wecannotbe certain
thatToomerheardofthe1863rebellion
in
and
Halsey
If
characters
Layman
hisSpartasojourn. thegarrulous
"Kabnis"correspond
at allcloselyto actualpeopleToomermet,howon localhistory
wouldhave
ever,itis likelythatToomer'sinformants
intothis
Toomermayhaveinquired
Moreover,
spokenoftherebellion.
before
about
since
he
had
been
slavery
reading
facetofSpartahistory,
his tripto Spartaand,in his Cane-erajournal,voiceda clear-sighted
theslavesongs:"The
thathadgenerated
ofthesuffering
appreciation
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Literature
756 American
to an unrewarded
andfed,drivenrelentlessly
Negroslave,ill-housed
labor,beaten,maimedandkilled,separatedfromhislovedones,and
gaveto theworld,in
deniedeventhevestigesofjusticeand liberty,
a song."In thisjournalhe also expressed
exchangeforitsbitterness,
notingthat"[i]ftheworkerscould
sentiments,
openlyanticapitalist
wouldcollapse."He
bellow,'We wantPower,'thewallsofcapitalism
"Itis evidenceofweakness
as a spyinenemyterritory:
viewedhimself
are notforcedintotheserviceofthegoverning
thatmenlikemyself
as
Whether
we viewsuchstatements
class,or exiled,or murdered."
exor as sophomoric
sympathy
ofrevolutionary
seriousexpressions
itis clearthattheToomerwho
withrevolutionary
rhetoric,
periments
traveled
southin1921was preparedtoviewJohnCainas a hero.17
To arguethatToomermayhavetitledCanewithJohnCaininmind
of
is nottoarguethathe didnotalsowishtoinvokethesensuousmotif
thetext-or,forthatmatter,
walkingsticks
boilingcanethatsuffuses
or a son ofAdamand Eve. As I have arguedelsewhere,Toomer's
graspofeconomicswas somewhatshallow,and duringhis harvestpeasants
bytheimageofunalienated
seasonsojournhe wasentranced
use valuesfromthe Georgiasoil,as is evidencedby the
extracting
ofDavidGeorgia.Butthetext'sallusiontoSparta's
figure
omnipresent
fighter
requiresus to readjustthelensesof
mostfamousantiracist
whichwe readthetext'spastoral.
Male
bothraceandgenderthrough
inthe
likeBarloandTomBurwellassumea newcentrality
characters
charopeningGeorgiasectionofthetext.Insteadofbeingexceptional
they
passiveearthmothers,
actersina landscapedominated
bylargely
ofa historic-and,forToomer,largelymaleas inheritors
standforth
In thelightofa possibleallusionto
ofresistance.
identified-mantle
difficult
to argue,
JohnCaininthetext'stitle,itbecomesincreasingly
as LawrenceHoguedoes,thatCaneis "silenton thehate,therebelliousyoungblacks,"ofthe1920sSouth.Evenas Toomeraestheticizes
insistently
eruptsontothescene.WithJohnCain
history
ruralpoverty,
ofcane,anyreadingofthetext
a loomingpresencebehindthemotif
songsofslavery"
evocationofa people"caroling
softly
as a nostalgic
is deeplyproblematized.18
upa heroicpast,thetext'srefIftheallusiontoJohnCainsummons
blackSpartanslimna less than
erencesto certaincontemporaneous
inthe"Kabnis"sectionofCane,
Twofigures
appearing
heroicpresent.
Halsey,areofparticutheschoolprincipal
Hanbyandthewheelwright
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Toomer's
Sparta757
lar importance
in signaling
Toomer'scriticalassessmentofSparta's
blackelite.
withwealthy
Toomer'svituperative
portrait
ofHanby-boot-licking
blacks-anticipates
RalphElliwhites,authoritarian
withsubordinate
Dr. A. HebertBledson'scaricature
oftheSouthern
blackeducator,
onhisimagisoe,inInvisible
Man.Toomerdidnothavetorelyentirely
prototype
ofCane'sHanby
nationforthissatiricsketch.The real-life
thefounder
andprincipal
of
was,inpart,LintonStephensIngraham,
whoin1921hiredToomer
andIndustrial
Institute,
SpartaAgricultural
to replacehimwhilehe journeyedto New Englandto raisefunds
forhis school.Borna slaveto LintonStephens,one ofSparta'smost
intransigent
whitesupremacists,
Ingraham(whosenamewas somein 1910and persuaded
timesspelled"Ingram")set up the Institute
to incorporate
itintothecity'sschoolsystem
Sparta'swhitecitzenry
comments
in 1914."Ingraham
proceededwithdue circumspection,"
and"neverforgot
thenecessity
ofmaintaining
goodrelations
Shivers,
to maintain
and improve
withthewhitecommunity
whilestruggling
his school."19
workedhardtofurther
thecause ofblackeducation
ThatIngraham
ina situation
A report
ononeofIngraofextreme
duressis undeniable.
tripnotedthat
ham'stalksduringhis 1921NewEnglandfund-raising
demandforeducation,
thevisiting
principal
"spokeoftheincreasing
theemployment
of
and oftheobstaclesin theway,suchas poverty,
in
ofthefailure
theboll-weevil,
children thefields,
ofthecropsthrough
school
ofthecompulsory
drought,
etc.,and ofthenon-enforcement
dollarson thisoccasion.Whilecutlaws."Ingraham
raisedthirty-four
backsin publicfundsfromthecollapseofthecottonmarketnecessitatedtheearlyclosingofall Spartaschools,bothblackand white,
in the springof 1921,theracialinequitiesin publiceducationwere
aboutGeorgiaeducation
nonetheless
stark.W.E. B. Du Bois,writing
in1926,whentheimmediate
alleeconomiccrisishadbeensomewhat
forwhiteand coloredare
viated,notedthatin Sparta"expenditures
Whiteteachersearnedan averageannual
entirely
disproportionate."
blacks
salaryof$7,549.78;blackteachersearned$702.00.Although
69%ofschool-agechildren,
was spenton equipnothing
constituted
in
mentin theirschools,whereas$993.87was spenton equipment
whereas
supplies,
whiteschools;nothing
was spentonblackstudents'
hadtocurrythefavor
$833.26wasspentonwhites'.ClearlyIngraham
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Literature
758 American
andtraveloutofstatetoraisefundsifhe wantedhis
ofphilanthropists
schoolto survive.20
seemstohave
Ingraham
however,
In ordertocarryouthismission,
been compelledto playtheroleofan UncleTom.He was a popular
whonotedon
withtheopinionmakersontheSpartaIshmaelite,
figure
fromhistripnorththat" [t]hewhiteandcolored
return
theprincipal's
peopleofthiscityand countyshouldbe proudoftheworkthathe
in response
is doingto educateand elevatehis people."Moreover,
Williams"DeathFarm"trialin nearbyNewtonCounty
tothehorrific
hadjoinedwithtwootherpromisomesixmonthsbefore,Ingraham
Ingram
nentSpartablacks-D. W.Ingramofthesolidlymiddle-class
A
and
I-to writea
N. G. BarnesoftheSparta
and Professor
family
lettertotheIshmaelite:
sycophantic
We fullyrealizethatwe are passingthroughthe mostcrucial
history.
periodinourcounty's
The crimewaveseemsto be abroadin theland.We havemany
amongthemare
chiefly
forhereinourcounty,
thingstobe thankful
betweenthetworaces....
thepeaceablerelations
We fullyrealizethatno countycan prosperwhereit's [sic]citizens do not,as a whole,cooperate.As citizenswe wishto assure
whitecitizensthatwe standforlawand orderand
thelaw-abiding
ofourcounty.
is fortheuplift
oureveryinterest
It bearsnotingthatthemurderson theWilliamsfarm-euphemistibecausesome
tohereas a "crimewave"-had occurred
callyreferred
to
therehad been suspectedoftestifying
blackworkersimprisoned
aboutdebtpeonage.Ata timewhenracialterror
federalinvestigators
andhiscohortswerepraiswaspeakingincentralGeorgia,Ingraham
and assuring
for
their
forbearance
Hancock
County
the
elite
of
ing
presumably,
themthatSparta'sblackswould"cooperate"-meaning,
ifasked.21
nottestify
Whilein Georgia,Toomerno doubtfeltit necessaryto suppress
who notonlywas his emin dealingwithIngraham,
his skepticism
"a
ployerbutalsohadmadeitpossibleforToomertofindtemporarily
oflivingwithhisaged andailinggrandparwayoutofthecul-de-sac"
of
was a friend
to NellieMcKay,Ingraham
ents.Moreover,
according
LouisianaActingGovernor
Reconstruction-era
Toomer'sgrandfather,
hisdyinggrandfather
Toomerwas nursing
during
P. B. S. Pinchback.
of"Kabnis";emotional
delicacymayhaveprevented
thecomposition
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Toomer's Sparta 759
labelingthetargetofhis satire.In Cane's
himfrommoreexplicitly
Toomer's
of the "cockroachHanby,"nonetheless,
fictional
portrait
venomoverflowed:
Negrowhothinks
rich,black-skinned
smooth,
He is a well-dressed,
himself.
To members
and
as
polished
no
one
so
suave
quite
thereis
whiteplanter.
themannersofa wealthy
ofhis ownrace,he affects
he letsitbe knownthathisideasarethose
Or,whenhe is upNorth,
To whitemenhe bows,without
ofthebestNewEnglandtradition.
himself.
Tradesmaninthetowntolerate
humbling
evercompletely
hiswords
himbecausehe spendshismoneywiththem.He delivers
ofhismoralsuperiority.22
witha fullconsciousness
exemplaroftheBookerT. Washington
Hanbyis an unambiguous
debateoverblackeducation
positionin the early-twentieth-century
andcivilrightswagedbetweentheTuskegeeeducatorandDu Bois.
ofthedissoluteKabnisis couchedinrecognizHanby'schastisement
rhetoric:
ablyWashingtonian
theper[T]heprogressoftheNegroraceis jeopardizedwhenever
fallbelow
sonalhabitsandexamplessetbyitsguidesandmentors
standardofitsaveragemember.
and hard-won
theacknowledged
was founded,
ofwhichI amthehumblepresident,
Thisinstitution,
ata costofgreatlaboranduntoldsacrifice.
andhasbeenmaintained
cleaner,morenoble
Itspurposeis toteachouryouthtolivebetter,
lives.To provetotheworldthattheNegroracecanbe justlikeany
otherrace.
of course,fromUp FromSlavery,
comes directly,
This formulation
as
andmoralpurity
humility,
advocatedself-help,
whereWashington
thatWashforblackprogress.Du Bois,contending
theprerequisites
ington'sposition"has tendedto makethewhites,Northand South,
shifttheburdenoftheNegroproblemto theNegro'sshouldersand
urgedthat
spectators,"
standaside as criticaland ratherpessimistic
wronged
the(white)South"doherfulldutytotheraceshehascruelly
in
of
Toomer'ssatiriccaricature Washington
and is stillwronging."
withDu Bois
alignment
ideological
Hanbysuggeststheyoungwriter's
inthisimportant
debateamongblackintellectuals.23
furtherwithDu Bois is indicated,
himself
ThatToomeridentified
and
Kabnis
parallelbetweentheautobiographical
more,byan implied
movIn SoulsofBlackFolk,Du Bois hadwritten
theradicaleducator.
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760 American
Literature
inglyofhis experiences
as a teacherofblacksharecroppers
livingin
"cabins and farmhouses. .. [s]prinkledover hill and dale" near the
"blue and yellowmountains"
ofbackwoodsTennessee.But he concludedthattheSouthwas"anarmedcampforintimidating
blackfolk"
and lamentedthepersistence
ofJimCrowinstitutions
breeding"an
ignorant,
turbulent
proletariat."
Despitehisresolveto liveinAtlanta,
Du Boiscouldnevershedhisdetestation
ofthe"hotredsoil"ofGeor-
gia, the "Land of the Color Line" where he "could not lay .. . in
theground"thebodyofhis dead first-born.
Kabnis,withhis fading
idealism,
histortured
sensitivity
tothe"sereneloveliness
oftheGeorgianautumn
moonlight,"
andhisantipathy
tothe"powdery
fadedred
dust... ofslavefields,"
articulates
a Du Boisianambivalence
toward
the
projectofSouthern
pedagogy.
Thisambivalence
was allthemoreprowemayspeculate,
nounced,
becauseToomer,as substitute
principal
at
theSpartaA andI, inherited
Ingraham's
mantleofauthority
and"was
requiredto visithomes,businesses,and churches"as the school's
institutional
representative.
To be placedintheposition
ofadministeringa schoolfoundedon Washingtonian
ofaccommodation
principles
musthave been difficult
indeedforthe youngwriter.Significantly,
Toomer'sfictional
inKabnisis onlya teacher,
counterpart
vulnerable
tohisboss'severywhim.Toomerwasprobably
making
obliquereferencetohisproblematic
position
as substitute
whenhe wrote
principal
to LockefromSpartathat"thereis poetryhere-and drama,butthe
foroneinmyposition
atmosphere
is almostprohibitory."
As bearerof
Ingraham's
Toomermaywellhavewondered
mantle,
whether
he,like
thestatueoftheFounderinInvisible
Man,waslifting
theveilfrom
the
faceofthekneelingslaveorlowering
itmorefirmly
inplace.Cane's
vituperative
ofHanby,I suggest,cannotbe fullyunderstood
portrait
without
reference
to itscreator'scomplexreactionsto his assigned
taskofstanding
inIngraham's
shoes.24
IfIngraham
was thehistorical
sourceforToomer'sportrait
ofthe
blackeducatorin Hanby,theCME BishopLuciusHenryHolseyprovidesthelocusformuchofToomer'scriticalcommentary
on organizedreligionin Cane.WhereIngrahamhas a fairly
directfictional
analoguein Hanby,however,
Holseyis alludedto moreobliquelyin
thetext.LuciusHolsey(1848-1920),
thesonofa planter
namedJames
Holseyand a woman"ofpureAfrican
descent... [and]offascinating appearanceand comelyparts"namedLouisa,was the "driving
force"behindtheCME churchinthepost-Reconstruction
South.An
advocateofwhitepaternalism
and an earlyopponentofblackself-
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Sparta761
Toomer's
to
theirobligations
Holseycalleduponwhitestofulfill
determination,
judgment
slavesanduponblackstotrustinthesuperior
theirformer
masters.Holseylivedin Spartaduringhisyouthand
oftheirformer
tofoundtheSpartaCME Ebenezerchurchin
helping
earlyadulthood,
and ally,BishopGeorge
1879witha landgrantfromhiswhitefriend
Church,South.Holseylatermovedto
FosterPierceoftheMethodist
thestarin
PaineInstitute),
AugustatofoundPaineCollege(originally
schoolsforblacks.25
thesystemofMethodist-affiliated
theCME
institutions,
religious
ofSouthern
thecontext
Evenwithin
Unlikethe AfricanMethodistEpiscopal
churchwas conservative.
Free
rootsintheabolitionist
whichhaditsantebellum
(AME) church,
the
activism,
a degreeofantiracist
Societiesand maintained
African
its
in
Indeed,
affairs.
political
intervene
to
CME made no attempt
Episcopal
on thewhiteMethodist
continuing
economicdependency
owneroftransferring
Church,South,entailedthat"[a]s a condition
of
activity
political
to thenewdenomination,
shipofchurchproperty
Moreover,
prohibited."
churcheswas strictly
anysortintherecipient
During
colorprejudice.
affected
byintraracial
theCME was strongly
of one ofthe cona 1910electionforbishop,the darkcomplexion
tenderswasanissue,sincethechurchtookprideinthefactthat" [o]n
the bench of the bishops . . . there is now but one of the dark hue,
This prejuquadroons,or octoroons."
all theothersbeingmulattoes,
as is illustrated
bythe
extendedtothecongregations,
diceapparently
anecdotesetinSparta'sEbenezerCME churchofthe1880s:
following
[On] a Sunday morninglong past . . . a heavyset,dark-skinned
womanwearinga bandannaaroundherhead,an apron,andgenerrushedintotheserviceattheEbesupposedly
allyshabbyclothing
ina front-row
pew,interrupting
herself
nezerchurchandpositioned
manner,and
BishopHolsey'ssermon.Her color,her unpolished
and lighter-skinned
toldthe moreaffluent
her dressimmediately
a
thatshewasneither
attire,
deckedoutintheirfinest
parishioners,
herself,
gaspedfor
noraninvited
member
guest.Thewomanfanned
whiletheminister
breath,andtriedto recoverfromherexertions
herunexandchurchmembersstaredinstunnedsilencefollowing
swelled
a solemnhymnreportedly
Then,slowly,
pectedintrusion.
beganto sing:
aroundthevisitoras thecongregation
Nonebuttheyellow,
Nonebuttheyellow,
Nonebuttheyellow... shallsee God.
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Literature
762 American
suspects,itwas
as AdeleAlexander
Evenifthestoryis "apocryphal,"
"ina spiritofselfthemselves
amongtheblackaristocracy
circulated
oftruth."26
undercurrent
lacedwitha discomforting
mockery,
werehighly
Paine
Institute,
the
project,
and
his
prize
BothHolsey
Holseydetailedhis viewson slaveryand race in his
controversial.
Autobiography:
thatI receivedin the narrowhouse of slaveryhas
The training
ofcorrection
and mercyto me in all theseyears
been a minister
I have no complaint
against
ofstruggle,
trial,labor,and anxiety.
Itwas a blessingin disguiseto me andto many.
slavery.
American
Ithas madethenegroracewhatitcouldnothavebeeninitsnative
of
or a linkinthetransitions
land.Slaverywas buta circumstance
bearinguponthefuture.
andmusthaveitsgreatest
humanity,
Southernwhites,accordingto Holsey, "taught,practiced,and
preachedto the Negroes"a religionthat"directedthemto be the
friendsof the ex-slaves....
I saw fromthe firstno reasons forany
eitheronthepartoftheoneortheother."
ofhateorrevenge,
feelings
bondas a "reciprocal"
master-slave
one,he
theantebellum
Construing
black-white
to characterize
continued
insistedthatinterdependency
ofslavery:"Godplacedus amongyouin
relations
aftertheabolition
are ourinterthisbroadland.Yourhomeis ourhome;yourinterests
ests; and whatevermayeffect[sic]the one mustin a largedegree
effect
[sic]theother."27
likePaine
alikenotethatinstitutions
Holsey'scriticsandadmirers
wereamongthefewsiteswhereSouthernblacksand whitescould
a collegialbasis. Painewas,to its
resembling
on anything
interact
in
intheentirecountry
institutions
credit,oneofveryfeweducational
taughtsidebyside.To Holsey'sregret,
whichblackandwhitefaculty
"PaineIdea" on whichitwas
Paine-and thepaternalistic
however,
intheblackcommunity:
hostility
based-met withconsiderable
and
[F]ewofthecoloredpeopleapprovedof [thePaineInstitute],
those
more
it
than
were
andorder"
against
themenofmyown"faith
thatother
itbecausetheythought
on theoutside.... Theyfought
wouldreproachus forbeingundertheSouthNegroorganizations
ofpureprejudice
uponthe
andbowingtotheverdict
ernsentiment
had
branded
us as
churches
the
colored
all
Already
race question.
whoseonly
and "whitefolks'niggers,"
"bootlicks,"
"Democrats,"
backtoabjectbondage.
toremandthefreedman
aimwasultimately
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Sparta763
Toomer's
"I wasverymuch
Holseylaterreflected,
andeighties,
Intheseventies
slandered,persecuted,and rejectedby myown race and people."
racialharmony,
WhileHolseyinsistedthatPaine enjoyedunruffled
white
seemstohavebeenbasedlargelyonuncontested
thisharmony
was
situation
"
the
racial
Paine
notesthat [a]t
Onehistorian
dominance.
andfaculty-usually
whitepresidents
oftentense,fortheresouthern
ifnotracist,
adopteda patronizing,
andmissionaries-often
ministers
towardtheirblackstudentsandcolleagues."A whitefaculty
attitude
is an expression
memberatPainenotedin1887that" [s]ocialequality
is that
My observation
neverheardwithinthewallsoftheInstitute.
ourpupilsbecomethemoreaversetotheideathey
themorecultured
theirownsphereseemstobe theirhope."
gettobe; excellencewithin
formulation
maybe a bitsuspect-heresigned
pedagogue's
Whilethis
memberwas hired-hisperfromPainewhenthefirstblackfaculty
"[B]lacksdislikedthe
inaccurate.
ceptioncannothavebeen entirely
PaineIdea so much,"concludesGlennEskew,"thatin orderto get
Holseyhad to paythemto attendclass."Holsey'sdecision
students
classwas
graduating
Katiein Paine'sfirst
to enrollhis owndaughter
one.28
doubtlessan embattled
thatLuciusHolseyis an absentpresencein Cane
My argument
thatToomerevermettheCME
does nothingeuponthecontention
Holseydiedin 1920,theyearbeforeToomer'sSouthern
churchman.
visit,andinanyeventhadnotlivedinSpartaformanyyears.Toomer
however.
1898Autobiography,
mayhavereadthefamouschurchman's
thenetToomermaywellhaveknownofHolseythrough
Moreover,
amidst
color
of
aristocracy
the
among
workofpersonalconnections
D.C., homeofhis
whomhe had spenthis youthin theWashington,
on his waybacknorthToomervisitedin
Furthermore,
grandfather.
bymutualacAugustawithpeopleto whomhe had beenintroduced
Holsey,
Wesley
C.
in Sparta.Holsey'sson,theReverend
quaintances
elderinAugusta.SinceAugusta'sprivileged
was theCME presiding
members
blackeliteformeda closelyknitgroup,and sinceactivist
doubtlesshadtieswiththeTrinity
ofSparta'sEbenezercongregation
hisAugustaconCME churchinAugusta,itis possiblethatthrough
ofPaine
ofHolseyand,inparticular,
tactsToomerlearnedsomething
College.29
inHolsey,howevidencethatToomerwas interested
The principal
Ebenezer
noted,
have
we
ever,existswithinthepages of Cane.As
severaltimesin thetext.The tollingofitsbell
churchis mentioned
thecollapseofBecky'shouse and Barlo'scalloustossaccompanies
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Literature
764 American
ingofhis Bible on the rubble.WhileBarlois heroicin his opposiGuardianof
biddies"in "Esther,"this"African
tionto the"white-ant
the
immediately
follows
that
in
"Conversion"
also,
the
poem
Souls"is
sketch,saidto have"[y]ield[ed]to newwordsand a weakpalabra/
sardonicgod."ToomerthusclearlyassociatesEbeOfa white-faced
inBecky'sostraparticipation
nezerChurchwithBarlo'shypocritical
rebellious
unitesthe otherwise
that,moreover,
cism-an ostracism
the
alongthelinesofgender.Furthermore,
Barlowithhisantagonists
churchwiththe"squattower"nextto Halsey'shouse is a "forlorn,
frame"
structure-adescription
corresponding
whitewashed
box-like,
notation
thattheEbenezerchurchof1921Sparta
withonehistorian's
paintedwhite."Notpassingup an opporwas a "neatframebuilding
forsatiricremark,
Toomerplaces abovehis church"a spiral
tunity
upon
ofbuzzardsreach[ing]farintotheheavens.Anironiccomment
Layman's
land."Byjuxtaposing
thepaththatleadsintotheChristian
withthe "high-pitched
and Halsey'sgruesometalesaboutlynching
from
Toomerimpliesthe
Ebenezer,
emanating
andhysterical"
singing
of religiousescapismin the face ofracialterror.Moreover,
futility
aboutpreacherly
preacher's
corruption-"the
Kabnis'swrycomment
mindthe
in
calls
to
-specifically
the
white
man's
pockets"
handsare
theColoredMethodist
Episbetween
existing
economicarrangements
Episcopal,South,churches.Sempter'sEbecopalandtheMethodist
EbenezerCME church
nezerchurch,modeleduponthe historical
byLuciusHolsey,is associated,in short,witha hypocritical
founded
andoppressive
religiosity.30
through
uponCane is felt,however,
Holsey'smostdirectimprint
forHalseywas the
ofFredHalsey.Toomer'sprototype
thecharacter
WilliamHenry("Bubba")Ingram
blacksmith
Jr.,whowastheproprietoroftheOldRockShopatthetimeofToomer'svisit.A manofmixed
as "Old Rock,""Bubba"Ingram-no
heritagealso knownpopularly
Itis
relation
toL. S. Ingraham-wasa 1916graduateofPaineInstitute.
remarks
to LewisthatToomerarticuHalsey'sconfessional
through
andthe"PaineIdea":
attackon PaineInstitute
latesa vituperative
Y know,Lewis,I wentt schoolonce.Ya. In Augusta.Butitwasnt
a regularschool.Na. It was a pussySunday-school
masqueradin
teachersfromthNorth
undera regularname.Somegoody-goody
had come downt teachth niggers.Ifyouwas nearlywhite,they
likedy. Ifyouwas black,theydidnt.But itwasntthat-I was all
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Toomer's Sparta 765
y see. I couldntstandem messinan pawinovermybusiness
right,
likeI was a child.So I cussedem outan left.
Northern
the"goody-goody"
The school'sstrongreligiousemphasis,
authoritarithepaternalistic
colorprejudice,
teachers,theintraracial
linkthesiteofHalsey'sAugusta
anism-thesetraitsunambiguously
andthe"PaineIdea."Atthetime
withthePaineInstitute
miseducation
school
whenHalseywas a boy,Painewas theonlychurch-affiliated
forblacksinAugusta.Toomercouldreadilyassumethatanyreader
blackeducation
wouldimmediately
recognize
withSouthern
familiar
ire.Toomer'sdecisionto assignhis
thetargetofhis wheelwright's
thus
thatofPaine'sfounder
a namecloselyresembling
wheelwright
takeson ironicimport,especiallywhenwe considerthat"Halsey"
was a spellingchosenby some oftheblackmembersoftheHolsey
relation
ofLuciusHolseyin
IfFredHalseyfigures
as a putative
family.
heirtothechurchman's
Cane,then,he is a rebelliousanddissatisfied
ideologicalestate.The JeanToomerwhotookdeaccommodationist
studentsat the SpartaA
lightin teachingthe Old Testament-bred
withhis
anddeityevolution"
clearlyidentified
andI about"polytheism
ofCME religiousandsocialdoctrine.3'
rejection
wheelwright's
assaultonthelegacyofLuciusHolInthecontext
ofHalsey'sfrontal
inCanebearreinterpretation.
minorcharacters
sey,therolesofcertain
handsome
WewillrecallthatLouisa,thenameofHolsey'sreputedly
is alsothenameofthebeautiful
youngwoman"thecolor
darkmother,
ofoakleavesonyoungtreesinfall"whois desiredbybothBob Stone
Moon."Onhiswaytosee Louisa,
andTomBurwellin"Blood-Burning
"He passed
in
roleofslavemaster:
the
historical
Bob imagineshimself
was
thehousewithitshugeopenhearthwhich,inthedaysofslavery,
He saw Louisabentoverthathearth.He went
theplantation
cookery.
inas a mastershouldandtookher.Direct,honest,bold.Noneofthis
now."32
Throughhis daydream,
sneakingthathe had to go through
historical
Holsey,whodidin
James
slavemaster,
Bob is linkedwitha
fathered
fact"take"a womannamedLouisaas his prerogative-and
in Cane that
relationship
LuciusHolseyas a result.The interracial
thecontinuing
mostexplicitly
reflects
legacyofslaveryis thusdoubly
in
not
thereferences
Hancock
history, onlythrough
County
grounded
an allusionto
to Stonesand Burwellsnotedearlierbutalso through
blackscion.ButLuciusHolthemotherofSparta'smostnoteworthy
houseofslavery"had been
sey,we willrecall,heldthatthe"narrow
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Literature
766 American
a "blessingin disguiseto me and to many"and thatthecontinuing
entailed"no reasonsforanyfeelrelations
ofblack-white
reciprocity
ingsofhateor revenge,eitheron thepartoftheone or theother."
Moon"
The tragicfatesofTom,Bob,and Louisain "Blood-Burning
ofthewhiteeliteandreveal
ironizeHolsey'sfaithinthebenevolence
ofslavery'ssexualandracialbequestto
destructiveness
theenduring
Georgiasociety.
in light
charactersin Cane invitereinterpretation
Two additional
CarrieKate Halsey
ofToomer'scritiqueofLuciusHolsey-namely,
(usuallycalled"CarrieK."), FredHalsey'swinsometeenagesister,
Halsey'sbasement.
theprophetic
oldmaninhabiting
andFatherJohn,
tothemagnetic
attraction
in"Kabnis"forhersuppressed
Noteworthy
to FatherJohn,CarrieKateis
devotion
Lewisandforherunstinting
to a nunlike
committed
a blackwomanhood
usuallyreadas signifying
first
namesuggeststhatshe
ofthepast.Thischaracter's
guardianship
cousinof"Bubba,"
a younger
maybe basedinparton CarrieIngram,
workedintheOld RockShopand
Durockoccasionally
whosefather
whomToomermayhave metduringhis Spartatrip.CarrieKate's
withKateHolsuggestsa possibleconnection
secondname,however,
becomes
sey-in whichcase thenatureofCarrieKate'sguardianship
ofLuciusHolsey;
opentoquestion.ForKateHolseywasthedaughter
she had gone to Paine at herfather'sbehestand afterher divorce
years.
chose to livewithand care forthe old manin his declining
ofthe
distortion
ButwhereFatherJohndenouncestheslaveholders'
whentheymadethBiblelie"Bible-"th sinthwhitefolks'mitted
LuciusHolsey,by his ownaccount,was accusedby otherblacksof
"bowingtotheverdictofpureprejudiceupontheracequestion"and
backto abjectbondage."IfCarrie
"aim[ing]to remandthefreedman
theslaveryera,then,itis very
legacyfrom
Katekeepsalivea religious
Likeher
prototype.
different
fromtheone nurtured
byherhistorical
the
which
she
takes
within
clan
from
is
a
dissident
brother
she
Fred,
hername.33
gainsincoherencewhenreadinthe
FatherJohnhimself
Similarly,
contextofToomer'scritiqueofthe CME church.I am notarguing
analoguein 1920sHancockCounty;
thatFatherJohnhas a "real-life"
himas a largelymythic
figure,
criticshavebeen correctto interpret
burden
almostinexpressible
barelyarticulating-the
symbolizing-if
oftheslavepast.Noram I arguingthattheold manis thefather(or
ofFred and CarrieKate,and thusan ironicdoubleof
grandfather)
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Toomer's Sparta 767
WhileFredandhissistertendtotheoldman's
LuciusHolseyhimself.
closenessto him;theterm"Father"is
needs,theyevinceno familial
ButFatherJohn'ssomewhat
designation.
religious
clearlyanhonorific
illuminated
byCane'srefermessageaboutsinis nonetheless
murky
encestoLuciusHolseyandtheCME church.The oldman'smessage
ofbiblicaldocas referring
to a specificdistortion
can be interpreted
trine.CharlesScruggsmakesa good case thatthe"lie"in question
is thebiblicalmythofCain,which,likethatofHam,was reworked
on
as a comment
Read moregenerally
ofslavery.34
as a justification
the
defining
by
their
hegemony
to
shore
up
thepowerofwhiteelites
FatherJohn'sbabthatwillguideblacks,however,
religiousdoctrine
in Cane'sdiscourseaboutreligion:
blingcohereswithotherelements
theEbenezerbelltollingas Barlotosseshis BibleontoBecky'scolofthe
chanting
abovethehysterical
lapsedshack;thebuzzardscircling
InPaine
the
invective
against
FredHalsey's
Ebenezercongregation;
byanoldmancaredforbya young
Thatthiswarning
is uttered
stitute.
ofToomer's
thesubversiveness
womannamedKate onlyreinforces
FatherJohn's
on Southernreligiousinstitutions.
veiledcommentary
in "Kabnis"as Toomer'srefutadiscourse,obscureas itis,functions
tionofthe"PaineIdea."
* * .
workof social protestthatwearsits
Cane is nota straightforward
in a
politicson its sleeve;Toomercouchedhis satiriccommentary
idiomthatrequiresconsiderand psychologistic
denselysymbolistic
the
within
Toomer'smimetic
impulsesweredisciplined
abledecoding.
as he
regimethatwe havecometo associatewithhighmodernism;
a
cannothope butaccompany
wroteto GorhamMunson,"Mystery
in
imagesaturated
image.... I desiretheprofound
deep,clear-cut
No doubtToomeragreedwithhis soulmateWaldo
itsownlyricism."
that"thevile
ofCane,remarked
an earlydraft
Frank,who,inpraising
novelhas spoiledallmindsfortheessentialandpure
realistic
current
theslymannerinwhichToomer
linesofaestheticform."Moreover,
was
allusionssuggeststhatthewriter
slipsin manyofhis historical
a frontal
critiqueofSparta'swhiteand black
to undertake
reluctant
we can only
rulingelites.Aboutthefullreasonsforthisreluctance
speculate.35
hereis thatthecommoncritical
WhatI hopetohavedemonstrated
interiwithpsychological
thata modernist
preoccupation
supposition
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Literature
768 American
hasledCane
ahistoricity
discourseentailsmythic
andsymbolistic
ority
meansinbut
by
no
scholarsto ignorea numberofthetext'sburied
andsocial
Georgiahistory
tocontemporaneous
accessiblereferences
his
The ToomerwhowentSouthin1921andrediscovered
institutions.
as notjusta poetbutalso a radical.Writing
rootslookeduponhimself
thecompletion
ofCane,he remarked
rightafter
toBoniandLiveright
thathisnextmajorworkwouldbe about"thiswholeblackandbrown
withthewhite.
worldheavingupwardagainst,hereandtheremixing
is insufficient
to absorbtheheaving,henceit
however,
The mixture,
of
butacceleratesandfiresit.This upwardheavingis tobe symbolic
of
orworldupheaval.Anditis likewisetobe symbolic
theproletariat
oftheconsciousmind."WhileToomer
penetration
thesubconscious
he also stipulated,
imagery,
wroteto Munsonin praiseofsaturated
inworksofart."Toomer
consciousness
"I stilldemandextra-artistic
has been done a disserviceby criticswho,readinghis subsequent
backinto
and psychotherapy
to Gurdjieffian
mysticism
commitment
evenexcluded,his quite
haveminimized,
efforts,
his earlierliterary
in an undifferenviews.A participant
socialand political
progressive
betweenMarx
no
contradiction
radicalism
that
saw
tiatedBohemian
and Freud,Toomerembraceda "heavingupward"in boththe hispsyche.Caneis justas much"about"
toricalarenaandtheindividual
Spartaas itis "about"a blackartist'ssearchforhis subjectand his
whoclaimed
self.Indeed,to invokeW.H. Auden,anothermodernist
ofbothsubkinshipwithbothMarxand Freud,the"richinteriors"
jectandselfare denudedofmanycrucialdimensions-philosophical,
andpolitical-aslong
as wellas historical
andaesthetic,
psychological,
"still
remains
unexplored."36
to
as Sempter's
Sparta
relation
Newark
University,
Rutgers
Notes
helpin myresearchforthisessay:
haveprovidedinvaluable
The following
CarletonMorseofFortValleyStateCollege,Fort
Bray;Professor
Katherine
KentLeslieof
HarrellLawson;Professor
Valley,Georgia;GeorgeGardiner;
Lewis;JohnRozier;ForrestShivers;ProfesGertrude
University;
Oglethorpe
theHancockCounty
sorGeraldSmithofPaineCollege;theSpartaIshmaelite;
PublicLibrary.
ed.
Writings,
Reader:SelectedUnpublished
1 JeanToomer,A JeanToomer
FrederikL. Rusch (New York:OxfordUniv.Press,1993),17, 16, 14;
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Toomer's Sparta 769
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Toomerto Frank,26 April1922,WaldoFrankPapers,VanPeltLibrary,
Zora
Box 23, Part1; RobertE. Hemenway,
ofPennsylvania,
University
(Urbana:Univ.of IllinoisPress,
Biography
A Literary
Neale Hurston:
1977),106.
Innes,"The UnityofJean
readingsofCane,see Catherine
For mythic
ed. ThermanB.
Evaluation,
A Critical
Toomer'sCane,"inJeanToomer:
HowardUniv.Press,1988),153-67;AlainSolard,
O'Daniel(Washington:
Fictionin Cane,"Callaloo8 (fall1985):551-62;and
"MythandNarrative
and the
BlackTime:FictionofAfrica,theCaribbean,
BonnieBarthold,
readUnitedStates(NewHaven:Yale Univ.Press,1981).For historical
and Literary
Historical
Blackness:
ings,see TrudierHarris,Exorcising
IndianaUniv.Press,1984);
Rituals(Bloomington:
andBurning
Lynching
WahneemaLubiano,"MessingwiththeMachine:FourAfro-American
1988;and JohnReilly,"The
University,
Novels,"Ph.D. diss.,Stanford
JeanToomer'sCane,"StudiesintheNovel
SearchforBlackRedemption:
2 (fall1970):312-24.
BarbaraFoley,"Georgiaon My Mind:Economicsand Historyin Jean
CynthiaEarl Kermanand RichardElToomer'sCane,"forthcoming;
A Hungerfor
Wholeness
(BatonRouge:
dridge,TheLivesofJeanToomer:
LouisianaStateUniv.Press,1987),28.
Movement,"
Crisis(1923):162;
Literary
W.E. B. Du Bois,"TheYounger
1975),
NewYork:BoniandLiveright,
JeanToomer,Cane (1923;reprint,
13Decem"DowntheRoad,"SpartaIshmaelite,
83,97;WilliamGaissert,
GeorofHancockCounty,
WileySmith,TheHistory
ber1979,5; Elizabeth
Ga.:Wilkes,1974),1: 55.The Du Boisreviewis
gia,2 vols.(Washington,
to bothDu Bois andAlainLocke.In a
partofa Crisisarticleattributed
1923,
1922andJanuary
lettertoLockeclearlydatedbetweenSeptember
however,
JessieFausetmadeitclearthatthesectiononToomerwaswritLP],
tenbyDu Bois (Fausetto Locke,n.d.,Locke Papers[henceforth
Box 164-28,
HowardUniversity,
ResearchInstitute,
Moorland-Spingarn
Folder40).
inToomerPapers(henceforth
TP), Box66,
Cane,83,10,15;photograph
1: 57.
Folder1506;E. W.Smith,
toauthor,
8 February
1994;HarrellLawsonto
Cane,5; GeorgeGardiner
Memorial
Nelson,"Ebenezer-Holsey
1994;Gertrina
author,14 January
C. M. E. Church,Sparta,Georgia,July21-27,1952,"SouvenirBooklet;
4 September
1993.
Gertrude
B. Lewistoauthor,
A History
of
E. W. Smith,1: 101;ForrestShivers,TheLand Between:
Co.,1990),
S.C.: Reprint
to1940 (Spartanberg,
Georgia,
HancockCounty,
210-11.
30
132,314;AtlantaConstitution,
Cane,21; Shivers,TheLandBetween,
1921,3.
September
ofU.S.
thehistory
1921Toomerbeganstudying
Cane,20-21.In January
grouptowhichhe belonged.
D.C.,writers
slaverywiththeWashington,
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Literature
770 American
10
11
12
13
14
hadreported
onT R. R. Cobb's"An
He wrotetoLockethatonemember
from
thatanother
hadsummarized
material
Historical
SketchofSlavery,"
Captain
wastackling
Wells(presumably
H. G.Wells),andthathe himself
Yearsan African
Slaver"(Toomerto Locke,
TheodoreCanot's"Twenty
of
titled
Adventures
26January
1921,LP,Box 164-90,Folder12).Actually
menwhichfrequently
an African
Slaver,Canot'saccountofhistravels,
influseemsto haveexertedconsiderable
tions"juju"and "gree-gree,"
ofAfrica(1854;reprint,
NewYork:Dover,
enceonToomer'sconception
ofa
inspiresa womanto draw"a portrait
1969).ThatBarlo'spreaching
of
wall"(21) suggestsan association
blackmadonnaon thecourthouse
sincethefigureoftheblackmadonnawas
BarlowithMarcusGarvey,
Garveyin Garveyite
See TonyMartin,
Literary
important
iconography.
(Dover,Mass.:
ism:Garveyism,
BlackArts,and theHarlemRenaissance
heroof
Majority
Press,1983)."Barlo"also echoes"Balo,"themystical
Toomer's1922playofthatname,and evenperhaps"Babo,"Melville's
in"BenitoCereno."
blackinsurgent
Cane,31-34.
133;E. W.Smith,
2: 161.
Shivers,TheLandBetween,
withauthor,
TheLandBetween,
April1993;Shivers,
Shivers,
conversation
withthatof
210-11.Toomer'sownlifewas morecloselyintertwined
WilliamHix Burwellthanhe mayhaveknown.In 1898and 1899,Jean
whohadbusinessdealingsintheSparta
Toomer'sfather,
NathanToomer,
togetoutofBurwell$155.08thathe claimed
area,was continually
trying
Burwellowedhim.See VirginiaKentAndersonLeslie and WillardB.
"'This FatherofMine... a SortofMystery':
Gatewood
JeanToomer's
Jr.,
Historical
77 (winter
Quarterly
1993):802-05.
GeorgiaHeritage,"
Georgia
A Study
ofLiterary
Expression:
Solard,552;DonaldB. Gibson,ThePolitics
Conn.:Greenwood,
1981),164.
ofMajorBlackWriters
(Westport,
Shiversto author,
April1993;Cane,29, 31, 35; NellieY. McKay,Jean
A Study
Lifeand Work,
1894-1936(Chapel
Toomer,
Artist:
ofHisLiterary
cottonmills
Hill:Univ.ofNorthCarolinaPress,1984),177.Antebellum
TheRiseofCotwereoften
operated
byslavelabor.See BroadusMitchell,
tonMillsintheSouth(1921;reprint,
Mass.:PeterSmith,
1966),
Gloucester,
in "Blood-Burning
Moon"in
25.Toomer'sdecisionto rootthelynching
BobStone'spursuit
ofLouisa,rather
thaninanychargethatTomBurwell
a whitewoman,accordswitha crucial1919finding
sexuallyapproached
oftheNAACP: contrary
to thepopularview,thepreponderance
ofSouthernlynchings
werenottheconsequenceofallegedsexualharassment
orabuseofwhitewomenbyblackmen.Mostlynched
blackmaleswere
killedforstanding
See FrankMorton,
Yearsof
Thirty
up fortheirrights.
NewYork:Arno
Lynching
in theUnited
States1889-1918(1919;reprint,
andThe NewYorkTimes,1969).The phrase"blood-burning
moon,"with
itsclearreference
totheBookofRevelation,
variously
echoesthespirituallines"Whenthesunrefuseto shine,whenthemoongoes downin
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Toomer's Sparta 771
blood"and "Andde moonwillturnto bloodin datday" (ClydeTaylor,
"The SecondComingofJeanToomer,"Obsidian1 [1975]:45). Sterling
. . . got [a] newmeanin[g]"as
Brownsuggeststhatthis"old spiritual
bondage...
physical
sin... butfrom
notonlyfrom
songsabout"freedom
spr[ang]up ... [i]nthewakeoftheUnionarmyandin thecontraband
Seculars,BalladsandWork
Spirituals,
camps"("NegroFolkExpression:
14 [1953]:48-49).
Songs,"Phylon
ofArt:A
15 CharlesW. Scruggs,"The MarkofCainandtheRedemption
LiteraofJeanToomer'sCane,"American
StudyinThemeandStructure
Mackey,"Soundand Sentiment,
ture44 (May1972):276-91;Nathaniel
Soundand Symbol,"Callaloo10 (winter1987):29-54;MariaCaldeira,
Callaloo8 (fall
oftheModernArtist,"
"JeanToomer'sCane:The Anxiety
1922,TP, Box 5, Folder46;
1985):544-50;LocketoToomer,4 January
ofWritings
A Collection
andtheSeeking:
ed.,TheWayward
DarwinTurner,
HowardUniv.Press,1980),127,129,132,
byJeanToomer(Washington:
spellingof
127 n. CharlesLarsonsuggeststhatToomer'sidiosyncratic
becameforhim"-thatis,theburden
"whatthebookfinally
Canereflects
andNellaLarsen
JeanToomer
Darkness:
(Invisible
ofblackidentification
[IowaCity:Univ.ofIowaPress,1993],23).Onthecolloquialuse of"Cain,"
P. FausettoAlainLocke:"I've workedlikeCaindownhere"
cf.Arthur
(25July1922,LP,Box 164-28,Folder29).
Leslie,"WomanofColor,DaughterofPrivilege:
16 Virginia
KentAnderson
Ph.D. diss.,EmoryUniversity,
AmandaAmericaDickson,1849-1893,"
ofColorin
Lives:FreeWomen
Ambiguous
1990,102-03;AdeleAlexander,
Univ.ofArkansasPress,1991),
1789-1879(Fayetteville:
RuralGeorgia,
"rockedHanCainrebellion
thattheabortive
comments
133.Alexander
thetescock Countyin 1863."As givenin thecourtrecord,however,
reportofintended
thenewspaper
oftheslaverebelscountered
timony
"Theyprobably
Alexanderconcludesoftheinsurgents,
mass murder.
aspirationdidhopeto escapeto theUnionlines-an understandable
butdidnotintendto murderthelocalpeopleor to 'fireSparta"'(133in
OliverCain,was a businessman
34). One ofJohnCain'sdescendants,
Spartain theearly1920s(Lawson).PossiblyToomerdisguisedhimas
father
ofEstherCranein"Esther."
JohnCrane,merchant
are fondof
17 TP, Box 60, Folder1411.Toomerscholarsand biographers
at his unsuccessful
frustration
citingToomer'ssomewhatsophomoric
to talkradicalpoliticsfortendayswithNewJerseyshipyard
attempt
in"playing
crapsandsleepweremoreinterested
who,hefound,
workers,
forexample,concludethatthis
ingwithwomen."KermanandEldridge,
"cure[d][Toomer]ofideasaboutlifeas a laborerandofhis
experience
hadnoclosepersonalidentificadreamofsocialism"(71).Toomerclearly
he
hisNewJersey
experience
and
soon
after
the
tionwith working
class,
... dwarf
that"poverty
andprivation
wroteto GeorgiaDouglasJohnson
fruitful
activity"
thesoul,weakenthebody,dullthemind,and prohibit
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Literature
772 American
18
19
20
21
22
23
(Johnson
Papers,Moorland-Spingarn
ResearchInstitute,
HowardUniv.,
4 June1920,Box 162-2,Folder9). Nonetheless,
toassert
itis inaccurate
thatToomerlostallinterest
inleft-wing
politics.
Foley,"Georgiaon My Mind";LawrenceW. Hogue,Discourseand the
Text(Durham:Duke Univ.
Other:TheProduction
oftheAfro-American
Press,1986),38.WillardGatewood
remarks
thattheterm"dictie"-used
to referto Esther-wasgivenwidespreadcurby Barlo'scompanions
who"sometimes
toupper-class
referred
blacks
rencybyMarcusGarvey,
as 'aristocrats'
or as 'uppertens'butusuallypreferred
'dicties'or 'dickties,'a termthathad becomepopularby 1920"(321).The association
ofBarlowiththe
of"dictie"withGarveymaysuggesta further
linking
renowned
blacknationalist.
Shivers,
TheLandBetween,
277.
"Lenda Hand,"leaflet,
TP,Box66,Folder1506;SpartaIshmaelite,
13May
inWE. B. Du
1921,1;Du Bois,"TheNegroCommon
SchoolinGeorgia,"
Bois:A Reader,ed. MeyerWeinberg
(NewYork:HarperandRow,1970),
134-35.
4 November
29 April1921,
SpartaIshmaelite,
1921,3; SpartaIshmaelite,
5. Formoreon theWilliams"DeathFarm,"see Foley,"Georgiaon My
in theSouthin theearly1920s
Mind."The Ku KluxKlangrewrapidly
estimates
thatuntil1920theKlan
afteritsrevivalin 1915.JohnDittmer
inAtlanta
hadless strength
thandidtheB'naiB'rith(BlackGeorgia
inthe
Era 1900-1920[Urbana:Univ.ofIllinoisPress,1977],185).
Progressive
Buton 23 September
1921-a fewdaysafterToomer'sarrivalin Sparta
in
robedKlansmen
milesaway-therewasa rallyoftwothousand
eighty
24 September
Atlanta(AtlantaConstitution,
1921,1).
KermanandEldridge,
75;McKay,45; Cane,93.
Cane,93; Du Bois, TheSoulsofBlackFolk:Essaysand Sketches
(1903;
his youth
reprint,
Greenwich,
Conn.:Fawcett,1961),53. Throughout
in theWashington-Du
Toomermusthavebeen immersed
Bois debate.
His highschool,theeliteM StreetSchool (laternamedDunbarHigh
ofDu Bois on itsfaculty.
Toomer's
School),had manyvocalsupporters
was closetoWashington
androutinely
grandfather
Pinchback,
however,
theeducator's
oneofthe
puthimupduring
tripstothecapital.Moreover,
ofthewriters'
members
before
study
groupinwhichToomerparticipated
histriptoSpartawasClarissaScott,daughter
ofEmmettJ.
Scott,Howard
administrator
andauthor(withLymanBeecherStowe)ofthe
University
Builderofa Civilization
hagiographic
biography,
BookerT Washington:
been
(GardenCity,N.Y.:DoubledayPage,1917).Toomerhad certainly
overtherelativemeritsofthe
thoroughly
exposedto thecontroversy
visionsofblackeducation.
Formoreon theWashington
twoeducators'
studygroup,see GeorgeB. Hutchinson,
"JeanToomerand the'New
American
Literature
63 (December1991):683Negroes'ofWashington,"
"ThoseWhoStayed:Washington
BlackWriters
92; RonaldM. Johnson,
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Toomer'sSparta 773
50 (1980):484Society
Historical
oftheColumbia
ofthe1920s,"Records
From'BlueVeins'to
99;andBarbaraFoley,"JeanToomer'sWashington:
Modern
FictionStudies.
Rebels,"forthcoming,
Seventh-Street
24 Du Bois,TheSoulsofBlackFolk,56,85,153,155,82,81;CharlesT. Davis,
Within
a Lit"JeanToomerandtheSouth:RegionandRaceas Elements
ed.Victor
A.
Re-examined,
inTheHarlemRenaissance
eraryImagination,"
Kramer(NewYork:AMS Press,1987),190;Kermanand Eldridge,81;
Toomerto Locke,8 November1921,LP, Box 164-90,Folder12. Eric
thattheDu Bois whotaughtschoolin theSouthis
Sundquistremarks
RalphKabnisin Cane" (To Wake
"an avatarofJeanToomer'scharacter
HarLiterature
[Cambridge:
theNations:
Racein theMakingofAmerican
vardUniv.Press,1993],466). ElsewhereI arguethatLewisis an NAACP
onWalintolocallynchings
andis possibly
basedspecifically
investigator
andwas at least
terWhite,whoprobedvarious1918Georgialynchings
once drivenoutoftown(Foley,"Georgiaon My Mind").Ifthisis the
inpublicly
case,andifHanbyis basedatleastinpartonIngraham-who
thereis a logictoLewis's
inthe"DeathFarm"affair-then
volvedhimself
presence
remarkthatthestoryofhis ownembattled
otherwise
cryptic
and
(He laughspleasantly
in Sempter"mightinvolvepresentcompany.
ofHanby)"(Cane,95).
gesturesvaguelyinthedirection
Addresses,
and
and Sermons,
25 BishopL. H. Holsey,D. D., Autobiography
Lakey,TheHistory
Franklin,
1898),9; OthalHawthorne
Essays(Atlanta:
Tenn.:CME Publishing
House,1985),33.
(Memphis,
oftheCME Church
subAroundtheturnofthecentury,
Holsey,in despairatthecontinuing
withBourbondemocracy,"
briefly
ordination
ofblacksand"disenchanted
hissupport
for"'separation
thePeople'spartyandannounced
supported
a blackstate
oftheraceswiththegoal ofestablishing
and segregation'
'couldbe
American
andjudge,'theAfrican
legislator
whereas 'governor,
withhisfailed
a manamongmen.'"Holseysubsequently
grew"frustrated
(GlennT.
efforts
atblacknationalism
... [and]increasingly
pessimistic"
inPostbellum
GeorandtheFailureofPaternalism
Eskew,"BlackElitism
HisJournal
ofSouthern
gia:The Case ofBishopLuciusHenryHolsey,"
toJamesC. Bonner,
1992]:655,658,662).According
58 [November
tory
BishopGeorgeFosterPierceownedeighteenslavesand ninehundred
in PlanCommunity,"
acres ofland;see "Profileofa Late Antebellum
Slave
ofAmerican
Essayson theLocalHistory
tation,Townand County:
ed. ElinorMillerandEugeneD. Genovese(Urbana:Univ.ofIlliSociety,
andtheirefforts
noisPress,1974),40. Pierce"viewedblacksas inferior
of
totheordination
as committing
'violencecontrary
to achieveequality
a youngslaveinPierce's
Harriet,
nature"'(Eskew,649).Holseymarried
household.
in theAfro26 C. EricLincolnandLawrenceH. Mamiya,TheBlackChurch
American
(Durham:Duke Univ.Press,1990),62; Gatewood,
Experience
162.
152;Alexander,
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Literature
774 American
27 Holsey,10,23; quotedinLakey,443.
28 Eskew,651;Lakey,448; GeorgeEsmondClaryJr.,"The Foundingof
intheNew
inInter-Racial
Cooperation
PaineCollege-A UniqueVenture
ofGeorgia,1965;Holsey,25;
Ed.D. diss.,University
South,1882-1969,"
160-61;Clary,81.
HolseyquotedinEskew,646;Dittmer,
to
90-91.C. WesleyHolsey"failedinhisattempt
29 Eskew,648n;Gatewood,
be chosenbishopin1922"(Eskew,648n).Toomerappearstohavevisited
in AugustawithsomewomenbythenamesofMaryAliceand Emma
by
onToomer'sbehalfwaswritten
Lue,towhoma letterofintroduction
one Evelynlivingin Sparta:"Thisis Mr.Toomerwhohas beenwithus
butis nowleavingus,whichwe areverysorry
forthepasttwomonths,
inAugustafora
and is stopping
[sic].He is on his wayto Washington
day.WillyouandMaryAlicemakeitpleasantforhim"(TP,25 November
E-H,Box 9, Folder287). Toomer'sAugustacontacts
1921,Unidentified
during
Toomer'svisit
elder'sambitions
mayhavespokenofthepresiding
1921.
onthewayhomeinNovember
159.
30 Cane,26,86,88;Alexander,
Brayto author,n.d. (October1993);JohnRozierto author,
31 Katherine
WilliamGaissert,
1993;Gardiner;
n.d.(October1993)and17November
13 December1979;Shiversto au"DowntheRoad,"SpartaIshmaelite,
9 February
1994;Cane,108;
n.d.(April
1993);GeraldSmithtoauthor,
thor,
Folder12.The iden1921,LP,Box 164-90,
ToomertoLocke,8 November
is supported
ofFredHalseyas a memberoftheIngramfamily
tification
byToomer'slocationofHalsey'shouseneartheEbenezerchurchinthe
livedinHunt'sHill,wherethe
Hunt'sHillsectionofSparta.The Ingrams
were"lightwhilesaid to be "'notwhatyou'dcallwealthy,"'
residents,
157).Several
situated"(Lawson;Alexander,
skinned[and]comfortably
whichwas reattendedPaineInstitute,
membersoftheIngramfamily
Carleton
as PaineCollegein1903(Gardiner;
Morse,telephone
chartered
4 April1994;Clary,
GeraldSmith
withauthor,
11).Professor
conversation
to PaineCollege"
ofPaineCollegeassertsthatToomerwas "referring
is a shotat
reference
in thestatement
by Halsey."The Sunday-School
teachers
ofPaineCollege.... The goody-goody
thechurch-relatedness
Churchwhichsent
refersto theHomeMissionBoardoftheMethodist
theywere,I don't
deaconessesto serveas teachers.Howgoody-goody
no nonsense....
know,buttheyweretoughacademicswhotolerated
withred
Aboutthenearlywhitebusiness:BishopHolseywas a mulatto,
hairand lightskin.In Augustaof the time,the 'nearwhites'formed
CME
Trinity
sociallyspeaking.
be calleda Negroaristocracy,
whatmight
foritslight-skinned
constituency"
(G.
Church[ofAugusta]wasnotorious
4 October1993).WhiletheIngramswerenotrelated
Smithto author,
theclose resemToomermayhavebeen preserving
to theIngrahams,
by givingHalseyand Hanby
blancein thetwofamilies'nomenclature
names.
quitesimilar
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Toomer'sSparta 775
32 Cane, 31.
Eskew648n; Cane,115.
33 Gardiner;
34 Scruggs;Caldeira,545.
35 Toomerto GorhamMunson,31 October1922,TP, Box 6, Folder183;
FranktoToomer,n.d.,TP,Box 3,Folder84.
9 March1923,TP,Box1,Folder16;Toomer
36 ToomertoHoraceLiveright,
toMunson,8 October1922,ToomerPapers,Box 6, Folder183.
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